Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 80 (2017) 1227–1238

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Particulate matter formation and its control methodologies for diesel MARK
engine: A comprehensive review
⁎
S. Mohankumara, , P. Senthilkumarb
a
Department of Automobile Engineering,Banari Amman Institute of Technology, Sathyamanglam, Erode 630401, India
b
Madras Institute of Technology, Department of Automobile Engineering, Chennai-44, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A BS T RAC T

Keywords: The diesel engine is being widely used in day to day life in both mobile and stationary applications. The main
Biodiesel drawback is the release of harmful gasses like HC, CO, NOx and particulate matter into the atmosphere. This
Water emulsified fuel affects both human beings and environment to a great extent and should be controlled effectively. This paper
Particulate matter reviews the works on the control of diesel particulate matter in both pre-combustion and post-combustion
Diesel particulate filter
techniques employed in the past few decades. The initial part of this review will discuss particulate matter
composition and its structure. Then the various physical processes involved in the formation of particulate
matter are discussed. Effects of fuel composition and its structure on soot formation are reported. Hazardous
effects of particulate matter on both human beings and the environment are reviewed. Use of biodiesel water
emulsified fuel as a fuel to control soot formation is highlighted. This review also highlights control of
particulate matter by varying injection parameters like injection pressure, injection timing and auxiliary air
injection. Multiple fuel injections within the same cycle to control NOx and particulate matter are also
discussed. The conventional control technique of particulate matter by using Diesel particulate filter and its
types are also compared with the new technologies. Various regeneration concepts to burn the collected soot are
also highlighted. The major part of this review focuses on pre-combustion techniques to control particulate
matter. This review paper, it is hoped, will be very useful for the researchers working on the control of diesel
particulate matter.

1. Introduction technology used to reduce NOx and particulate matter emission

The diesel engine is an efficient power source. It is widely used in
ground transportation and commercial applications. In spite of its
popularity, diesel engines have the major drawbacks of high NOx and
particulate emissions; this continues to be a matter of great concern
and has to be paid serious attention. Extensive research has been
carried out in recent years to control these emissions. Many pre-
combustion and post-combustion technologies are implemented to
control these emissions. This paper reviews the various control
measures available for particulate matter emission in both pre-com-
bustion and post-combustion stages. In pre-combustion several experi-
ments conducted so far have concluded that it is possible to eliminate
particulate matter formation within the cylinder chamber during early
stages of combustion. This is accomplished by using contemporary
injectors with oxygenated fuels or through the use of very small orifices.
High injection pressure systems like common rail direct ignition
(CRDI) system is used to control soot emission and improve fuel
economy. Multiple injections within the single cycle are also a leading
simultaneously. Variation of several injection parameters can be made
possible with the help of electronic fuel injection technology.
As stated earlier, the initial part of this review deals with particulate
matter and its composition. The various substances present in the
particulate matter and their methods of separation are studied. The
various physical processes involved in the soot formation are explained
elaborately. Hazardous effects related to the particulate matter on both
human beings and environmental issues are investigated. The second
part of this review studies the effect of fuel structure and fuel
composition on soot formation. The third part of this review concen-
trates on the use of oxygenated fuels and other fuel modifications to
control particulate emission. The influence of injection parameters on
PM emission is also highlighted in this section. The final part highlights
the various post-combustion technologies like diesel particulate filter,
diesel oxidation catalyst, and catalyzed diesel particulate filter to
control DPM. This review discusses and summarizes the developments
carried out in the last decade to control particulate matter in
compression ignition engines providing a more current and relevant

