RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

A- Hypothesis
An Introduction
Definition: A hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or
more variables. A hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to
happen in your study. For example, a study designed to look at the relationship between
sleep deprivation and test performance might have a hypothesis that states,

"This study is designed to assess the hypothesis that sleep deprived people will perform
worse on a test than individuals who are not sleep deprived."

Elements of a Good Hypothesis

When trying to come up with a good hypothesis for your own psychology research or
experiments, ask yourself the following questions:

● Is your hypothesis based on your research of a topic?

● Can your hypothesis be tested?
● Does your hypothesis include independent and dependent variables?

Before you come up with a specific hypothesis, spend some time doing background
research on your topic. Once you have completed a literature review, start thinking of
potential questions you still have. Pay attention to the discussion section in the journal
articles you read. Many authors will suggest questions that still need to be explored.

Examples of a Good Hypothesis

A hypothesis often follows a basic format of "If {this happens} then {this will happen}."
One way to structure your hypothesis is to describe what will happen to the dependent
variable if you make changes to the independent variable.

The basic format might be:

"If {these changes are made to a certain independent variable}, then we will observe {a
change in a specific dependent variable}."

A few examples:
 ● "Students who eat breakfast will perform better on a math exam than students who
do not eat breakfast."
● "Students who experience test anxiety prior to an English exam will get higher scores
than students who do not experience test anxiety."
● "Motorists who talk on the phone while driving will be more likely to make errors on a
driving course than those who do not talk on the phone.

1. What is a Hypothesis?

Understand the purpose. A hypothesis is, essentially, the linguistic expression of a

testable theory. It is expressed verbally or in writing and states a theory regarding an if-
blank-then-blank situation. The purpose of a hypothesis is to help create testable
parameters through which information can be gained. Stated simply, it creates a specific
informational goal to be explored.[1]

● A chemistry hypothesis: “If I mix sodium bicarbonate with an acidic substance, a

reaction will occur.”
● A biology hypothesis: “If a rabbit is raised with dogs, it will exhibit dog-like behavior.”
● A historical hypothesis: “If economic socialism is enacted on a national scale, then
significant effects will be observed in both the local and national economies.”
● An anthropological hypothesis: “If new and better materials are introduced to a culture,
then that culture will attempt to increase its ability to acquire those materials.”

Understand the scope. While a hypothesis is usually used for studying the sciences, it
is not limited to those disciplines. A hypothesis can be applied to and tested for subjects
ranging from history to English.

2. Determining Your Topic

Determine your discipline. Will this be a scientific hypothesis or one for the
humanities? You will need to decide this before formulating your hypothesis or doing
any research. Usually you will be forming a hypothesis as part of an assignment for a
class, so the discipline will usually be decided by the subject matter of that class.

Understand your assignment. You will usually be required to come up with a

hypothesis as part of an assignment. Before you begin any research, you should
understand what the goals and requirements of the assignment are. This will help limit
the scope of your research.
 Discuss with your teacher. You may want to discuss your ideas with your teacher.
Think about what you understand of the scope of the assignment and then ask your
teacher for clarification. Your teacher will be able to tell you if you are understanding the
assignment correctly. This can help keep you from wasting time pursuing an incorrect
interpretation of what you have been asked to do.
● This will also give you the opportunity to get advice from your teacher on directions you
could go or where to find more information.

3. Analyzing Your Information

Research your topic. Decide a topic based on the limits of your assignment and then
begin research. Read about the subject broadly or read any material that was
specifically assigned or required by the assignment. This will give you ideas for your
hypothesis.
● You can find information from your textbooks, at a library, or online. You can also ask
for help from teachers, librarians, and your peers. Be sure that your sources of
information are accurate, as incorrect information can affect your results and often leads
to a lower grade.

Analyze your information. Look at the information you have been given. Determine
concentrations of information or areas where there may be holes. These can provide
excellent ideas for information you can investigate.
● You can often find holes by looking for statements like “it is unknown” or places where
information is clearly missing. Holes provide an excellent way for you to set yourself
apart, by finding, testing and filling in information that may be missing.
● Concentrations of information will help you decide what information is readily available
to be used to prove a hypothesis. Experimenting based on well-researched data will
provide the easiest route, as you will have to get less information for yourself.

Consider your questions. For example, you may be assigned a biology project on the
life-cycle of birds. In reading on this topic, you may learn information which raises
questions in your mind. An example question would be: “What happens if I dye an egg
blue? Will the bird hatch with a different color?” This question can then be formed into a
testable hypothesis.

4. Formulating Your Hypothesis

Write it down. The basic formulation for a hypothesis is: “If (I do this) then (this will
happen).” The structure of the sentence can obviously get quite complicated, depending
on the complexity of the Be careful. You will need to ensure that the hypothesis you
have come up with is testable. You need to be sure that you can do the thing you are
 proposing. You will also need to determine that the result is something observable. It is
also important to be able to control most of the variables which will determine the
results. If these things are accounted for, you are ready to go.e theory itself, but it can
also be very straightforward and simple.

Test your hypothesis! You will need to formulate an experiment or research project
which tests the theory you have proposed. Your experiment or research will be based
on your hypothesis so be sure that it actually tests and is appropriate for the proposed
theory, rather than something else.[2]

● Variables are often an important part of testing a hypothesis. Be sure that you
understand and can account for the variables in your experiment. Having control over
as many of the variables as possible will give you better results and more accurate
information.
● The hypothesis will often be apart of a larger assignment, usually a larger presentation
or a paper. In doing your experiment or research be sure to write down everything that
you do and record any new information or results. This will make it easier to complete
the rest of the project.

Form a thesis statement. While a hypothesis may not be directly usable for the
humanities, it can be a vital part of forming a thesis statement. The thesis statement
forms the backbone of most research in the humanities. Use a hypothesis to investigate
information and use the results of your research to form your thesis.

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B- Problems Statement

How to Write a Problem Statement

In various situations, you may be asked to come up with the specific kind of written item
that is known as a problem statement. Whether you encounter this as a student, or as
someone involved in planning or other scenarios, take some time to understand what it
means to craft one of these specific documents. A problem statement is essentially a
clear description of an issue that faces a group or individual. In academic situations, a
problem statement can be used for accommodating research purposes, or for general
learning, for example, in setting up a mathematical problem or other educational puzzle.
In planning, it generally helps to make existing problems more concrete in helping to
develop potential solutions.
 Writing Your Own Problem Statement

Set up a thesis statement. The thesis statement, or opening statement, will identify the
problem, and is an important part of a problem statement.

