Uto-Aztecan languages

Uto-Aztecan or Uto-Aztekan /ˈjuːtoʊ.æzˈtɛkən/ is a family of

Uto-Aztecan
Indigenous languages of the Americas. The language family consisting
of over 30 languages. Uto-Aztecan languages are found almost entirely Geographic Western United States,
in the Western United States and Mexico. The name of the language distribution Mexico
family was created to show that it includes both the Ute language of Linguistic One of the world's primary
Utah and the Aztecan languages of Mexico. classification language families
Proto-language Proto-Uto-Aztecan
The Uto-Aztecan language family is one of the largest linguistic
families in the Americas in terms of number of speakers, number of Subdivisions Hopi
languages, and geographic extension.[2] The northernmost Uto- Tübatulabal
Aztecan language is Shoshoni, which is spoken as far north as Salmon, Numic
Idaho, while the southernmost is the Pipil language of El Salvador.
Serran †
Ethnologue gives the total number of languages in the family as 61,
and the total number of speakers as 1,900,412.[3] The roughly 1.5
Cupan
million speakers of Nahuatl languages account for almost four-fifths Tarahumaran
(78.9%) of these. Cahitan
Opatan
The internal classification of the family often divides the family into
two branches: a northern branch including all the languages of the US Corachol
and a Southern branch including all the languages of Mexico, although Tepiman
it is still being discussed whether this is best understood as a genetic Aztecan
classification or as a geographical one.
ISO 639-5 azc

Below this level of classification the main branches are well accepted: Glottolog utoa1244[1]
Numic (including languages such asComanche and Shoshoni); and the
Californian languages (formerly known as the Takic group), including
Cahuilla and Luiseño, account for most of the Northern languages.
Hopi and Tübatulabal are languages outside those groups.

The Southern languages are divided into the Tepiman (including

O'odham and Tepehuán); the Tarahumaran languages including
Raramuri and Guarijio language; the Cahitan languages (Yaqui and
Mayo language), Corachol (including Cora and Huichol) and Nahuan
languages.

The homeland of the Uto-Aztecan languages is generally considered to

have been in the Southwestern United States or possibly Northwestern
Mexico. Linguistic scholars have discussed the possibility that the
language family originated in southern Mexico, within the
Mesoamerican language area. Pre-contact distribution of Uto-Aztecan
languages.

Contents
Proto-Uto-Aztecan
Vowels
 Consonants
Geographic distribution
Present-day locations of living Uto-Aztecan languages
in Mexico and Mesoamerica
Classification
History of classification
Present scheme
Extinct languages
References
Sources
Individual languages
External links

Proto-Uto-Aztecan
Proto-Uto-Aztecan is the hypothetical common ancestor of the Uto-Aztecan languages. Authorities on the history of the language
group have usually placed the Proto-Uto-Aztecan homeland in the border region between the United States and Mexico, namely the
upland regions of Arizona and New Mexico and the adjacent areas of the Mexican states of Sonora and Chihuahua, roughly
corresponding to the Sonoran Desert and the western part of the Chihuahuan Desert. It would have been spoken by Mesolithic
foragers in Aridoamerica, about 5,000 years ago.

Clues to the ecological niche inhabited by the Proto-Uto-Aztecans offered reconstructions of the plant related vocabulary. Fowler
placed the center of Proto-Uto-Aztecan in Central Arizona with northern dialects extending into Nevada and the Mojave desert and
southern dialects extending south through the Tepiman corridor into Mexico.[4] The homeland of the Numic languages has been
placed in Southern California near Death Valley, and the homeland of the proposed Southern Uto-Aztecan group has been placed on
the coast of Sonora.[5]

A contrary proposal suggests the homeland of Proto-Uto-Aztecan to have been much farther to the south; it was published in 2001 by
Jane H. Hill, based on her reconstruction of maize-related vocabulary in Proto-Uto-Aztecan. By her theory, the assumed speakers of
Proto-Uto-Aztecan weremaize cultivators in Mesoamerica, who gradually moved north, bringing maize cultivation with them, during
the period of roughly 4,500 to 3,000 years ago. The geographic diffusion of speakers corresponded to the breakup of linguistic
unity.[6][7] The hypothesis has been criticized on several grounds, and it is not generally accepted by Uto-Aztecanists.[8][9][10][11][12]
A survey of agriculture-related vocabulary by Merrill (2012) found that the agricultural vocabulary can be reconstructed for only
Southern Uto-Aztecan. That supports a conclusion that the Proto-Uto-Aztecan speech community did not practice agriculture but
[13]
adopted it only after entering Mesoamerica from the north.