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: smkmts@gmail.com (S. Mohankumar).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.133
Received 14 June 2016; Received in revised form 11 May 2017; Accepted 19 May 2017
Available online 07 June 2017
1364-0321/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Mohankumar, P. Senthilkumar
Fig. 1. Schematic representation of Particulate Matter.
view.
2. Particulate matter
2.1. Particulate matter composition
Particulate matter is the combination of soot and other liquid, solid
phase materials. Particulate matter can be separated into a soluble and
insoluble organic fraction. Soot formation usually takes place in fuel
rich regions at elevated temperature without sufficient oxygen concen-
tration. Liquid phase materials and hydrocarbons are absorbed on the
surface of soot, depending on engine operating conditions and is shown
in Fig. 1. Nearly 50% of PM is composed of soot. Soluble fraction
present in particulates mainly consists of aldehydes, alkanes, alkenes,
aliphatic hydrocarbons, PAH's and its derivatives. Various other
constituents like lubricating oil, partially oxidized fuel and oil also
contribute to a soluble organic fraction in the particulate matter [1].
Most of the particulate formed is in a size range from 7.5 to 1.0 µm
[2]. This size factor is considered as an important factor in health
aspects. Tiny particles are likely to be inhaled by human beings easily.
They also get trapped in the bronchial passages and alveoli of the lungs.
About 90% of the particulates emitted from the engine are in size range
( < 50 nm). Most of the particulate mass lies in the accumulation mode
range that is 50 nm < D < 1000 nm [3]. Soot formation usually takes
place in the diesel engine at a temperature between about 1000 and
2800 K, at a pressure of 50–100 atm. The soluble organic fraction can
be extracted from the particulate matter samples by adopting soxhlet
and sonification methods. Since the particulates are mixtures of polar
and non-polar components, full extraction requires different solvents.
Methylene chloride, dichloromethane, and benzene-alcohol mixture
are the most commonly used extractants to remove soluble organic
fraction and soot.
2.2. Physical process of soot formation
Conversion of liquid phase hydrocarbons to soot and finally to gas
phase happens in six steps, namely pyrolysis, nucleation, surface
growth, coalescence, agglomeration, and oxidation. The overall process
is shown in Fig. 2 schematically. The physical process of soot formation
depends on various conditions like pressure, temperature, injection
parameters and fuel structure. Soot formation and oxidation rate
depend mainly on temperature and pressure of reaction [4].
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2.3. Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis is the process in which organic compounds such as fuels
undergo a change in the molecular structure at high temperature
without sufficient oxygen concentration. These reactions are mainly
dependent on temperature and concentration and are generally
endothermic [5]. Fuel pyrolysis paves the way to the formation of
peculiar species generally mentioned as precursors or building blocks
for soot. Depending upon the type of flames produced pyrolysis and
oxidation rate vary. Premixed flames produce less soot since it contains
more oxygen content, whereas in diffusion flame soot formation rate
increases due to less oxygen content. Oxidation rate increases when the
temperature increases. This scenario clearly concludes that soot
formation mainly depends upon the temperature and oxygen concen-
tration. Some previous works have suggested that the presence of O,
O2, and OH radicals stimulate pyrolysis. This process occurs since free
radical mechanism takes place in many of the reactions [5].
Unsaturated hydrocarbons, polyacetylenes, and polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAH's) are typical pyrolysis products. Among all the
products formed acetylene plays a major role in pyrolysis reactions
Acetylene can be easily oxidized to inert products if enough O and OH
radicals are present in fuel [5]. Molecule size plays a major role; the
radical pool size gets increased for larger molecules [6]. A study carried
out by Haynes et al. [7] concluded that C2H2, C2H4, CH4, C3H6, and
C6H6 Considered as major products produced during pyrolysis in
laminar diffusion flames.
2.4. Nucleation
Nucleation is the process in which particles are formed from gas
phase reactants. As for the sizes of the nuclei formed in luminous
flame, they initially have a diameter in the range of 1.5–2 nm [8].
Smith et al. had concluded from various previous studies that the initial
number of soot nuclei in a diesel cylinder amounted to 250 nuclei per
cubic micrometer (at a pressure of 6.5 MPa) [8]. In this process by
radical addition of small size hydrocarbons, they combine to form large
size aromatic molecules by particle inception process. This process
usually takes place at temperatures in the range of 1300–1600 K.
Particle nuclei formed has less contribution towards total soot mass,
but it has a greater influence on the mass added later since they provide
active sites for surface growth. Premixed and diffusion flame nucleation
is restricted near the primary reaction zone in which temperature and
ion concentration are higher. In one previous study concluded that soot
S. Mohankumar, P. Senthilkumar
Fig. 2. particulates formation.
nucleation process basically has three major steps involved in the
process [9]. Initially, the conversion of chain molecules into ring
structures by Cyclization process takes place. During this process, the
acetylene molecules combine to form a benzene ring. Then the
aromatic rings dehydrogenate at low temperature and result in the
formation of polycyclic compounds. Finally, the Breakup and recycliza-
tion of aromatic rings take place at a higher temperature.
2.5. Surface growth
Nucleation process leads to the production of a large number of
very small particles. The size of particulate matter is majorly increased
in the surface growth process. Surface growth is considered as a key
factor for the increase of soot mass [10]. In the gas phase deposition of
hydrocarbon occurs on the surface of spherules that develop to form
the nuclei. This appears to be mostly acetylenes which finally lead to an
increase in soot mass, while the number of particles remains constant.
This process continues even though the movement of particles takes
place from the primary reaction zone to less reactive and cooler
regions, where the concentration of hydrocarbon are below the soot
inception limit [7]. Soot formation rate during surface growth mainly
depends on the number of nuclei present [5]. This process usually
occurs in a few ps to 0.05 ms after the formation of nuclei. Hence the
residence time of this process has a major influence on the mass of soot
and its volume fraction. The Surface growth rates are lower for larger
particles while compared with smaller size particles because small size
particles have more reactive radical sites [8].
2.6. Coalescence and agglomeration
Coalescence and agglomeration are the processes in which combi-
nation of particles takes place. Once particles have been formed, inter-
particle collisions can lead to agglomeration. This leads to decrease in
the number of particles and increase in their size. In these two
processes, spherical particles will collide with each other and finally
result in their coagulation into a single spheroid. The size of the
primary spherical particles formed depends upon various engine
operating conditions, like injector type, and injector conditions.
Primary particles’ sizes formed are in the range which varies from 20
to 70 nm. A study carried out used sampling probe and optical
scattering technique, concluding that primary particles’ size varied
from 20 to 50 nm with an average diameter of about 30 nm [9,11]. The
researchers finally concluded that the size of the primary particles
diameter varied in the range of 30–70 nm. [9]. In-cylinder light-
scattering measurements done on diesel engines showed that the size
range of 30–50 nm [12] and 40–65 nm [13]. At the end of the
combustion, particles agglomerated further to form a chain-like
structure in size range varying from 100 nm to 2 µm. The size of the
particles formed even becomes larger based upon the surrounding
conditions. The determined particle size will vary with respect to many
factors like engine operating conditions, sampling technique, the
hardware of an injector and its particle size determining methods.
These methods have great influence on particles size reported.
2.7. Oxidation
Oxidation is the process in soot formation in which the carbon or
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hydrocarbon molecules oxidizes into products of combustion. Carbon
will not involve in soot formation reaction once it gets partially oxidized
into CO, even after entering a fuel-rich zone. This process commences
at any time during the soot formation process from pyrolysis through
agglomeration. The rate of reaction mainly depends upon process and
the air-fuel mixture formation at that time. Oxidation reactions do not
seem to play an important role during surface growth and coagulation
reactions. The radicals like OH, O-, and O are considered to be the
main oxidizing species involved in reactions [5].
Soot particle oxidation reaction usually takes places while the
temperature exceeds 1300 K [6]. The high resistance towards oxidation
reaction is mainly due to the Graphite-like structure present in soot [4].
Oxidation process usually follows two stages initially the absorption of
oxygen on soot surface takes place. In second stage desorption of
oxygen takes place from the surface as a product takes place [6].
Another study suggested that an OH radical influences more to soot
oxidation reactions under fuel-rich and stoichiometric conditions. Both
OH and O2 radicals oxidize soot under lean conditions [8], the collision
of OH radicals with soot contributes nearly 10–20% effective for
oxidizing carbon atoms [7]. After all these processes in the exhaust
tailpipe, the exhaust gasses cool down. Hydrocarbons of relatively low
vapor pressure, sulfates, and sulphuric acid plus bound water would
condense on the soot leading to particulate matter formation.
3. Effects of fuel composition and structure on soot
formation
Fuel composition and structure plays a major role in the formation
of particulate matter. Especially substances like sulfate, lead contents
in the fuel composition will enhance the formation of the soluble
organic fraction which increases the soot mass. The fuel elements
mainly consist of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and sulfur and the content
of each of these elements determines fuel composition. Fuel structure
will be determined by its bond structure, location, and type of bond
making up the molecules in the fuels. In several previous types of
research majority of work was carried out on fuel composition and
structure especially on laboratory flames. Incoming part results of
some of their experiments will be summarized in this review. In major
previous works suggested that fuel composition plays a vital role in the
formation of soot for all types of flames. In the case of diffusion flames,
fuel structure influences more in soot formation process and is likely