Identify solutions. Another part of writing a problem statement is to identify various

solutions that the writer can come up with. The placement of these solutions depends
on the overall format of the problem statement, but generally, these are presented in the
context of fact after the problem has been clearly identified.

Apply the 5 W's. Within the problem statement, it's good to keep the focus on
presenting as wide an array of facts as possible. This includes the common meme of
the five W's, or in other words, who, what, why, when and how. Addressing each of
these can make a problem statement more informative and effective.

Think about including a vision in the problem statement. The vision for a problem
statement is simply described as "what you want" or what the group wants out of the
situation. In other words, it is the desirable outcome.

Conclude the problem statement. Bring all of this information together in an effective
conclusion that restates the issue and the main ideas that the writer is trying to address.

● Think of the conclusion as a concise restatement of the general issue. It's also
sometimes useful to make a final appeal to the reader or present the entire issue in a
new or different way. For example, some effective conclusions can add a sense of
urgency to underscore what the writer has been saying throughout the document,
especially if the writer is approaching the issue from an angle of advocacy.

Do a final edit. The final edit will help the writer to catch all sorts of problems, from
simple typos to larger problems with grammar and style.

● Figure out whether the entire problem statement is cohesive and flows easily. Make
sure all of the main principles are addressed and key information is not left out. The final
edit is often the difference between a great problem statement and a poorly written or
somewhat ineffective one.
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 C- How to Conduct Academic Research

Students and professionals both know that conducting accurate, valid, and timely
research into academic topics such as history, literature, or anthropology is critical to
success in the classroom and at work. Writing the results into a paper is also a major
step in the process. Here are some basic steps in performing secondary research.

The 16 STEPS

1. Determine your research topic/question. In some classes, students are told to find
a topic; this means the exercise is for the purpose of learning the research process. In
other situations, the required topic is clearly indicated from the class, your own work, or
your professional needs. Your topic can be aroused from a sense of curiosity, hunch
and interest over a particular perceived problem that you feel needed to be filled in the
gap of knowledge.

2. Understand the difference between primary and secondary research.

● Primary research means doing original research, meaning that this knowledge doesn't
appear in any other paper. You might be reading through original treaties, newspaper
articles, or authentic letters from authors or statesmen. You might be conducting
scientific, medical or engineering experiments.
● Secondary research, the focus of this wiki How article, means reading other experts'
published papers to learn something new about your topic, to survey what others have
said and written about it, to reach a conclusion about your ideas on the topic.

3. Determine your scope and time line. Any academic research should lead to a
written report ("research paper") which may be a class assignment, a work task, or even
a published article. Determine in advance how much total time you have for this work,
and make a rough work schedule.

● A work schedule must include the following major steps: 1. Finding and reading
sources. 2. Collecting notes from sources. 3. Preparing a rough draft. 4. Revising the
draft and incorporating source material and citations. 5. Preparing a final draft in the
required format (MLA, APA, Turabian, etc.)
● The research scope means knowing how much of your broad subject you will deal with.
Since you probably aren't writing a book or dissertation (100 or more pages), you must
limit your reading and study to a particular focused aspect of the subject. This requires
thinking about what specifically you want to cover. your academic research scope
should not be too broad (in that it covered more than the required areas) and not too
narrow (in that it does not meet the substantial requirement of a research scope).
 4. Write a research question. This is a question that will guide you in your reading. It
will turn into a thesis statement later. This question reminds you of what you want to find
and read, what you are considering. It is not about a fact ("When did the French first
arrive in Britain?"-- 1066 AD), but about an idea or opinion ("What did the French arrival
in Britain do to the structure of the existing legal system?). The research questions
should written in a way that will be represented in your hypothesis. It should be the
basis in which your hypothesis stands.

5. Learn how to find useful sources. This is the heart of doing research. With the
internet, there is more useful (and useless) information available than ever in the history
of human inquiry. There is also plenty of material NOT available on the internet.

● You might be required to use a certain number and type of resource. These could
include: books, magazines or journals, encyclopedias (probably not
Wikipedia), reference books, newspapers, letters, interviews, blogs, etc.
● You might need an academic (school or university) library. They do contain information
and sources not generally or easily available on the internet, and
reference librarians who can help you. Find your nearest library and determine how to
get access privileges.

6. Collect some possible sources. Begin locating material to read: chapters,

paragraphs, sections, sentences that cover your topic. Remember that you can't read
everything on the topic. You also can't include every word you read in your paper. This
is background reading for you to learn about your question.

7. Begin reading in detail. Focus on your research question and find information that
illuminates it, explains, describes, analyzes, contrasts, or gives expert opinion and
viewpoints on it. You are seeking to form your own judgment, based on what you read
from your sources.

8. Find a method to take notes on what you read. This is more than merely copying,
highlighting, or cutting/pasting. If you do only this, you will end up with a pile of bits and
pieces, and will still have to wade through them to find useful, relevant, and specific
quotes.

● Take notes of these: 1. facts that are not common knowledge. 2. quotes from experts
that state a concept in a unique, unusual, or startling way. 3. summaries of longer
explanations.
● Learn the difference between a direct quote, paraphrase, and summary.
● Be sure to mark exactly where the note came from in your source. You must know the
exact location: author, title, magazine, book, internet page URL, date, volume number,
etc.
● Arrange your notes into groups according to their content, for later organization into
sections of your paper.
9. Continue to consider new sources. While you are reading, you might find new
information, or questions on a topic that you need to read up on. You might have to
broaden your research to check on details, possible errors, corroborating or conflicting
evidence, the context of an article, expert, or paper.

10. Evaluate the sources you use. See: How to Evaluate Sources. Your source must
be credible in terms of the author, location of publication, date, publisher, etc.

11. Keep your research question in mind. This is what you will analyze in your paper.
Your source material must help you establish your thesis (statement of opinion or belief)
on that topic. If necessary after reading a lot, you might change your question to fit what
you are actually finding. Or you might change your opinion after doing your reading.

12. Write your tentative thesis. This is a single statement of your viewpoint on your
research question. See: How to formulate a thesis.

13. Begin writing your first draft. This is when you start writing what you have
learned, what you feel about your topic and thesis. Write what you have learned. First
give the background and set the context for this topic. Then start explaining, describing,
give reasons, state causes or effects, or analyzing parts of the topic.

● Some university papers require a first section on "literature review". This is a special
section where you discuss what papers other experts have published on this topic.