A recent proposal, by David L. Shaul, presents evidence suggesting contact between Proto-Uto-Aztecan and languages of central
California, such as Esselen and the Yokutsan languages. That leads Shaul to suggest that Proto-Uto-Aztecan was spoken in
California's Central Valley area, and it formed part of an ancient Californianlinguistic area.[14]

Vowels
Proto-Uto-Aztecan is reconstructed as having an unusual vowel inventory: *i *a *u *o *ɨ. Langacker (1970) demonstrated that the
fifth vowel should be reconstructed as *ɨ as opposed to *e, and there has been a long-running dispute over the proper
reconstruction.[15][16][17]

Consonants
 Labialized
Bilabial Coronal Palatal Velar Glottal
velar
Stop *p *t *k *kʷ *ʔ
Affricate *ts
Fricative *s *h
Nasal *m *n *ŋ
Rhotic *r
Semivowel *j *w

*n and *ŋ may have actually been*l and *n, respectively.

Geographic distribution

Uto-Aztecan languages are spoken in the North American mountain ranges and adjacent lowlands of the western United States (in the
states of Oregon, Idaho, Montana, Utah, California, Nevada, Arizona) and of Mexico (states of Sonora, Chihuahua, Nayarit,
Durango, Zacatecas, Jalisco, Michoacán, Guerrero, San Luis Potosí, Hidalgo, Puebla, Veracruz, Morelos, Estado de México, and
Ciudad de México. Classical Nahuatl, the language of the Aztecs, and its modern relatives are part of the Uto-Aztecan family. The
Pipil language, an offshoot of Nahuatl, spread to Central America by a wave of migration from Mexico, and formerly had many
speakers there. Now it has gone extinct in Guatemala and Honduras, and it is nearly extinct in western El Salvador, all areas
dominated by use of Spanish.

Present-day locations of living Uto-Aztecan languages in Mexico and Mesoamerica

Classification

History of classification
Uto-Aztecan has been accepted by linguists as a language family since the early 1900s, and six subgroups are accepted as valid by all
experts: Numic, Takic, Pimic, Taracahitic, Corachol, and Aztecan. That leaves two ungrouped languages: Tübatulabal and Hopi
(sometimes termed "isolates within the family"). As to higher-level groupings, disagreement has persisted since the 19th century.
Presently scholars also disagree as to where to draw language boundaries within the
dialect continuum.

The similarities among the Uto-Aztecan languages were noted as early as 1859 by J.C.E. Buschmann, but he failed to recognize the
genetic affiliation between the Aztecan branch and the rest. He ascribed the similarities between the two groups to diffusion. Daniel
Garrison Brinton added the Aztecan languages to the family in 1891 and coined the term Uto-Aztecan.
John Wesley Powell, however,
rejected the claim in his own classification of North American indigenous languages (also published in 1891). Powell recognized two
language families: "Shoshonean" (encompassing Takic, Numic, Hopi, and Tübatulabal) and "Sonoran" (encompassing Pimic,
Taracahitan, and Corachol). In the early 1900s Alfred L. Kroeber filled in the picture of the Shoshonean group,[18] while Edward
Sapir proved the unity among Aztecan, "Sonoran", and "Shoshonean".[19][20][21] Sapir's applications of the comparative method to
unwritten Native American languages are regarded as groundbreaking. Voegelin, Voegelin & Hale (1962) argued for a three way
[22]
division of Shoshonean, Sonoran and Aztecan, following Powell.

