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5.1 INTRODUCTION
A generating station in which nuclear energy is converted into electrical energy
is known as a nuclear power station.
There is strategic as well as economic necessity for nuclear power in the most part
of the world. The strategic importance lies primarily in the fact that one large nuclear power
plant saves more than 50,000 barrels of oil per day. At $30 to $40 per barrel (1982), such a
power plant would pay for its capital cost in a few short years. For those countries that now
rely on but do not have oil, or must reduce the importation of foreign oil, these strategic and
economic advantages are obvious. For those countries that are oil exporters, nuclear power
represents an insurance against the day when oil is depleted. A modest start now will assure
that they would not be left behind when the time comes to have to use nuclear technology.
The unit costs per kilowatt-hour for nuclear energy are now comparable to or lower than the
unit costs for coal in most parts of the world.
Figure 5.1
Figure 5.2 Illustration of Fission Process
235
If all the atoms of 1 kg of pure U 92 (containing 25.64 × 1023 atoms) were fissioned, the
energy released would be equivalent to that contained in 3 × 106 kg of coal with a calorific
value of 6000 Kcal/kg.
Characteristics of nuclear fission may be summed up as below:
a. Upon capturing a neutron, a heavy nucleus cleaves into two or more nuclei.
b. Two or more neutrons are produced by fission of each nucleus.
c. Vast quantities of energy (3 million times of that produced by equivalent amount of
coal) are produced as a result of conversion of small mass into energy.
d. All the fission products are radioactive, giving off β and γ radiations.
5.9 NUCLEAR ENERGY
A heavy isotope as Uranium – 235 (or Plutonium – 239) can undergo nuclear
chain reaction yielding vast amounts of energy. The energy released by the fission of nuclei is
called nuclear fission energy or nuclear energy.
The fission of U – 235 or Pu – 239 occurs instantaneously, producing
incomprehensible quantities of energy in the form of heat and radiation. If the reaction is
uncontrolled, it is accompanied by explosive violence and can be used in atomic bombs.
However, when controlled in a reactor, the fission of U – 235 is harnessed to generate
electricity.
Figure 5.3 Chain Reaction of Uranium – 235 Producing Energy
If every one neutron input into the equation releases two or three more neutrons,
then the number of fission events increases dramatically each generation. However, in reality
not all of the released neutrons actually cause more fission. Only 1.1 neutron per reaction
actually goes on to cause more fissions and continue the chain, however the number of fission
events still grows quickly. The process of a nuclear chain reaction releases large amounts of
energy, but this energy can be utilized in different ways. On average, there is about 200 MeV
of energy released during fission. To put this into context, burning coal provides only a
couple eV, while 200 MeV is equal to 200 million electron volts. The difference in these
energies is enormous. In nuclear reactors, the reaction is moderated and progresses at a slow
pace to release its energy over a period of time so it can be harnessed and used for peaceful
purposes. An atomic bomb utilizes this fission chain reaction as well, however it is designed
to release its energy all at once - which is much more damaging. In either case, the release of
the energy is controlled, but the time over which the energy from the chain reaction is
released differs.
5.11 NUCLEAR FUELS
Nuclear fuel is the fuel that is used in a nuclear reactor to sustain a nuclear chain
reaction. These fuels are fissile, and the most common nuclear fuels are uranium-235 and
plutonium-239 which are radioactive metals. All processes involved in obtaining, refining,
and using this fuel make up a cycle known as the nuclear fuel cycle.
Uranium-235 is used as a fuel in different concentrations. Some reactors, such as the
CANDU reactor, can use natural uranium with uranium-235 concentrations of only 0.7%,
while other reactors require the uranium to be slightly enriched to levels of 3% to 5.
Plutonium-239 is produced and used in reactors that contain significant amounts of uranium-
238, and this plutonium is used as a fuel in fast breeder reactors. It can also be recycled and
used as a fuel in thermal reactors. Current research is being done to investigate how thorium-
232 can be used as a fuel.