14. Begin to add quotes, paraphrases, or summaries into your writing. These
should be added into your paragraphs where they will highlight or help explain what you
are saying. Be sure to introduce sourced materials in the correct way (see a standard
writing handbook), and mark where your citation will be.

● Note all material taken from sources must be cited. Depending on what system you use,
your (in text) citation will contain a name, date, or page number. This notation will refer
to the list at the end of the paper of References or Works Cited.
 Continue writing your first draft, and then revise it. This writing processfollows all
similar academic writing steps.

● Revising means checking the content of your paper, and making sure the thesis is
developed, the content matches your thesis, there is enough material, it is in a logical
order, nothing off topic is included, and the writing flows smoothly.
● Editing means checking the writing details such as paragraph breaks, sentence
structure, punctuation, spelling, and citation formats.

16. Prepare the final draft. Strictly follow the format you are using, by checking with its
handbook or style book. This includes: title page, page setup and numeration, in text
citations, reference list, inclusion of visuals, sections and titles, etc.

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D- How to Do a Literature Review

Some people might think of a literature review as reading a book and then giving it a
thumbs up or thumbs down. Nope, not so. A literature review is a review of various
pieces of literature on one topic, ranging from series of books to shorter pieces like
pamphlets. Sometimes, the literary review is a part of a larger research paper. Its
purpose is to prevent duplication of efforts, resolve conflicts, and point the way for
further research.

a. Before Writing

1. Clarify your professor's requirements. Some instructors may ask you to do a

literature review and not get more specific than that. Or, maybe they did and you were
playing Plants vs Zombies. Either way, knowing precisely what your professor is looking
for is the first step to getting that A.
● How many sources should you include? Does he/she want a specific number of each
type? Do they have to be at least semi-current?
● In discussing your themes, are you just summarizing or critiquing? Some reviews
require a thesis, some may not.
● Should you offer your opinion on your sources?
● Do you need to provide background information, such as definitions or histories, to aid
in your audience's understanding?
● Is there a page or word requirement?

2. Narrow your topic. Get as narrow as you possibly can while still having the amount
of sources necessary. Studying birth order may lead you to dozens of books; studying
birth order of same-sex siblings will make your search for sources much quicker and
more manageable.
● Get current. If you are writing a review in the humanities, history, or social sciences, you
can afford to be less concerned with timing (in fact, changing opinions throughout
history may be an aspect of your paper). But if you are writing a literary review for the
sciences, say, on treating diabetes, information from 5 years ago could already be
obsolete. Sort through current bibliographies or literature reviews in the field to get a
sense of what your discipline expects. [1]

3. Find a focus. Unfortunately, you are not just gathering sources and summing up
what they have to say. You should be considering what themes and ideas connect your
sources together. Think of these books as your group of friends all arguing on the same
topic. What are they all assuming? How are they the same and how are they different?
● Read between the lines. You're not necessarily looking for explicit content. Is there an
aspect of the field that is missing? Are your sources all prescribing to one specific
theory? Do you see trends being revealed? This will help you structure your paper
immensely, zeroing in on what will give your paper purpose.

4. Construct your thesis. Now that you've found your focus, it's time to construct a
thesis statement. You may be thinking that literature reviews don't have thesis
statements. That's both partly true and false: They have theses, but they're quite
different. Your thesis statement will not necessarily argue for a position or an opinion;
rather, it will argue for a particular perspective on the material.[1]

● For example, "Current trends in [topic] are A, B, and C," or "The X Theory is assumed
by most sources from 1985 on." Stating something like this begs a few questions,
making your review more interesting and meaningful: How will trends change in the
future? What if the assumed theories are wrong?
● Again, this is not new information. You are not analyzing the material and coming up
with your own, fresh perspective on it. You are simply acting like a computer--noting
patterns, holes, and assumptions all your sources are taking.

5. Assess your sources. You can have the best of intentions and a form of prose that
convinces the staunchest of skeptics, but if your sources aren't viable, that's it. Finito.
Make sure your sources are evaluated on a number of levels.

● What are the author's credentials? How are their arguments supported (narratives,
statistics, historical findings, etc.)?
● Is the author's perspective unbiased and objective? Are they ignoring any data to make
their points seem stronger?
● How persuasive are they? Do any of their points leave a bit to be desired?
● Does their work lead to a greater understanding of the subject?[2]

B. Constructing Your Paper

 1. Start with a solid introduction. As with everything, first impressions matter. Your
intro should give a quick idea of the topic of your review, be it thematically or by
organizational pattern.
● Help the reader along by letting them know what kind of ride they're in for. If you are
employing a thesis statement, place it toward the end of your introductory paragraph. At
the end, your reader should be anticipating getting into the evidence and bulk of your
paper.

2. Organize the body. Here is the part where you have the most options. You have a
number of sources and, since they're all on the same topic, they probably have loads in
common. Choose whichever way seems the most natural to you for your specific focus.
● Arrange it chronologically. If you are dealing with varying opinions by era or changing
trends over time, chronological organization may make the most sense.
● Arrange it by publication. This organizational method fares well if each publication has a
different stance. If there is a natural progression (radical to conservative, for example)
between the sources, this works swimmingly.
● Arrange it by trend. If you are noticing patterns in your sources, arranging them by the
trends they suggest may be the most obvious structure. Certain sources may, together,
suggest one pattern that shifts over time, region, or other variable.
● Arrange it thematically. This highly depends on your thesis statement and what sources
you have chosen. If you are choosing a focus that is more abstract ("Colonialism is
depicted as evil," for example), the subsections may be arranged on the different
methods employed to put the theme across.

3. Come to a clear conclusion. The closing paragraph needs to wrap up your paper,
reiterate what was said in the intro, and discuss what you've drawn so far from your
studies.
● You may make your conclusion suggestive. Where might the discussion proceed if
someone else picked it up where you left off? What are the consequences of the
patterns and holes in today's sources?

4. Use evidence. Feel free to combine multiple sources into your own words to make
an argument. You are using your own words backed up by the works of professionals.

● However, use quotes sparingly. The survey nature of the literature review does not
allow for in-depth discussion or detailed quotes from the text.[1] Some short ones are
fine, sure, but all in all, it should be written by you.

5. Keep your own voice. No, you are not presenting information that sprang up from
the wonders of your own mind, but you should still start and end each paragraph with
your own words. Your voice should remain front and center.
● When paraphrasing a source that is not your own, be sure to represent the author’s
information or opinions accurately and in your own words. [1] Then, relate it to the
context of your review.
● Some professors may require that you evaluate the sources and conclude which pieces
add the greatest contribution to the field. If yours is keen on this, determine your take in
the introduction and string it throughout your paper.