less considered in the case of premixed flames.
Fuel with more carbon content in their composition has great
tendency to produce soot, while the oxygen content within the fuel
reduces the soot formation rate. The hydrogen content in the fuel also
influences the soot formation rate; fuel with less hydrogen content
produces more soot. Sulfur content is not directly involved in formation
process but is responsible for increasing the particulate mass by
oxidizing and then attaching to soot particles resulting in increased
particle size and mass [14]. In one previous study, they examined the
soot formation rate against the number of carbon atoms [15]. They
found that molecular structure was the governing parameter which
determines the soot forming tendency in laminar diffusion flames.
They concluded that the ring structure plays a crucial role and fused
cyclic molecules were the most prolific shooters. In the case of non-
aromatic fuels, the carbon atoms count, length of the main chain,
position and length of side chains are considered as key parameters
S. Mohankumar, P. Senthilkumar
influencing the soot formation tendency. The carbon double bond has
some impact on soot formation tendency, but its position will not affect
soot formation rate widely. They identified that cyclohexane (C6H12)
saturated ring produces more soot while compared with hexane
(C6H14). Then also Straight chain Benzene C6H6 produces more soot
than the saturated and unsaturated rings. In another study shows that
the soot volume fraction increases linearly with the increase in
hydrogen wt% for alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, alkyl benzene and
naphthalens [16]. Gulder et al. [17] measured soot formation rate in
axisymmetric laminar diffusion flames of methane, propane, and n-
butane. They finally concluded that while adding oxygen to the fuel
either it promotes soot formation rate through the formation of H
atoms and hydrocarbon radicals or decreases soot formation by the
attack on aromatic radicals and aliphatic hydrocarbons. In another
study, they found that a number of carbon-carbon bonds are respon-
sible for increasing rate of pyrolysis by forming soot precursors and it
decreases oxidation rate produced by OH radicals which are a function
of C/H ratio [18]. Finally, it was concluded that fuels with a large
number of carbon-carbon bonds tended to have lower C/H ratio which
increased the soot forming tendency.
Many studies were carried out in shock tubes to examine the effect
of oxygen on soot formation in premixed and diffusion flames. They
concluded that the oxygenated fuels have greater tendency to suppress
soot formation rate and reduces soot precursors. The later part of this
review would highlight most of the work on reducing particulate matter
by using oxygenated fuel elaborately. Aromatics also play a significant
role in particulate matter formation. Experiments have been conducted
with three engines to test the effects of T90, aromatic and sulfur
content on particulate emission [19]. The results indicated that the
increase in both aromatic and sulfur content led to increasing in
particulate matter. Another study carried out by Ullman et al. [20] used
a new engine and found that aromatic content and Cetane number had
insignificant effects on particulate emission levels. Thus, in the con-
clusion, it was reported that the effect of aromatic content on
particulate was dependent on the engine technology. Increase in PM
emission is mainly caused by an increase in dry soot. Di-aromatics have
greater tendency to produce particulate than monoaromatic fuels
which are mainly due to their higher C/H ratio.
Tsurutani et al. [21] kept T90 nearly constant for various fuel
structures and studied the effects of aromatics on particulate matter
emissions and found that it was in the increasing order of mono < di
< tri aromatics. They concluded that molecular structure was the main
cause which influenced particulate matter formation. In another study
by Bertoli et al. [22] it was pointed out that aromatic content had a
diminishing effect on soot loading as the Cetane number increased and
had no effect when Cetane number went beyond 58. Nakakita et al. [23]
conducted experiments on three different diesel fuels in an optical
single cylinder engine and measured particulate matter in an exhaust
stream. They concluded that class 1 fuel produced more particulate
matter than other two fuels even though the fuel had lower distillation
temperature, aromatic content, sulfur, and density; all these para-
meters led to a reduction in soot. The main reason behind PM increase
was that class 1 fuel contained 50–70% branched molecular structure
and twice as many naphthenes. Another work carried out by Takatori
et al. [24] studied isomers of hexane and octane including the ring
structure in a flow reactor (1000–1300 K) and in a shock tube (2000–
2500 K). They concluded that soot formation increased in the order of
n-Paraffin1-branched paraffin,2-branched paraffin, and cycloparaffin.
The final conclusion indicated clearly that molecular structure other
than aromatics played an important role in soot formation in DI diesel
combustion.
Finally from the various earlier works mentioned it became clear
that fuel composition could play an important role in soot formation in
most types of flames, but not all. Fuel structure is considered an
important parameter in diffusion flames. Then for all types of flames
increasing the number of carbon-carbon atoms would increase the
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particulate matter formation tendency. Oxygen within the fuel struc-
ture generally decreases soot formation but the effect depends on
temperature as well and is also accounted for the reduction in the
number of carbon-carbon bonds in the premixed flames. The role of
aromatics on the influence of soot formation indicates clearly that
increasing the C/H weight ratio leads to a rise in particulate formation
rate in the order mono aromatics < di aromatics < Tri aromatics.
From the above-cited works, we can finally conclude that fuel composi-
tion and structure plays a major role in particulate matter formation.
Therefore fuel used should have low C/H ratio, high oxygen content,
and low aromatic content. One such fuel is biodiesel, a naturally
oxygenated fuel having low C/H ratio reducing PM to greater values. In
the later part of this review, the earlier works carried out using
biodiesel and oxygenated additives fuel to control particulate matter
will be discussed in detail.
4. Hazardous effects of diesel particles
Diesel particulates are so small that they can penetrate the
respiratory tract of the human or animal lung and are deposited in
the pulmonary region of the lung, where they may cause adverse health
effects. Warnatz et al. [25] discussed the effects of ultrafine particles in
the study conducted and showed that the ultrafine particles emitted
were high in number, more than millions of particles per cubic
centimeter. The highest deposition efficiency in the alveolar region of
the lungs was shown by particles having a diameter of 20 nm. Small
size particles not only penetrate the epithelium but also enter into the
blood stream. One study indicated that diesel exhaust gasses and
particulates had a great tendency towards lung disorders and a higher
daily mortality [26,27].
A review by Mauderly et al. [28] showed a large number of
epidemiological studies had been evaluated. They concluded that
long-term employment in jobs with substantial exposure to diesel
exhaust could be associated with a 20–50% increase in the risk of
getting lung cancer [21]. In addition to a possible affection of lung
cancer, diesel particulates have also been found to increase the risk of
bladder cancer. Several laboratory studies carried out especially on
animals like mice and canines are considered as good models for
humans with regard to their response to DPM [29,30]. Various studies
conducted so far pointed out that diesel exhaust exposure could lead to
several other problems like acute eye affections, bronchial irritation,
nausea, light headiness, phlegm, and cough. Numerous studies carried
out involving laboratory rats, mice, hamsters, guinea pigs, cats, and
monkeys have studied the respiratory and systematic effects due to
exposure to DPM [30,31].
Some recent laboratory studies with rats showed that SOF content
considered as an important precursor for tumor formation [32,33].
High concentrations of other poorly soluble respirable particles sus-
pected to have a high risk of inducing lung tumor and also cause stress
in lung region [28,34]. Some studies carried out regarding specific
mutagenic compounds found in diesel particulates, such as 1-nitropyr-
ene [36,37] and benzo[a]pyrene [38,39], showed that polar fraction of
PAHs, which mainly consisted of oxygenated PAHs, accounted sig-
nificantly for the mutagenicity of the diesel particulate extracts. Some
researchers carried out tests using animal models to determine the
mechanisms associated with pulmonary cancer caused by diesel
exhaust particles [30].
The particulate matter also contains some other metals like Ca, Fe,
Mg etc. in their composition which leads to several effects. Another
study indicated that deposition of metals like iron which could lead to
the production of free radicals and finally cause both acute and chronic
lung injuries [40]. Advanced research carried out to estimate the
various toxic metals concentration of diesel particles indicated that
these metals activated epidermal growth receptor (EGFR) and led to
increasing the levels of guanosine triphosphate-bound Ras in human
lung cells [10]. Iron and also other metals like such as Cu and Zn
S. Mohankumar, P. Senthilkumar
present in particulate also leads to several problems. This metal usually
comes due to excessive wear of engine components due to improper
lubrication [41]. These metals have great tendency to cause major
injury to macromolecules by undergoing redox- cycle which will lead to
the generation of hydroxyl radicals. This task can be made possible
with the help of reductant commonly found in lungs which include
superoxide anion, glutathione, acerbate [42]. In previous works,
researchers have done a detailed study in an artificial environment
on the effect of solar radiation and aging on diesel exhaust within the
chamber [43].
In another study, it has been reported that particulate matter reacts
with ozone and causes severe damage to rat lungs [44]. In some recent
studies pointed out diesel particulates plays a crucial role in enhancing
inflammatory and allergic problems, leads to damage of respiratory
system [35,44]. The ultra fine particles have greater ability to get
penetrate and deposited in deeper part of the lungs which will lead to
lung cancer [2,25]. These particles also have a tendency to enter into to
the liver and even to neurons leads to a brain disorder. In recent
studies, many researchers have done to examine the effect of particu-
late matter focuses mainly on cancer outcomes [4] It has been found
that prolong exposure to particulate matter leads to several problems
like respiratory illness, asthma problem among children, and lung
function disorder [25,45,46].
There are also some studies carried out to show the health effects of
diesel particulates while using biodiesel as a fuel. Biodiesel is an
oxygenated fuel derived from vegetable or animal fats by transester-