As of about 2011, there is still debate about whether to accept the proposed basic split between "Northern Uto-Aztecan" and
"Southern Uto-Aztecan" languages.[2] Northern-Utoaztecan corresponds to Powell's "Shoshonean", and the latter is all the rest:
Powell's "Sonoran" plus Aztecan. Northern Uto-Aztecan was proposed as a genetic grouping by Jeffrey Heath (1978) based on
morphological evidence, and Manaster Ramer (1992) adduced phonological evidence in the form of a sound law. Kaufman (1981)
accepted the basic division into Northern and Southern branches as valid. Other scholars have rejected the genealogical unity of
either both nodes or the Northern node alone.[23][24][25][26] Miller's argument was statistical, arguing that Northern Uto-Aztecan
languages displayed too few cognates to be considered a unit. On the other hands he found the number of cognates among Southern
Uto-Aztecan languages to suggest a genetic relation.[25] This position was supported by subsequent lexicostatistic analyses by
Cortina-Borja & Valiñas-Coalla (1989) and Cortina-Borja, Stuart-Smith & Valiñas-Coalla (2002). Reviewing the debate, Haugen
(2008) considers the evidence in favor of the genetic unity of Northern Uto-Aztecan to be convincing, but remains agnostic on the
validity of Southern Uto-Aztecan as a genetic grouping. Hill (2011) also considered the North/South split to be valid based on
phonological evidence, confirming both groupings.Merrill (2013) adduced further evidence for the unity of Southern Uto-Aztecan as
a valid grouping.

Hill (2011) also rejected the validity of the Takic grouping decomposing it into a Californian areal grouping together with
Tubatulabal.

Some classifications have posited a genetic relation between Corachol and Nahuan (e.g. Merrill (2013)). Kaufman recognizes
similarities between Corachol and Aztecan, but explains them by diffusion instead of genetic evolution.[27] Most scholars view the
[28]
breakup of Proto-Uto-Aztecan as a case of the gradual disintegration of a dialect continuum.

Present scheme
Below is a representation of the internal classification of the language family based on Shaul (2014). The classification reflects the
decision to split up the previous Taracahitic and Takic groups, that are no-longer considered to be valid genetic units. Whether the
division between Northern and Southern languages is best understood as geographical or phylogenetic is under discussion. The table
contains demographic information about number of speakers and their locations based on data from The Ethnologue. The table also
† = extinct)
contains links to a selected bibliography of grammars, dictionaries on many of the individual languages.(