C. Revising Your Work

1. Review the guidelines. Some professors like their papers a certain way. Make sure
yours not only meets content guidelines but meets formatting guidelines, too.
● Does your instructor require APA formatting? What should your margins be? Headers,
footers, footnotes, and page numbers? How do they want your name, headings, and
subheadings? How do they want your works cited page?

2. Check for coherent flow and transitions. It's best to stick to clear and concise
writing and it's not always easy to nail that on the first try. Go back over your work and
rephrase whatever was left ambiguous or wordy.
● With everything said as clear as day, does it flow together? Do you transition well not
only from paragraph to paragraph, but from sentence to sentence? Be sure your
evidence lines up with the support and your arrangement of sources flows logically.
● Eliminate useless jargon or slang. You may have grown an entirely new vocabulary
during this endeavor, but your professor has not. Write a paper that can be read by the
masses. Don't make it overly esoteric.
3. Proofread your work. You've got the hard part down. Now all you need to do is go
over it for spelling, grammar, and punctuation. Take a break between writing and
proofreading--your brain may be a bit saturated. Jump back at it when you're ready.
● It's best to have someone else go over your work, too. You may have read it so many
times you can no longer see you lapsed into Portuguese absent-mindedly. A different
set of eyes can locate mistakes you may not have seen, ask questions you didn't realize
were left unaddressed, or seek clarification on the foggier points.

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How to Write a Scientific Abstract

A scientific abstract summarizes your research paper in a way that helps other
researchers determine whether your paper is relevant to their own work. Researchers
often use abstracts to decide which papers to acquire, particularly when they are
looking for research in an online database that only displays abstracts. While most
abstracts are written by the main researcher, you can also use a professional service to
write your abstract for you.
Step 1. State the purpose of the research very clearly in the first sentence. Think of
the research paper as having investigated a particular scientific question. Nothing will
be as useful to researchers as knowing exactly what that question was.

Step 2: Describe the methodology in the second sentence. The methodology is the
way the researchers went about answering the question in sentence one.
Methodologies can include experiments or surveys, laboratory or field work, tests on
animals or human beings.

Step 3: Report the major findings of the research in the third sentence. The
researchers would not have written the paper unless they were able to answer the
question stated in the first sentence, even if the answer wasn't the one they were
expecting or hoping to get.

Step 4: Give your interpretation of the impact of the research in the fourth
sentence. Tell the reader whether the research will or should produce a change in
scientific thinking or practice. In particular, what gap in knowledge has the research
filled?

Step 5: Count your words. An effective abstract should be between 200 and 300
words long. If it's too short, you can go back and elaborate. However, you still should try
to use concise language so the abstract can be easily understood.

Step 6: Use past tense sentences, and don't be afraid to use passive voice if
necessary. Don't include references to other papers, abbreviations readers may not be
familiar with, or any kind of illustration.

Step 7: Read the abstract as if you were another researcher deciding whether to
read your paper. Do you find that the abstract has the right information to help you
make that determination? If not, rewrite it.

Warning: If you're writing an abstract on a research paper you didn't write, remember
that it's not your job to review the paper itself, criticize how the research was done or to
offer your opinion on the importance or relevance of the research.

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How to Write Introductions

A well-written introduction gives the reader a feel for what you are going to be writing
about. It lays out the scope of the argument. It asks questions that will be answered
later on. It provokes thought. If you want to write an excellent introduction and you have
no idea where to start, read on. You'll learn how to start an introduction, what to put in
the middle, and how to wrap it all up.
 A. Basic Tips for Writing an Essay Introduction

Hook the reader with a great first sentence. Your first sentence should draw the
reader in and make them want to read more. If your sentence is uninteresting or cliché,
the person reading your essay may not be motivated to continue. Set the tone right from
the beginning with a stellar hook.
● Ask a question. A great question will make the reader want to stick around to hear the
answer.
● Example: "What do dolphins and military fighter jets have in common?"
Lead with a great fact or statistic. A great fact or statistic will put the discussion of what
you're writing about into context.
● Example: "The Golden Gate Bridge is continuously painted, 365 days a year. That's
50,000 gallons of paint per coat."
Use a quotation. A quotation from a famous (or infamous) person might pique the
reader if they know something about him or her.
● Example: "Machiavelli once wrote: 'Never was anything grand achieved without
danger.'"
Define a keyword or phrase. If a keyword or phrase you're using is uncommon, specific,
or technical, you may want to define it first.
● Example: "Merriam-Webster defines tenacity as 'a persistence in maintaining, adhering
to, or seeking something valued or desired.'"

Discuss briefly what you'll be talking about the rest of the essay. After your hook,
and perhaps one or two sentences about your hook, you'll want to briefly explain what it
is that your essay will touch upon. This will give the reader a roadmap, or guide, that
they'll be able to use as they continue on reading.
● You don't have to come out and say "This essay is about x" if you don't want to. You
can frame this summary briefly and elegantly without saying that's what you're doing.
● Example: "Early American settlers experienced a wide variety of diseases in the 17th
century. These diseases led them to experiment with home-grown medicines."
Don't give away every single detail in your brief summary. It's called a brief summary for
a reason. You want to tell the reader enough without giving away every significant fact
or theme of your essay.

Transition to your thesis. Your thesis is probably the most important part of the
introduction. Your thesis is your argument boiled down to one sentence. If someone
were to ask you to describe your position using only one sentence, you'd tell them your
thesis. Here are two examples of a thesis statement:

● "So-called 'gap years' are becoming increasingly necessary for good reason: they allow
young students to experience grown-up responsibilities in an atmosphere of fun before
going to college, where learning these skills can be difficult."
● "E. B. White's Charlotte's Web argues strongly that women deserve to have equal rights
and input into society's decisions as men, even if the characters in the book are
animals.

Don't make these mistakes when writing your thesis. Your thesis is your most
important introductory sentence, so you want to be sure it's formatted the right way and
doesn't contain any of the following common mistakes:
● Your thesis is not a fact or observation. Your thesis should take a stand; it is an
argument that someone could argue against.
● Your thesis isn't written as a list, as a question, or as a springboard to talk about
something else. Your thesis is focused on a single idea, or argument of ideas, and is a
statement.
● Unless given permission to do so, your thesis should never be put in the first-person
(contain the word "I," as in "I think...").