ification process. Ultrafine particles will be emitted while using
biodiesel blends. These fine particles are considered to be more difficult
to trap and more severe than large particles in terms of its impact on
health and environment. In several studies, it was concluded that the
use of biodiesel reduced particulate matter, but the problem was that
the size of particulate matter got changed to ultra fine particles which
would penetrate deeply into lungs and that could easily lead to cancer
[47]. One such study carried out by Lapuerta et al. [46] studied the
effect of biodiesel on health, especially the adverse effects of particu-
lates emissions. Smaller particles are considered to have more deleter-
ious effects since they can reside longer time in the atmosphere, and
thus have a greater probability of inhalation with the higher specific
surface area and this capability to absorb potentially carcinogenic
organic compounds. These smaller particles penetrate further into the
respiratory system, to be retained in the interstitial tissue of the lung or
even to penetrate into the cardiovascular system. This effect will
ultimately cause pulmonary or vascular diseases. In another study
carried out by Yanamala et al. [48] the researchers investigated the
effect of running biodiesel blends with petrodiesel. In these experi-
mental investigations, lung sections of rodents exposed to diesel engine
exhaust were studied. The results indicated biodiesel exhaust particles
could exert more toxic effects compared to diesel. This phenomenon
occurs mainly due to the unsaturated fatty acid content of biodiesel,
exhaust particles could induce adverse effects due to the increasing
tendency of unsaturated fatty acid chains to oxidize.
On account of all the hazardous effects mentioned above steps have
to be taken to control the particulate matter (PM), otherwise, it will
cause several health effects to both human beings and the environment.
So the following part of this review deals with various pre-combustion
and post-combustion technologies to control particulate matter. The
complete layout of PM control technique is shown in Fig. 3.
5. Pre combustion control techniques
5.1. Biodiesel as a fuel to reduce PM
Biodiesel is an alternative fuel commonly described as fatty acid
methyl or ethyl ester derived from vegetable oils and animal fats [101–
103]. It is renewable, biodegradable and oxygenated fuel consisting of
triglycerides of long chain saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. It can
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be converted into monoglycerides by transesterification process. Fuel
has low sulfur and aromatic content also contains nearly 10% oxygen
which helps it to burn completely. It has been confirmed from the
above-mentioned advantages that the usage of biodiesel as a fuel
reduces PM to a greater value. Several previous works carried out in
last few decades to control particulate matter using biodiesel is briefly
given in Table 1 [49–59].
5.2. Oxygenated fuel additives
Oxygenated fuel is a fuel that has a chemical compound containing
oxygen. These oxygenated additives simply enhance combustion and
the ignition quality of fuel by improving the Cetane number, thereby
reducing ignition temperature of particulates. The earlier part of this
review highlighted the fact that fuel with low carbon to hydrogen
ratio(C/H) and high oxygen content would reduce particulate matter to
a greater value. Several works [15,17–19] discussed previously in this
review also pointed out the role of C/H ratio and number position of
carbon bonds had great influence on PM formation. The various
oxygenated additives used comprise methanol, ethanol, butanol,
diethyl ether, diphenyl ether, diethylene glycol, dimethyl ether, and
nitromethane, dimethyl carbonate etc. Several previous works carried
to reduce particulate matter using oxygenated additives is discussed
briefly in Table 1 [60–68].
5.3. Injection timing
Particulate matter emission can also be controlled up to some
extent by varying the injection timing parameter. When the injection
timing is advanced, the particulate emissions will get reduced; this
effect is mainly related to the ignition delay property. The reason
behind this scenario is that while advancing injection timing it will lead
to increase in premixed combustion duration which enhances fine
mixing of fuel and air, thereby reducing PM emissions. But the Nox
emission gets increased by advancing the injection timing due to
increased ignition delay. Particulate emission increases when injection
timing gets retarded and NOx emission get reduced. This scenario
occurs because the ignition delay gets reduced and also the premixed
combustion duration reduces while retarding injection thus increasing
fuel consumption, HC smoke and particulate matter [77]Heywood. The
coming part of the review will present some previous works related to
the effect of injection timing on particulate matter emission using
various fuels. Some of the works related to control particulate matter
by varying injection timing is given in Table 1 [69–75].
The mentioned works in the table clearly show that advancing the
injection timing by few degree crank angle will reduce particulate
number and concentration to a greater value. Finally, it shows clearly
that 20°bTDC to 23°bTDC seems to be optimum injection timing for
particulate matter reduction. In the coming part of this review will be
discussed the effect of injection pressure on particulate matter forma-
tion.
5.4. Injection pressure
Another pre-combustion technique adopted to reduce particulate
matter is by varying injection pressure. The main reason behind this is
when injection pressure gets increased, it leads to fine atomization and
fuel droplet size gets reduced which leads to complete combustion.
Another factor is that spray penetration length increases with high
injection pressure which leads to proper utilization of air and improves
fuel-air mixing rate. In the coming part of the review, some previous
works carried out in this area is explained in Table 1 [76–81].
Based on the above cited previous works the following conclusions
have been drawn: Particulate matter greatly reduced when injection
pressure got increased. Higher injection pressure led to the fine
atomization of fuel droplet and also droplet size got reduced which
S. Mohankumar, P. Senthilkumar
Fig. 3. Layout of PM control technique.
led to complete combustion. Another parameter nozzle hole size also
played an important role for particulate matter reduction. So it could
be concluded that micro hole size along with high injection pressure
reduced particulate matter to a greater amount.
5.5. Multiple injections
Another pre-combustion technology to control particulate matter is
the use of multiple injections events within the same cycle. The key
advantage of using this technology is that it will reduce both NOx and
particulate matter simultaneously [83]. Multiple injection technologies
are made possible with the adoption of Common rail direct injection
(CRDI) technology, which allows shorter injection duration and vari-
able injection timing. This precise control is made possible through the
use of electronic control solenoid valve which controls injection
pressure and timing accurately. Multiple injection strategies employ
three types of injection, namely pilot injection, main injection, and post
injection. In pilot injection event some amount of fuel is injected before
main injection event and it has the effect of temperature rise prior to
main injection event. This effect reduces ignition delay which reduces
the fraction of fuel burned during initial premixed burn of the main
injection event. Ultimately decreasing knocking by reducing peak
pressure; however, this pilot injection results in an increase of
particulate emission most of the time. Increase in PM occurs due to
the following two reasons: i) higher temperature in the cylinder during
main injection event leads to a reduction of lift-off length, thereby
reducing charge air entrained into the main injection event ii) Product
releases from the pilot injection event have high temperature and
contain reduced oxygen content.
The main advantage of multiple injections comes during post
injection event when some amount of fuel is injected after the main
injection event. Total injection period for this post injection is about
10–50° CA and 10% of fuel injected during this event. Another
advantage of this post injection is that it increases exhaust tempera-
ture, thereby helping regeneration event of diesel particulate filter. In
Table 1 some of the previous works related to control particulate
matter using multiple injections is mentioned [82,84,85].
5.6. Auxiliary air injection
Another pre-combustion technology is auxiliary air injection to
control soot formation. In this, some amount of air is injected into the
cylinder of diesel engine near or shortly after the end of the injection.
1232
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 80 (2017) 1227–1238
Air injected enhances the combustion by increasing the turbulence and
mixing rate of an air-fuel mixture which finally increases the tempera-
ture to burn out the soot particles. This can be done by constructing a
secondary chamber beside the main chamber with a restriction
between two chambers. Restriction created should be in proper size
so that only gasses will flow during compression and get compressed
during compression and will exit during expansion stroke and near the
end of combustion. The main drawback is that this effect will increase
the heat transfer which leads to decrease the efficiency. Another
drawback is that the design is complex which will increase the
fabrication cost too.
5.7. Water emulsified fuel
Water emulsified fuel is another fuel modification principle used to
control particulate matter and NOx emission simultaneously. In this
emulsion is created when primary fluid is dispersed throughout the
secondary immiscible fluid, usually in the form of spherical droplets.
This process can be done with or without the help of surfactant usually
accomplished with the help of a ternary diagram. The main reason for
the reduction of emissions is that during rapid evaporation, water
droplets having a lesser boiling point than the surrounding fuel would
explode rapidly. This process is called microexplosion event. This
eventually increases premixed combustion duration and more ignition
delay period creates more time for fuel-air mixing leading to a
reduction in particulate matter formation. In the same case, water
droplet evaporation reduces peak cycle temperature. This leads to the
reduction of NOx emission also. Some previous works to control
Particulate matter by using water emulsified fuel is quoted in Table 1
[86–90].
It was concluded that from the above works emulsified fuels greatly
reduced both particulate matter and NOx emission simultaneously. The
use of biodisehols, combination of diesel, alcohol, and Biodiesel could
be a promising fuel to reduce particulate matter to a great extent and
also improve the thermal efficiency of a diesel engine in a satisfactory
manner.
6. Post-combustion control technologies
6.1. Diesel particulate filter
Physical removal of diesel particulates by filtration means of
emission control has been investigated from the early 1980s. The
 Table 1
Summary of Various works discussed.