When used in a reactor, the fuels used can have a variety of different forms - a metal,
an alloy, or some sort of oxide. Most nuclear reactors are fueled with a compound known as
uranium dioxide. This uranium dioxide is put together in a fuel assembly and inserted into the
nuclear reactor, where it can stay for several months up to a few years.[5] While in the
reactor the fuel undergoes nuclear fission and releases energy. This released energy is used to
generate electricity. Neutrons released during the fission process allow for a fission chain
reaction to occur, allowing energy to be generated continually. The fuel is removed from the
reactor after large amounts of the fuel - whether it is uranium-235 or plutonium-239 - have
undergone fission. The "used" nuclear fuel is known as spent or irradiated fuel. After use, the
fuel must be cooled for a few years as it is extremely hot.
The spent fuel is placed in large, deep pools of water that act as a coolant and a radiation
shield. The coolant property allows the water to remove the decay heat and the shielding
abilities protect workers from the radioactivity of the fuel. After cooling, the fuel can be re-
purposed or sent to storage depending on regulations.
them in, it is reduced. In actual practice, the lowering or raising of control rods is
accomplished automatically according to the requirement of load. The heat produced
in the reactor is removed by the coolant, generally a sodium metal. The coolant
carries the heat to the heat exchanger.
a. Heat Exchanger: In the heat exchanger, the primary coolant transfers heat to the
secondary coolant (water). Thus water from the secondary loop is converted into
steam. The primary system and secondary system are closed loop, and they are never
allowed to mix up with each other. Thus, heat exchanger helps in keeping secondary
system free from radioactive stuff. Heat exchanger is absent in boiling water reactors
b. Steam Turbines: Generated steam is passed through a steam turbine, which runs due
to pressure of the steam. As the steam is passed through the turbine blades, the
pressure of steam gradually decreases and it expands in volume. The steam turbine is
coupled to an alternator through a rotating shaft.
c. Alternator: The steam turbine rotates the shaft of an alternator thus generating
electrical energy. Electrical output of the alternator is the delivered to a step up
transformer to transfer it over distances.
d. Condenser: The steam coming out of the turbine, after it has done its work, is then
converted back into water in a condenser. The steam is cooled by passing it through a
third cold water loop.
While deciding the layout of a nuclear power plant due considerations should be
given to safety, operating convenience and capital economy.
3. Heavy Water Cooled and Moderated (CANDU Type) Reactor: Heavy water (D2O)
has almost the same characteristic as that of ordinary water. Its boiling point at
atmospheric pressure is 101.40C and its density at room temperature is only 10%
above the density of water. Heavy water moderated and cooled reactors are
extensively developed and used in Canada and are called Canadian Deuterium
Uranium (CANDU) reactors. These reactors use pressurized heavy water (PHW) and
suitable for those countries which do not produced the enriched uranium. Fig. shows
the CANDU reactor. This reactor uses the natural uranium as fuel, which is
comparatively cheaper than the enriched uranium. Other advantages are low pressure
vessel, no control rods and low fuel consumption. The moderators being al low
temperature is more effective in slowing down the neutrons. The construction of
equipment requires lesser time than the others.
The main drawback of this type of reactor is its cost, as the cost of heavy
water is extremely high. There is also problem of leakage, therefore, a proper safety
design is needed.
5. Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR): A fast breeder reactor is different from the thermal
reactors on the basis that a thermal reactor uses fissile nuclear fuel and produces heat
whereas; a fast breeder reactor produces heat and at the same time converts fertile
material into fissile material. It is possible to make a fast reactor producing more
fissile material than it consumes.
The advantage of using high energy neutrons, in a reactor, has been known
since early days of nuclear science. In a fast breeder reactor the average neutron yield of a
fission caused by a fast neutron is greater than in thermal reactors. The absorption cross-
sections are low and conversion factor is high. Also, no moderator is needed in this
reactor.
A coolant with excellent heat-transfer properties is required to minimize the
temperature – drop from the fuel surface to the coolant and also it must be non-
moderating. This rules out water, and the best coolants for fast breeder reactors are liquid
metals such as sodium (Na). Such reactors are also called as liquid metal cooled reactors
(LMCR). Due to induced radioactive of liquid sodium, an intermediate loop also uses Na
or NaK as coolant between the primary radioactive coolant and the steam cycle.
Therefore, there is a need of two heat exchangers. The primary loop design can be either
pool type or loop type. In pool type system, the reactor core, primary pumps and
intermediate heat exchangers are placed in a large pool of liquid sodium contained reactor
vessel, whereas in loop type system all are placed outside the vessel. Fig. 5.10 shows a
liquid metal fast breeder reactor (LMFBR)