If necessary, transition from the thesis to the first body paragraph. Usually, your
thesis will be the last sentence in your introduction. This isn't always the case, however.
Sometimes, you'll have a sentence or two after your thesis, as a way of transitioning
from the introduction to your body paragraph.
● Example: "After elephants received widespread environmental protection in key parts of
Africa, their numbers started significantly growing."

B. Writing a Personal Essay Introduction

Start off with your hook. As mentioned above, your hook can pretty much be whatever
you want it to — especially in a personal essay — as long as it sets the scene and
touches on what the essay is going to be about. You might find some of the following
hooks to be profitable starting points or examples to you in your introduction:
● "I was walking down our driveway when disaster struck."
● "Though she wouldn't know it at the time, my mother was poised to make a far-reaching
political statement on the morning of June 4th, 1976, without even saying a word."
● "I've made a few mistakes in my young life, but none of them ended up teaching me as
much as when I first disobeyed the law."

Don't be afraid to get really personal. Personal essays are powerful because we
share information in them that often isn't shared. This can be anything from a phobia to
a love affair. Don't be afraid to provide that sort of information in your intro if it has to do
with the story you're telling. Without oversharing, give your side of the story while
staying true to what happened and being honest.

Know that a personal essay won't necessary contain a traditional thesis.Although

your introduction might contain a thesis of sorts, it won't ever look like a thesis you put
 into an expository essay or an argumentative essay. And that's okay. Your personal
essay introduction may just be a story, or an explanation of events. As long as it helps
tell your story, or gives some helpful background information that will play a part in the
story later, your introduction does not need to contain a traditional thesis.

C. Writing a Lab Report Introduction

Know the difference between an abstract and an introduction. An abstract is a

summary of the experiment. It assumes that the reader knows something about the
subject area, but has not read the paper itself. It should be around 200 words. [1] An
introduction, meanwhile, details the type of experiment, its objects and importance,
along with general background information needed to understand the experiment. It has
nothing to do with the findings of the experiment.

Briefly explain the experiment. Whether you're working on temperature models,

DNA/RNA replication, or plate-tectonics, a good introduction adequately explains what
the experiment is going to be about. A great introduction will make it clear which factors
will determine whether the experiment is going to be successful.

Explain the experiment's objectives. What do you aim to figure out by undertaking
this experiment? These objectives should be related to, but not synonymous with, your
hypothesis. Your objectives will be analyzed in your conclusion, and are therefore
extremely important to be clear about.

Provide any theoretical predictions for what the results will yield, if applicable.It
may be helpful to list any theoretical predictions for what the experiment might yield,
especially if your experiment resulted in a groundbreaking finding. This provides a
contrast between what's expected and what is actually true.

Writing a Literary or Film Review Introduction

Start off with a declaration. This declaration can be about the work itself, or a
conclusion you've come to about the theme or significance of the piece. A declaration
has the benefit of sounding authoritative and should grab the reader's attention. Some
examples of good declarative first sentences:
● "There is such a thing as too much beauty in a film, as Terrance Malick's The Tree of
Life illustrates."
++++++++++++++++++++++++++

Detailed proposal of research project:

Cadangan maklumat penyelidikan secara terperinci:

Tajuk Penyelidikan: A+B+C

A: What ...B: How (How A by method B)...C:Where ( Where to applied A in C using

B)

(1) Introduction. Pengenalan

(Please include the background of research, literature reviews, objectives, research

methodology and expected outcomes from the research project)

The background of research

● Isu-isu penting: yang berkaitan A, kaedah A dan hasil dalam A yang akan
membawa kepada penemuan baru seperti yang dinyakan dalam tajuk.
● Kupas hasil penyelidikan lampau: yang berkait dengan A, B dan C.(lihat
kelebihan dan kelemahan teori, kaedah dan hasil yang dinyatakan)
● Pernyataan masalah kajian: Gunakan katakunci A, B dan C untuk membina
satu unkapan permasalahan yang mudah dan jelas (langsung) yang boleh
dijadikan sebagai matlamat utama kajian
● Objektif kajian: Terjemahkan matlat kajian kepada suatu bentuk ungkapan yang
boleh diukur iaitu dengan guna kata kunci seperti bina, bangun, terbit, bukti, itlak,
banding, aplikasikan, perluaskan, kaji, kira, ukur dan ll.
● Perkaedahan kajian: perkaedahan yang berlandaskan objektif yang akan
memberikan hasil yang menjawab persoalan kajian tadi.
● Jangkaan hasil penyelidikan: Berdasarkan perkaedahan yang dibungunkan ,
hasil penyelidikan mestilah sejajar dengan pernyataan masalah, perkaedahan
ianya menggambarkan tajuk penyelidikan itu sendiri.
(2) Research background including Hypothesis /Research Questions and
Literature Reviews. Keterangan latar belakang penyelidikan termasuk kenyataan
hipotesis / persoalan penyelidikan dan kajian literatur.

● Latar Belakang Penyelidikan: Perkara yang menjadi latar kepada isu-isu dalam
kajian yang akan dijalankan sehingga pada akhirnya boleh memperlihatkan
betapa pentingnya kajian ini dijalankan.
● Persoalan Penyelidikan: Bagaimana ideal A dapat dibangunkan berdasarkan
perkaedahan B yang boleh mengasilkan C.
● Kajian Lituratur: Makalah yang ada kaitan dengan tajuk A, perkaedahan B dan
hasil kajian C yang sedia ada yang menjadi asas kepada bahagian persoalan
penyelidikan.
(3) Objective (s) of the Research. Objektif Penyelidikan (Nyatakan masalah kajian
kedalam bentuk lengkah bina model...kaji model.....bina perkaedahan yang boleh
menjawab persoalan kajian yang dikemukan.