S.no Author Research Engine Factors varied Effects of PM and other emissions Core reasons

1 Su et al. [49]
2 Zhu et al. [50]
Single cylinder CRDI Biodiesel & Ethanol blends as fuel PM > 50 nm reduces, PM < 20 nm increases Biodiesel E20 produces lower soot emission
Engine due to high Oxygen content and reduced aromatic content
Single Cylinder diesel Euro V diesel fuel, Pure biodiesel, and Ethanol Particle mass concentration reduced, Particle number Formaldehyde, acetaldehyde emission increases due to different H-
Engine BE blends as a fuel concentration and Formaldehyde emission got increased abstraction reaction
DOC is more effective for reduction HC species then Unburned
ethanol then Formaldehyde, acetaldehyde emissions
S. Mohankumar, P. Senthilkumar

3 Nabi et al. [51]
4 Gill et al. [52]
5 Zhang et al. [53]
6 Tan et al. [54]
7 Barrios et al. [55]
8 Awad et al. [56]
9 Young et al. [57]
10 Lapuerta et al.
[58]
Single cylinder diesel
engine
Single cylinder diesel
engine
Light duty diesel engine
Single cylinder diesel
engine
single cylinder direct
injection diesel engine
Heavy duty diesel engine
DI diesel commercial
engine
Cotton seed oil as biodiesel with 20% blends
Diglyme blended with RME biodiesel as a fuel.
ULSD blended with 20% PME and then blended
with butanol by 5%,10% and 15% by volume
Pure Jatropha and their blends B20 & B50 used
as fuel
Animal fat based and soybean biodiesel as a fuel
(B10,B20,B25,B50
Animal fat residues as a biodiesel
Waste cooking oil as a biodiesel
(B2,B10 & B20) as a fuel
waste cooking oil as a biodiesel
PM reduces by 24% for biodiesel blend
Mean particle size reduces and NOx emission is also get
reduced
Particle mass, elemental carbon concentration, Tot no of
particles gets reduced but Organic carbon in the particles
get increased with butanol addition
Accumulation mode particles get decreased Particle
number concentration increases
Mean particle diameter gets reduced.
PM get reduces at both low and medium load ranges and
show no changes at higher loads
Particle number concentration increases with load % and
get reduces with addition of WCO blends
Smoke and PM emissions get reduced, Particle number
concentration remains the same
10–12% extra oxygen content in biodiesel results in better
combustion reduces PM
15% DGM addition increases combustion efficiency reduces PM.
Cetane number increases reduces Ignition delay causes reduction in
premixed combustion duration which helps for NOx emission
reduction
Geometric mean diameter of particles get shifted towards small size
Butanol addition shows lower PAH emission, low carcinogenic
potential and also lower cytotoxicity.
The increase in biodiesel content favors for reduction of larger size
particles but it increases tiny size particles number concentration.
Due to increase in fatty acid saturation level of biodiesel which
results in reduced particulate matter emission.
This is to due to increase in soluble organic fraction of PM which
gets absorbed on PM surface at this operating conditions
Oxygen content in biodiesel promotes for oxidation of soot and
helps for reduction of particle number concentration.
Mean particle size get reduced this is probably due to high oxygen
content and low sulfur content of biodiesel