Genealogical classification of Uto-Aztecan languages

Where spoken and
Family Groups Languages approximate number of Works
speakers
Uto- Northern Paviotso,
700 speakers in
Aztecan Uto- Bannock,
California, Oregon, IdahoNichols (1973)
languages Aztecan Western Northern and Nevada
(possibly an Numic Paiute
areal About 40 speakers in
grouping) Mono Lamb (1958)
California
1000 fluent speakers and
Shoshoni, 1000 learners in McLaughlin
Goshiute Wyoming, Utah, Nevada, (2012)
Central Idaho
Numic Numic 100 speakers in Robinson &
Comanche
Oklahoma Armagost (1990)
Timbisha, 20 speakers in California
Dayley (1989)
Panamint and Nevada
Colorado River
920 speakers of all
dialect chain: Givón (2011),
dialects, in Colorado,
Ute, Southern Press (1979),
Southern Paiute, Nevada, California, Utah,
Sapir (1992)
Numic Arizona
Chemehuevi
Zigmond, Booth &
Kawaiisu 5 speakers in California
Munro (1991)
Serrano,
Serran No native speakers Hill (1967)
Kitanemuk (†)
35 speakers of Cahuilla,
Cahuilla, Seiler (1977), Hill
Cupan no native speakers of
Cupeño (2005)
Californian Cupeño
language Luiseño- 5 speakers in Southern Kroeber & Grace
area Juaneño California (1960)
Tongva Munro &
(Gabrielino- Extinct since ca. 1900, Gabrielino/Tongva
Fernandeño) Southern California Language
(†) Committee (2008)
Hopi Hopi 6,800 speakers in Hopi Dictionary
northeastern Arizona Project (1998),
 Jeanne (1978)
5 speakers in Kern Voegelin (1935),
Tübatulabal Tübatulabal
County, California Voegelin (1958)
14,000 speakers in
O'odham southern Arizona, US
Zepeda (1983)
(Pima-Papago) and northern Sonora,
Pimic Mexico
650 speakers in
Pima Bajo Estrada-
Chihuahua and Sonora,
(O'ob No'ok) Fernández (1998)
Mexico
Tepiman
Northern 6,200 speakers in
Bascom (1982)
Tepehuan Chihuahua, Mexico
Southern 10,600 speakers in
Willett (1991)
Tepehuan Tepehuan Southeastern Durango
Extinct since 1972,
Tepecano (†) spoken in Northern Mason (1916)
Jalisco
Tarahumara 45,500 speakers of all
(several varieties, all spoken in Caballero (2008)
varieties) Chihuahua
Upriver
Tarahumaran Guarijio, 2,840 speakers in
Southern Miller (1996)
Downriver Chihuahua and Sonora
Uto- Guarijio
Aztecan Spoken in Sinaloa and
(possibly an Tubar (†) Lionnet (1978)
Sonora
areal
grouping) 11,800 in Sonora and Dedrick & Casad
Yaqui
Arizona (1999)
Cahita
33,000 in Sinaloa and
Mayo Freeze (1989)
Sonora
Extinct since approx.
Opata (†) Shaul (2001)
1930. Spoken in Sonora.
Opatan
Spoken in Sonora, but
Eudeve (†) Lionnet (1986)
extinct since 1940
13,600 speakers in
Cora Casad (1984)
northern Nayarit
Corachol Iturrioz Leza,
17,800 speakers in
Huichol Ramírez de la
Nayarit and Jalisco
Cruz & (2001)
Extinct since 1970s,
Pochutec (†) spoken on the coast of Boas (1917)
Oaxaca
Aztecan Core 20-40 speakers in El
Pipil Campbell (1985)
Nahuan Salvador
1,500,000 speakers in Launey (1986),
Nahuatl
Central Mexico Langacker (1979)

In addition to the above languages for which linguistic evidence exists, it is suspected that among dozens of now extinct,
[29]
undocumented or poorly known languages of northern Mexico, many were Uto-Aztecan.

Extinct languages
A large number of languages known only from brief mentions are thought to have been Uto-Aztecan languages that became extinct
before being documented.[30]

References
1. Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Uto-Aztecan" (http://glottolog.org/resource/l
anguoid/id/utoa1244). Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History .
 2. Caballero 2011.
3. Ethnologue (2014). "Summary by language family"(http://www.ethnologue.com/statistics/family). SIL International.
Retrieved July 2, 2014.
4. Fowler 1983.
5. Campbell 1997, p. 137.
6. Hill 2001, [1] (https://www.jstor.org/pss/684121).
7. Hill 2010, [2] (http://www.pnas.org/content/107/11/E33.full.pdf+html).
8. Kemp et al. 2010, [3] (http://www.pnas.org/content/107/15/6759.full.pdf+html).
9. Merrill et al. 2010, [4] (http://www.pnas.org/content/107/11/E35.full.pdf+html).
10. Brown 2010, [5] (http://www.pnas.org/content/107/11/E34.full.pdf+html).
11. Campbell 2003.
12. Campbell & Poser 2008, p. 346-350.
13. Merrill 2012.
14. Shaul 2014.
15. Langacker 1970, [6] (https://www.jstor.org/sici?sici=0020-7071%28197007%2936:3%3C169:TVOPU%3E2.0.C
O;2-
Z).
16. Dakin 1996, [7] (http://celia.cnrs.fr/FichExt/Am/A_21_04.htm)
.
17. Campbell 1997, p. 136.
18. Kroeber 1907.
19. Sapir 1913.
20. Kroeber 1934.
21. Whorf 1935.
22. Steele 1979.
23. Goddard 1996, p. 7.
24. Miller 1983, p. 118.
25. Miller 1984.
26. Mithun 1999, p. 539-540.
27. Kaufman 2001, [8] (http://www.albany.edu/anthro/maldp/papers.htm).
28. Mithun 1999.
29. Campbell 1997.
30. Campbell 1997, pp. 133-135.