Objektif utama penyelidikan ialah

● Mebangunkan/membina/mengitlakan model A yang bersifat S (sifat matematik

yang wujud secara semula jadi dalam hubungan input dengan output) yang
boleh digunakan untuk menyelesaikan permasalahan dalam C.
● Mengkaji/Membukti kan sifat-sifat /struktur dalam S supaya ianya boleh
digunakan untuk menyelesaikan masalah dalam bahagian C dengan
perkaedahan B supaya modelnya boleh diaplikasi untuk penyelaian masalah
seperti yang dinyakan dalam C.
● Mengaplikasikan A melalui kaedah B untuk masalah dalam C
● D lain-lain (jika ada)
(4) Methodology. Kaedah penyelidikan

● Takrifkan kata-katakunci (kata istilah matematik) yang akan digunakan untuk

pembinaan model A, sebagai contoh
o Takrif 1: X ialah......
o Takrif 2: Y ialah....
o Takrif 3: Z ialah
● Dengan takrifan seperti yang nyatakan, kita akan dapat membina / membangun
/mengitlak/....suatu model P dan Q.....yang mempunyai ciri-ciri yang boleh
menyelesaikan permasahan C
● Misalakan masalah C sudah dihasilkan dalam bentuk data, D melalui suatu
kaedah yang boleh dirujuk (sila rujuk makalah dalam senarai rujukan)

Inpu data Analisis data Hasil

Perbincangan

(5) Expected Results/Benefit . Jangkaan Hasil Penyelidikan

(6) References . Rujukan

 Thesis Proposal Template

Benefits of using Thesis Proposal Template is to develop your:

1. Outline of your research

2. Establish thesis title
3. Problem Statement and definition
4. Research Question/Statement
5. Aims and Objectives
6. Contribution to study
7. Benefits of the study
8. Literature Review
9. Model Formation
10. Research Methodology
11. Data Collection
12. Data Analysis
13. Findings and Conclusion
14. Problems and Limitations
15. Reference and Bibliography
16. Gantt Chart

NOTE:

1. When you download the Thesis Proposal Template, you will work by yourself to use
the template to develop your Thesis Proposal.

2. When you engage our services to develop the Thesis Proposal, we will work with you
to develop the Thesis P

Time in quarters
No Description Y1 Y1 Y1 Y1 Y2 Y2 Y2 Y2 Y3 Y3 Y3 Y3
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
1 Bibliographic Searches
2 Compilation of Information
3 Draft Preparations
4 Submission of proposal &
Defense
5 Research Design
6 Formulation of Strategies
7 Pre-Test
8 Data Collections
9 Data Analysis
10 Writing of Thesis
11 Revision and Adding
12 Submission of Thesis
13 Thesis Defense

Structured Approach

1. Preliminaries
1. Abstract
2. Generate Table of Contents
3. Lists of Figures, Tables, Abbreviations, Equations and
Mathematical Symbols
4. Preface
5. Acknowledgement
6. Author's Declaration
2. Aims and objectives
1. Proof of need
2. Scope
3. Limits of model
3. Literature Review
1. State of Art
2. State of Self
4. Model Creation
1. Hypothesis Development
2. Hypothesis Testing
5. Research Methodology
6. Design of experiments
1. Practical
2. Questionnaire
3. Simulation
7. Data Collection
1. Questionnaire Design
2. Pretest, etc.
8. Data Analyses
1. Analyses
2. Verification
9. Model Validation
1. Confirmation
 2. Large Scale Implementation
10. Reporting Findings
1. Summary of Novel Findings
2. Discussion of Knowledge Boundary
3. Conclusion
4. Recommendation
11. Future Work
12. Ending
1. References
2. Bibliography
3. Index
4. Appendices
5. Glossary
Organize and manage your thesis using

● Using Microsoft Word

● Using Microsoft Excel
● Using Microsoft PowerPoint
● Using Microsoft Equations
● Using Microsoft Sky drive
● Using specific software

Manage your thesis using

● Managing Outlines
● Numbering Formats
● Numbering Styles
● Headers and Footers
● Footnotes and Endnotes
● Body of Thesis
● Reference and Reference Styles
● Cross Referencing
● Spell Checking,
● Word Count

Some Extra Information

Research Methodology

There are many research methods to achieve your research objectives. Which one
of these research methods are you using? Which one is suitable for your needs? We
support your thesis writing in one or many of the established research methodologies
Research Philosophy

Axiology
Ontology
Epistemology

Research Paradigm

Positivism
Realism
Interpretivism
Pragmatism
Research Strategies

Experiment
Questionnaire Survey
Case Study
Action Research
EthnographyGrounded Theory

Research Purpose
Exploratory
Descriptive
Explanatory
Research Approach

Deductive
Inductive

Types of Research

Causal relationship
Correlations

Research Methods

We support the candidate in both the qualitative and quantitative research methods.

Mono method - Qualitative or Quantitative Method

Mixed Method - Qualitative & Quantitative Method
Multi Method - Qualitative & Quantitative Method

Research Setting

Contrived setting
Non contrived setting

Reliability and Validity

We support reliability and validity tests.

We support the candidate to generate statistically reliable and valid arguments and
hypotheses.
We guide and help the student / researcher to conduct and generate an academically
rigorous research paper.

Hypotheses

Many a study or research is done and submitted without a hypothesis / hypotheses. We

encourage and support the study / research to include a suitable and relevant
hypothesis / hypotheses. The study / research is directed and driven in such a way to
either prove or disprove the hypothesis / hypotheses raised at the beginning of the
research

Questionnaire survey design

Our support is in helping the student / researcher to design a suitable set of

questionnaire survey to achieve the objectives of the research. We support the student /
researcher to develop a questionnaire survey to bring out the research questions in a
systematic and methodological way.

Likert scale

The Likert scale provides a wide range of choice for the student / researcher to choose
from. The choice of the student / researcher can vary from 1-3, 1-5, 1-7, 1-10 or any
other. We support the student / researcher to identify the most suitable range for the
particular field of study or research.

Open ended questions

Open ended questions usually provide difficulty to the student / researcher for analysis.
We support the student / researcher in managing open ended questions through a
systematic clustering or affinity method.

Market research
We support your market research requirements using some of the established market
research tools and techniques. Please refer to our areas of expertise for further details.

Writing your own problem statement

● Set up a thesis statement. The thesis statement, or opening statement, will

identify the problem, and is an important part of a problem statement.
● Identify solutions. Another part of writing a problem statement is to identify
various solutions that the writer can come up with. The placement of these
solutions depends on the overall format of the problem statement, but generally,
these are presented in the context of
● Apply the 5 W's. Within the problem statement, it's good to keep the focus on
presenting as wide an array of facts as possible. This includes the common
meme of the five W's, or in other words, who, what, why, when and how.
Addressing each of these can make a problem statement more informative and
effective. who, what, why, when and how. Addressing each of these can make a
problem statement more informative and effective

● Think about including a vision in the problem statement. The vision for a
problem statement is simply described as "what you want" or what the group
wants out of the situation. In other words, it is the desirable outcome.

Including a vision in the problem statement

Conclude the problem statement. Bring all of this information together in an effective
conclusion that restates the issue and the main ideas that the writer is trying to address.

“Students turning in work improperly labeled as their own are a serious problem to
every school that wants to be taken seriously. We must take more steps in analyzing
the work to mitigate the practice’s impact on education and society.