1233
11 Tsai et al. [59] Soybean biodiesel as a fuel(B0,B10,B20 and Particulate matter(PM), PAH, elemental carbon get B10 and B20 shows lowest PM concentration,
B50) reduced EC, OC and TC(14%,29%, and 20%) lower than diesel due to low
sulfur, aromatic and high oxygen content.
12 Wang et al. [60] Heavy duty turbocharged Dimethyl carbonate, ethanol as an oxygenated An oxygenated blend containing 50% biodiesel,15% PM Reduction occurs due to high oxygen content, high Cetane
diesel engines additive to diesel dimethyl carbonate and 35% diesel fuel reduces PM number, low sulfur content of fuel, low aromatics, and suitable
effectively viscosity
13 Górsk et al. [61] Ethyl-tert-butyl-ether(ETBE) as an oxygenated Particulate matter and smoke emission get reduced with This Scenario occurs due to less carbon and aromatic content and
additive to diesel the increase in ETBE % high oxygen content ETBE additive will promote soot oxidation
14 Burshaid et al. Biofuel with methane, ethane, and acetone as PM get reduced with methane as oxygenated additive Due to less carbon content of methane and presence of oxygen in its
[62] oxygenated additive along with water emulsified fuel structure which helps for burning and hence soot formation gets
reduced
15 Yao et al. [63] Heavy duty direct injection Butanol as an oxygenated additive to diesel fuel PM mass concentration get reduced with the increase in Triple-injection strategy with highest n-butanol fraction reduces
diesel engine butanol content PM formation to a greater level due to the fine atomization of fuel
droplets.
16 Zhu et al. [64] Intake charge dilution with CO2 along with Reduction of NOx, Particulate number, and Particle mass Application of both CO2 dilutions with oxygenated additives
oxygenated additives methanol and ethanol concentration was obtained reduces NOx and also restricts PM formation rate.
17 Zhang et al. [65] single cylinder diesel Diglyme (DGM), Palm oil methyl ester, Dimethyl Particulate mass concentration, Organic carbon(OC) and Butanol had found to be more effective and Diglyme shows the
engine carbonate, diethyl additive and butanol used as elemental carbon(EC get reduced minimum effect on particulate matter reduction. PM value also
additives depends upon the chemical structure of additive.
18 Lefoi et al. [66] Ethanol as an oxygenated additive with soybean Greater reduction in Particle number and large size Modulus of volumetric compressibility of biodiesel increases the
biodiesel particles with B100 and ethanol as additive time for fuel to mix with air leads to longer ignition delay reduces
size and concentration of PM.
19 Hernández et al. Four cylinders direct Glycerol as an oxygenated additive Great reduction in particulate matter and pour point of Additive greatly affects the chemical nature and increases the
[67] injection diesel engine. diesel with glycerol as an additive aromatic content which promotes reduction of PM
20 Sirignano et al. Dimethyl ether as an oxygenated additive Nanoparticles reduced for diffusion flames DME addition effectively reduces PM emission when added up to
[68] 60% for both premixed and diffusion flames.
21 Agarwal [70] Single cylinder CRDI SOI timing get advanced Particulate number concentration get reduced Due to increased premixed combustion duration promotes proper
engine air fuel mixture formation leads to complete burning of fuel. This
reduces PM number concentration
(continued on next page)
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 80 (2017) 1227–1238
 Table 1 (continued)

S.no Author Research Engine Factors varied Effects of PM and other emissions Core reasons

22 Dhananjay et al. Single cylinder diesel SOI timing varied 15°BTDC to 9.375°BTDC at 1000 bar FIP at 4.875° BTDC SOI shows lower PM At higher FIP fine atomization of fuel, droplets takes places ensures
[71] engine 500 and 1000 bar concentration complete combustion and advanced Injection timing promotes
proper air-fuel mixing formation
23 Benajes et al. Single cylinder direct SOI timing varied from PM mass and number Concentration get reduced SOI advance leads to increases ID and premixed combustion
[72] injection engine 24° to −33° ATDC duration which will reduce PM formation.
24 Xinling et al. [73] Four cylinder CRDI engine SOI timing varied from23°BTDC to 8°ATDC at Both accumulation and nucleation mode particles get AT 0%. EGR rate accumulation mode particles reduced and at 40%
0% and 40% EGR rate reduced nucleation mode particles reduced with varying injection timing
S. Mohankumar, P. Senthilkumar

due to the proper air fuel mixture formation.

25 Zhu et al. [74] Single cylinder direct SOI timing varied 20° to 26° CA BTDC with Nanoparticles number and concentration get reduced Injection timing with 23°CA BTDC and 50% DMM addition shows
injection engine DMM blends varied lower particle number and concentration due to increased ID and
oxygen content in fuel.
26 Sayin et al. [75] Single cylinder direct SOI timing varied at 15°, 20° and 25° BTDC Particulate mass concentration get reduced SOI timing with 20° bTDC is an optimum one in terms of BSFC and
injection engine timings PM reduction due longer time available for air fuel mixture
formation.
27 Agarwal et al. Single cylinder CRDI Varying injection pressure((300, 500, and Particulate number concentration and size decreases At 750 bar injection pressure and 9.375° BTDC start of combustion
[76] engine 750 bars) shows minimum particulate concentration due to the fine
atomization of fuel at higher injection pressures.
28 Dodge et al. [77] Six cylinders turbocharged Injection pressure with varying injector hole Injector hole diameter 0.086 mm and pressure 2830 bar Fuel droplets size reduces at higher injection pressure with small
diesel engine diameters shows almost no particulate matter emission nozzle diameter leads to complete burning of fuel with minimum
available air.
29 Pierpoint et al. Single cylinder heavy duty Injection pressure with Varying spray angles Injection pressure from 90 MPa to 160 MPa at 75% load As injection increases lead to the proper atomization of fuel and
[78] diesel engine with sharp edge nozzles show low PM concentration also sharp edge nozzle injects fuel with minimum droplet diameter.
30 Su et al.[79] single cylinder heavy duty Injection pressure, nozzle hole diameter, spray Particle number and mass concentration get reduced When injection pressure increases from 90 MPa to 160 MPa the
diesel engine angle and nozzle configuration varied particulate matter reduction of 78% was achieved due to proper
mixing of the air-fuel mixture and fine atomization of the fuel.
31 Wang et al. [80] Single cylinder CRDI Injection pressure with micro hole nozzle PM size and mass concentration got reduced Injection pressure 100 MPa with micro hole nozzle 0.08 mm shows