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Boas, Franz (1917). "El dialecto mexicano de Pochutla, Oaxaca". International Journal of
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doi:10.1086/463709. OCLC 56221629.
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Dictionary of the Third Mesa Dialect With an English–Hopi Finder List and a Sketch of Hopi
Grammar. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
Campbell, Lyle (1985). The Pipil Language of El Salvador. Mouton Grammar Library, no. 1. Berlin:
Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-010344-1. OCLC 13433705.
Dayley, Jon P. (1989). "Tümpisa (Panamint) Shoshone Grammar". University of California
Publications in Linguistics. Berkeley: University of California Press. 115.
Givón, Talmy (2011). Ute Reference Grammar. Culture and Language Use Volume 3.
Amsterdam:: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Jeanne, LaVerne Masayesva (1978). Aspects of Hopi grammar. MIT, dissertation.
Voegelin, Charles F. (1935). "Tübatulabal Grammar". University of California Publications in
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Voegelin, Charles F. (1958). "Working Dictionary of Tübatulabal". International Journal of American
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Robinson, Lila Wistrand; Armagost, James (1990). Comanche dictionary and grammar.
publications in linguistics (No. 92). Dallas, Texas: The Summer Institute of Linguistics and
The University of Texas at Arlington.
Lamb, Sydney M (1958). A Grammar of Mono (PDF). PhD Dissertation, University of California,
Berkeley. Retrieved July 8, 2012.
Zigmond, Maurice L.; Booth, Curtis G.; Munro, Pamela (1991). Pamela Munro, ed. Kawaiisu, A
Grammar and Dictionary with Texts. University of California Publications in Linguistics.
Volume 119. Berkeley, California: University of California Press.
Nichols, Michael (1973). Northern Paiute historical grammar. University of California, Berkeley
PhD dissertation.
McLaughlin, John E. (2012). Shoshoni Grammar. Languages of the World/Meterials 488.
Muenchen: LINCOM Europa.
Press, Margaret L. (1979). Chemehuevi, A Grammar and Lexicon. University of California
Publications in Linguistics. Volume 92. Berkeley, California: University of California Press.
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Seiler, Hans-Jakob (1977). Cahuilla Grammar. Banning, California: Malki Museum Press.
Hill, Kenneth C. (1967). A Grammar of the Serrano Language. University of California, Los
Angeles, PhD dissertation.
Hill, Jane H. (2005). A Grammar of Cupeño. University of California Publications in Linguistics.
Berkeley: University of California Press.
Caballero, Gabriela (2008). Choguita Rarámuri (Tarahumara) Phonology and Morphology (PDF).
PhD Dissertation: University of California at Berkeley.
Thornes, Tim (2003). A Northern Paiute Grammar with Texts. PhD Dissertation: University of
Oregon at Eugene.
Kroeber, Alfred L.; Grace, George William (1960). The Sparkman Grammar of Luiseño. University
of California Publications in Linguistics 16. Berkeley: The University of California Press.
Zepeda, Ofelia (1983). A Tohono O'odham Grammar. Tucson, Arizona: The University of Arizona
Press.
Willett, T. (1991). A reference grammar of southeastern Tepehuan (PDF). Dallas: Summer Institute
of Linguistics and University of Texas at Arlington.
Mason, J. Alden (1916). "Tepecano, A Piman language of western Mexico". Annals of the New
York Academy of Sciences. 25: 309–416. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1916.tb55171.x.
Miller, Wick R. (1996). La lengua guarijio: gramatica, vocabulario y textos. Mexico City: Instituto de
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External links
Uto-Aztecan.org, a website devoted to the comparative study of the Uto-Aztecan language family
Swadesh vocabulary lists for Uto-Aztecan languages(from Wiktionary's Swadesh-list appendix)

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