Conclude the problem statement

 o Think of the conclusion as a concise restatement of the general issue. It's also
sometimes useful to make a final appeal to the reader or present the entire issue
in a new or different way. For example, some effective conclusions can add a
sense of urgency to underscore what the writer has been saying throughout the
document, especially if the writer is approaching the issue from an angle of
advocacy.

Do a final edit. The final edit will help the writer to catch all sorts of problems, from
simple typos to larger problems with grammar and style.

‣ The final edit will help the writer to catch all sorts of problems, from simple typos to
larger problems with grammar and style

Do a final edit

o Figure out whether the entire problem statement is cohesive and flows easily.
Make sure all of the main principles are addressed and key information is not left
out. The final edit is often the difference between a great problem statement and
a poorly written or somewhat ineffective one.

Writing Objectives: A Guide

NCMS Department of Education Services

This guidance is intended to assist you in writing measurable objectives for your CME
application.

Measurable objectives state:

● Who is involved
The people whose behaviors, knowledge, and/or skills are to be changed as a
result of the program.

● What are the desired outcomes

The intended behavior, knowledge, and/or skill changes that should result from
the program or activities.

● How progress is measured

What tool or device (surveys, tests, data from other sources) will be used to
measure the expected changes. Remember you need to ensure that your
 department has the resources/capacity (time, staff, funding, etc.) to perform the
measurement.

● Proficiency level
Identify the criteria for success.

● When will the outcome occur

Identify the time frame for success

Example: By December 2010, tobacco use will decrease to 10% of patients seen as
reported on a prevalence survey.

Who: all adult patients How measured: as reported on a prevalence survey

What: Decrease tobacco use Proficiency level: to 10%

When: By December 2010

Measurable objectives can relate to the: Office Staff

What is the outcome of

Physician
professional
What is the outcome? development?

Change in achievement Pedagogy

Change in behavior Knowledge

Change in attitude Skill

How is it measured? Attitude

Concrete terms that can form the basis of specific learning objectives:

The following terms to be CONSIDERED when writing learning objectives:

To explain To apply To predict

To identify To employ To evaluate

To describe To illustrate To defend

To integrate To use To assess

To contrast To interpret To distinguish

To sort To categorize To diagram

To solve To formulate To report

To relate To organize To restate

To recall To prepare To review

To list To arrange To classify

To name To construct To translate

To recognize To create To discriminate

General Terms such as those listed below are inadequate because they are open to
many interpretations (they are non-specific) and are not accessible to quantification.

AVOID the following terms when writing learning objectives:

To know To understand To really understand

To fully appreciate To internalize To grasp the significance

of To have an awareness of

Tips on Writing

Most objectives need to have three components as follows:

● A measurable verb (also known as performance)

● The important conditions (if any) under which the performance is to occur and
● The criterion of acceptable performance

It is important to say that many objectives are written in a manner in which the important
conditions and criterion are implicit. If they really are implicit the argument can be made
that they may not be necessary. For example, an objective might be stated as follows:

The student will be able to name the five stages of mitosis.

There would be no point in stating the objective as follows just to meet the requirements
of it having a criterion.

The student will correctly (criterion) name the five stages of mitosis within 30 seconds
(criterion).
On the other hand, there may be objectives that need to have the conditions and/or
criterion specified. For example, a teacher might begin the process of writing an
objective with a general statement such as:

The learner will be able to prepare appropriate new patient workups.

He/she then might decide that this objective is too vague or general to be instructional
to the student and to also let others who teach the student know what is expected.
Therefore, in an effort to improve the objective the teacher might add criteria as
exemplified below.

The learner will be able to prepare legible, comprehensive, and focused new patient
workups that include the following features:

Present illness organized chronologically, without repetition, omission, or

extraneous information.

A comprehensive physical examination with detail pertinent to the patient's

problem.

A succinct and, where appropriate, unified list of all problems identified in the
history and physical examination.

A differential diagnosis for each problem (appropriate to level of training)

A diagnosis/treatment plan for each problem (appropriate to level of training)

Examples of behavioral objectives written in general (not easily measurable) followed by

an effort to make the objective more specific/descriptive and more measurable

General:

The learner will be able to: orally present a new patient's case

More Specific:

The learner will be able to: orally present a new patient's case in a logical manner,
chronologically developing the present illness, summarizing the pertinent positive and
negative findings as well as the differential diagnosis and plans for further testing and
treatment.

General:

The learner will be able to: prepare appropriate new patient workups

More Specific:
The learner will be able to: prepare legible, comprehensive, and focused new patient
workups that include the following features:

Present illness organized chronologically, without repetition, omission, or

extraneous information.

A comprehensive physical examination with detail pertinent to the patient's

problem.

A succinct and, where appropriate, unified list of all problems identified in the
history and physical examination.

A differential diagnosis for each problem (appropriate to level of training)

A diagnosis/treatment plan for each problem (appropriate to level of training)

General:

The learner will be able to: retrieve medical information using the computer.

More Specific:

The learner will be able to: Retrieve information, demonstrating the ability to

Perform database searches using logical (Boolean) operators, in a manner that reflects
understanding of medical language, terminology, and the relationship among medical
terms and concepts; Refine search strategies to improve relevance and completeness
of retrieved items; Use of standard bibliographic application to download citations from a
search and organize them into a personal database; and Identify and acquire full-text
electronic documents available from the www.

General:

The learner will be able to: properly examine a stool specimen for the presence of ova
and parasites.

More Specific:

The learner will be able to: take stool specimens infected with 1 of 10 possible ova and
parasites and correctly identify them.

Even More Specific:

The student will be able to: take stool specimens infected with 1 of 10 possible
parasites, process it according to standard procedures, and identify under a microscope
examples of ova and of parasites (Parasites must be identified by scientific name.)
 Objectives Worksheet

NCMS Department of Education Services

Directions: Write your goal, then for each objective in the space provided write who is
involved; what the desired outcomes are; how progress will be measured; when the
outcome will occur and the proficiency level. Next put the pieces together into a
sentence. Finally, use the checklist to ensure that the objectives contain all necessary
components. Use a new worksheet for each goal.