1234
engine lower soot concentration
32 Pierpont et al. single cylinder CRDI Injection pressure varied PM number Concentration got reduced Varying injection pressure from 720 to 960 bar and also for 960–
[81] engine 1220 bar shows a significant reduction in particulate matter.
33 Chen [82] 1.2 l four cylinder diesel Multiple injections within the same cycle Both NOx and PM got reduced simultaneously smoke Multiple injections along with EGR will reduce NOx and PM
engine emission also reduced by 40%. effectively due to increased charge air entrained and increased lift-
off length
34 Choi and Reitz Single cylinder CRDI Multiple injections with oxygenated fuels Particulate matter concentration got reduced Split injections at low load conditions reduce PM to a greater extent
[84] engine due to increase in combustion temperature promotes soot
oxidation.
35 Hotta et al. [85] Small HSDI engine Multiple injections with in same cycle Soot concentration got reduced After injection event increases temperature of mixture and also
enhances fresh air entrainment which leads to reduction of soot
36 Armas et al. [86] Turbocharged indirect Water Emulsified fuel is used NOx, THC and PM got reduced simultaneously. PM emission reduces due to micro explosion process this will
injection diesel engine increase premixed combustion duration. Water droplet acts as a
heat sink reduces NOx emission too.
37 Nadeem et al. Emulsified fuel with Gemini as an surfactant NOx, CO, HC and PM got reduced Diesel with 15% water content shows minimum PM due to fine
[87] atomization of fuel since premixed duration increased.
38 Tsai et al. [88] Biodiesehols as a fuel(Biodiesel + water + PM, NOx and PAH got reduced Due to oxygen content in alcohol and micro emulsion principle
alcohol) ensures proper combustion reduces PM to a great extent
39 Chang et al. [89] water containing acetone-Butanol-etanol PM, NOx got reduced simultaneously. Pyrolysis of secondary atomised oil droplets in high temperature
(WABE) as fuel produced ionised carbon particles which react with H2O leading to
water shift reactions.
40 Lin et al. [90] Heavy duty diesel engine Water with n-butanol diesel blends as a fuel PM and PAH greatly reduced 5% and 10% BT additive with 0.5% water content were found to be
generator most suitable one for PM reduction due to fine atomization of fuel
and water gas shift reactions reduces PM
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 80 (2017) 1227–1238
S. Mohankumar, P. Senthilkumar Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 80 (2017) 1227–1238

temperature to the levels sufficient for regeneration even when the

catalyst is employed throttling, however, has several disadvantages it
increases HC, CO, and smoke emissions and results in fuel
consumption as the engine operate at the significantly lower overall
air-fuel ratio.

6.2.1.2. Burner regeneration. This is a currently used technique for

active filter regeneration. In this, a diesel fuel burner placed in the
exhaust, in front of the filter, has been employed to regenerate the
Fig. 4. Schematic layout of DPF Cell.
diesel particulate filter [92]. In this system, regeneration can be done in
all engine speed and load conditions. This system consists of a
currently used post-combustion technology to control diesel particulate
differential pressure sensor which will monitor the back pressure
matter is by means of using diesel particulate filter (DPF). DPF is also
value of filter as the soot gets deposited on the filter. This sensor will
called diesel particulate traps. There are wide varieties of filtration
send a signal to the ECU when the filter gets loaded fully with soot
media which are available to collect the diesel particulates. The various
particle with the indication of back pressure value. The ECU sends a
DPF filters used are Alumina coated wire mesh, ceramic fiber, porous
signal to the fuel burner placed upstream of DPF that will increase the
ceramic monoliths etc. At present, the honeycomb ceramic monolith
temperature around 650 °C; then the soot oxidation begins. This
wall flow concepts have been widely used to collect diesel particulate
regeneration process is initiated when the backpressure typically is
matter. These honeycomb monolith traps the particulate matter as the
75 mm Hg [93]. As the combustion begins, increase in temperature
gas flows through its porous walls. These filters are often named as
accelerates the combustion of soot further that may result in an
Ceramic wall flow filters. In these alternate cells are plugged at one end
uncontrolled increase in temperatures and melt the substrate. To
and open at the opposite end. The exhaust gasses enter the cells that
control temperatures during regeneration, the burner may be shut off
are open at the upstream end and flow through the porous walls to the
midway through the regeneration cycle. The burning process
adjacent cells. The adjacent cells are open at the opposite downstream
progressing from the front oxidizes soot in the remainder of the filter
end and the filtered gas exits from the opposite end to the atmosphere.
and the process is expedited due to increase in oxygen concentration. It
The flow path of gas through wall flow filters is also shown schema-
also helps in controlling the filter bed temperature gradients and peak
tically in Fig. 4. This wall flow concept has large filtration surface areas
temperature below a critical level to prevent filter cracking and melting
per unit volume with high filtration efficiency close to 98% being
(Figs. 5 and 6).
possible [91,92]. Filtration efficiency of a DPF of 144 mm dia.x150mm
length and having a substrate of 100 cpsi (cells/in2), 0.017 in
(0.43 mm) wall thickness used on a 1.9 l, turbocharged, DI diesel
engine was evaluated in this study [92]. Test result indicated that 6.2.1.3. Electric regeneration. Electric filter regeneration is similar in
78.2% reduction of volatile substances and about 98.9% removal of principle to the burner system except that an electric resistance heater
solid soot and total about 97.7% filtration efficiency was achieved. replaces the complex burner and electronic controls. Power to the
electric heater is supplied by the engine alternator. A typical truck DPF
regeneration system may require a 3 kW heater.
6.2. Regeneration

Periodically the control system activates the diesel fuel burners or

It is relatively easy to filter and collect the particulate matter in the
electric heaters to start the regeneration cycle. Regeneration may be
trap. The most difficult and challenging job is to remove the soot
required typically every two hours and the regeneration cycle lasts for
particle collected in the trap. In order to recover the trap to its original
8–10 min. When the backpressure value approaches the value of the
clean state before the filter is plugged by the soot particles, the
clean filter, it indicates the completion of the regeneration cycle.
regeneration process is carried out. During the process of regeneration,
the soot particles collected in the filter must be oxidized to carbon
dioxide without melting or cracking the filtration ceramic substrate
6.3. Passive/catalytic regeneration
under the high temperature achieved during regeneration. Depending
upon the type of regeneration method diesel particulate filters may be
The active regeneration systems discussed above are quite complex
classified as follows:
and expensive. This has led to more research work on the development
of passive regeneration systems. The passive regeneration systems
6.2.1. Active regeneration
employ catalysts to reduce soot oxidation temperatures to the levels
Inactive regeneration system, sensors monitor the particulate build
that lie within the normal exhaust gas temperature range. The catalyst
up across the trap. On receiving the signal from the sensor, the exhaust
can either be added to diesel fuel in the form of additives or it can be
gas temperature is increased above 500 °C by any one of the following
coated on the surface of the filter substrate. Another approach for
techniques:

6.2.1.1. Engine throttling. Throttling air to the engine increases

exhaust gas temperature. Reduction in airflow would result in a
decrease of overall air-fuel ratio, which increases the combustion
temperature resulting in higher exhaust temperature. Throttling
increases the engine pumping losses and to maintain the same
engine power output more fuel has to be injected, which increases
the exhaust temperature. Throttling, on the other hand, decreases
oxygen concentration of exhaust. Soot oxidation requires 2–5% oxygen
in the exhaust and throttling is to be limited to provide this much
oxygen. The major drawback of this method is that, under normal
cruising conditions, throttling is unable to increase the exhaust Fig. 5. Active burner regeneration in DPF.

1235
S. Mohankumar, P. Senthilkumar
Fig. 6. Continuous regeneration trap in DPF.
passive regeneration is to install a specially designed oxidation catalyst
in front of the ceramic wall flow particulate filter to promote soot
oxidation. This system is known as the continuously regenerating trap
(CRT).
6.3.1. Regeneration with fuel additives
Usually, additives like Fe, Ce, Mn, Zn, Cu, and Pb based fuel
additives lower the soot oxidation temperatures [94–96]. Cerium and
copper based additives in 60–100 ppm concentration are seen to lower
soot ignition temperature to about 300 °C and soot regeneration has
been achieved at a temperature below 400 °C [94,95]. The cerium fuel
additive gets converted to cerium oxide on combustion in the engine
and cerium oxide on reaching the DPF catalysts the soot oxidation. Its
mechanism of action is as shown below:
(i) Oxidation of soot
2CeO2 +C−→Ce2O3+CO
(ii) Oxidation of carbon Mono-oxide
CO+1/2 O2−→CO2
(iii) Ce2O3 is an unstable compound and gets converted to Ce2O2 in
the exhaust gas as excess oxygen is available by the following
reaction
Ce2O3+1/2 O2−→2CeO2
These reactions are quite fast and take 2–6 s only to occur once the
temperature is sufficiently high. Since the oxidation of soot and CO are
exothermic reactions, the heat released can increase the filter bed
temperature significantly. The fuel borne catalyst technology for
particulate trap regeneration has been investigated extensively and is
considered quite promising. The additive can be introduced into the
fuel when required by automatic dosing equipment on board. Studies
have also been made with fuel borne catalyst with the DPF having a
catalyzed wash coat.
6.3.2. Continuously Regenerating Trap (CRT) system
The trap substrate can be coated with a catalyst material to reduce
soot oxidation temperature to as low as 200 °C, However, the preferred
approach is to install an oxidation catalyst where NO is preferentially
converted to NO2 ahead of diesel particulate filter. The catalysts used
are noble metals. The principle of CRT is based on the fact that NO2 is a
much superior oxidizing agent for soot compared with oxygen [97].
NO2 was shown to oxidize the dry carbon soot trapped in the filter
below 300 °C by the following reactions:
2NO2+C → CO2+2NO
NO2+C → CO+NO
1236
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 80 (2017) 1227–1238
However, to achieve the best performance of CRT, the following
conditions should be met [98]:
i) Sulfur content of the fuel should be less than 30 ppm to prevent
catalyst poisoning.
ii) Temperature should be in the range 250–450 °C.
iii) NOx/Soot ratio should be adequately high otherwise NO2 available
will be too low to oxidize soot.
6.4. Metal supported diesel particulate filter/trap
Although wall flow diesel particulate filters have very high particu-
late trapping efficiency, their regeneration over the entire life span
extending to 496,000 Kms for heavy-duty vehicles is a major concern.
To overcome this difficulty the metal supported flow through diesel
filters employing CRT operational principle for continuous combustion
of accumulated particulate matter have been developed [99,100]. These
filters have been developed to provide 50–70% reduction in PM
emissions. These filters are also called ‘Partial flow filters’. These filters
have a modular structure. In the first section, an oxidation catalyst is
installed where NO is oxidized to NO2 for combustion of soot. Here,
HC, CO, and SOF part of PM also get oxidized. The second section
consists of flow through type filter element soot collection and
combustion process. The typical cell density of these filters is 200 cpsi.
Reduction in PM was low during tests on ECE 15 +EUDC cycle for the
light vehicles [99].Higher reductions were obtained on US heavy duty-
Transient cycle due to higher exhaust gas temperatures that promote
soot oxidation [100].
7. Conclusion
In this review paper, an attempt has been made to review the
various works carried out to control diesel particulate matter in the last
few decades. Particulate matter from diesel engines is one of the major
regulated emissions. If it is not minimized it causes Hazardous effects
in both human beings and the environment. Various laboratory studies
carried out on animals indicates that prolong exposure to Particulate
matter will lead to several problems like lung cancer, respiratory
problems, asthma etc.
Various studies on the effect of Fuel composition on PM emissions
show that fuel with low carbon to weight ratio, low aromatic content,
low sulfur content and addition of oxygenated additives could reduce
the particulate matter to a great extent. Water emulsified fuel was seen
as another prominent technology to control NOx and particulate matter
simultaneously.
Studies made on Role of Injection Parameters on Particulate
emissions conclude that Micro-hole nozzle with high injection pressure
will reduce particulate matter to a greater value. With CRDI technol-
ogy, multiple injections was seen to reduce both PM and NOx
emissions.
Post-combustion technologies are the best-suited methods to meet
the current robust emission norms. Diesel Particulate filter is the
currently used technology to minimize PM emissions. DPF are
regenerated to burn off the collected soot. Different types of regenera-
tion method used to burn off the soot collected have also been
discussed.
Although particulate filters have great filtration efficiency, there are
several associated problems. If the filters are not regenerated properly,
it will create back pressure and it will increase fuel consumption. Since
active regeneration requires complex set-up, the overall cost of the
system gets increased.
Electrostatic Precipitator is another prominent technology to
capture PM and overcome the drawbacks faced by DPF. Further
research needs to be done in this particular area.
With the implementation of stringent emission norms across
worldwide. The PM mass concentration and PM number are also
S. Mohankumar, P. Senthilkumar
limited values. Thus the world will require state of the art technologies
to regulate PM emission within the stipulated standards.
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