Goal:____________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________

Objective 1:

Who:____________________________________ What:______________________________________________

How: _____________________________________When:_____________________________________________

Proficiency level:______________________________________________
 Objective 2:

Who:____________________________________ What:______________________________________________

How: _____________________________________When:_____________________________________________

Proficiency level:______________________________________________

Written
objective:_____________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________

Objective 3:

Who:____________________________________ What:______________________________________________

How: _____________________________________When:_____________________________________________

Proficiency level:______________________________________________

Written
objective:_____________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________

Objectives Checklist

Objectives contain all elements

☐Who ☐What ☐How

☐When ☐Proficiency Level ☐Redundancy has been eliminated.

☐Objectives relate to needs assessment findings ☐Objectives can really be

measured.

☐Capacity to perform measurement?

☐Instrument or data source has been identified.

☐Shows how assessment:

Assesses what each component does

Assess outcome

Should not have separate assessment unless you expect different outcomes of
different groups

Literature Reviews

What this handout is about

This handout will explain what literature reviews are and offer insights into the form and
construction of literature reviews in the humanities, social sciences, and sciences.

What is a literature review?

A literature review is not an annotated bibliography in which you summarize briefly each
article that you have reviewed. While a summary of the what you have read is contained
within the literature review, it goes well beyond merely summarizing professional
literature. It focuses on a specific topic of interest to you and includes a critical analysis
of the relationship among different works, and relating this research to your work. It may
be written as a stand-alone paper or to provide a theoretical framework and rationale for
a research study (such as a thesis or dissertation).

Introduction

OK. You’ve got to write a literature review. You dust off a novel and a book of poetry,
settle down in your chair, and get ready to issue a “thumbs up” or “thumbs down” as you
leaf through the pages. “Literature review” done. Right?
Wrong! The “literature” of a literature review refers to any collection of materials on a
topic, not necessarily the great literary texts of the world. “Literature” could be anything
from a set of government pamphlets on British colonial methods in Africa to scholarly
articles on the treatment of a torn ACL. And a review does not necessarily mean that
your reader wants you to give your personal opinion on whether or not you liked these
sources.
What is a literature review, then?
A literature review discusses published information in a particular subject area, and
sometimes information in a particular subject area within a certain time period.
A literature review can be just a simple summary of the sources, but it usually has an
organizational pattern and combines both summary and synthesis. A summary is a
recap of the important information of the source, but a synthesis is a re-organization, or
a reshuffling, of that information. It might give a new interpretation of old material or
combine new with old interpretations. Or it might trace the intellectual progression of the
field, including major debates. And depending on the situation, the literature review may
evaluate the sources and advise the reader on the most pertinent or relevant.
But how is a literature review different from an academic research paper?
The main focus of an academic research paper is to develop a new argument, and a
research paper will contain a literature review as one of its parts. In a research paper,
you use the literature as a foundation and as support for a new insight that you
contribute. The focus of a literature review, however, is to summarize and synthesize
the arguments and ideas of others without adding new contributions.
Why do we write literature reviews?
Literature reviews provide you with a handy guide to a particular topic. If you have
limited time to conduct research, literature reviews can give you an overview or act as a
stepping stone. For professionals, they are useful reports that keep them up to date with
what is current in the field. For scholars, the depth and breadth of the literature review
emphasizes the credibility of the writer in his or her field. Literature reviews also provide
a solid background for a research paper’s investigation. Comprehensive knowledge of
the literature of the field is essential to most research papers.
Who writes these things, anyway?
Literature reviews are written occasionally in the humanities, but mostly in the sciences
and social sciences; in experiment and lab reports, they constitute a section of the
paper. Sometimes a literature review is written as a paper in itself.

Let’s get to it! What should I do before writing the literature review?

Clarify
If your assignment is not very specific, seek clarification from your instructor:

● Roughly how many sources should you include?

● What types of sources (books, journal articles, websites)?
 ● Should you summarize, synthesize, or critique your sources by discussing a
common theme or issue?
● Should you evaluate your sources?
● Should you provide subheadings and other background information, such as
definitions and/or a history?

Find models
Look for other literature reviews in your area of interest or in the discipline and read
them to get a sense of the types of themes you might want to look for in your own
research or ways to organize your final review. You can simply put the word “review” in
your search engine along with your other topic terms to find articles of this type on the
Internet or in an electronic database. The bibliography or reference section of sources
you’ve already read are also excellent entry points into your own research.
Narrow your topic
There are hundreds or even thousands of articles and books on most areas of study.
The narrower your topic, the easier it will be to limit the number of sources you need to
read in order to get a good survey of the material. Your instructor will probably not
expect you to read everything that’s out there on the topic, but you’ll make your job
easier if you first limit your scope.
And don’t forget to tap into your professor’s (or other professors’) knowledge in the field.
Ask your professor questions such as: “If you had to read only one book from the 70′s
on topic X, what would it be?” Questions such as this help you to find and determine
quickly the most seminal pieces in the field.
Consider whether your sources are current
Some disciplines require that you use information that is as current as possible. In the
sciences, for instance, treatments for medical problems are constantly changing
according to the latest studies. Information even two years old could be obsolete.
However, if you are writing a review in the humanities, history, or social sciences, a
survey of the history of the literature may be what is needed, because what is important
is how perspectives have changed through the years or within a certain time period. Try
sorting through some other current bibliographies or literature reviews in the field to get
a sense of what your discipline expects. You can also use this method to consider what
is currently of interest to scholars in this field and what is not.

Strategies for writing the literature review

Find a focus
A literature review, like a term paper, is usually organized around ideas, not the sources
themselves as an annotated bibliography would be organized. This means that you will
not just simply list your sources and go into detail about each one of them, one at a
time. No. As you read widely but selectively in your topic area, consider instead what
themes or issues connect your sources together. Do they present one or different
solutions? Is there an aspect of the field that is missing? How well do they present the
material and do they portray it according to an appropriate theory? Do they reveal a
trend in the field? A raging debate? Pick one of these themes to focus the organization
of your review.
Construct a working thesis statement
Then use the focus you’ve found to construct a thesis statement. Yes! Literature
reviews have thesis statements as well! However, your thesis statement will not
necessarily argue for a position or an opinion; rather it will argue for a particular
perspective on the material. Some sample thesis statements for literature reviews are
as follows:
The current trend in treatment for congestive heart failure combines
surgery and medicine.

More and more cultural studies scholars are accepting popular media as a
subject worthy of academic consideration.
See our handout for more information on how to construct thesis statements.
Consider organization
You’ve got a focus, and you’ve narrowed it down to a thesis statement. Now what is the
most effective way of presenting the information? What are the most important topics,
subtopics, etc., that your review needs to include? And in what order should you present
them? Develop an organization for your review at both a global and local level:
First, cover the basic categories

Just like most academic papers, literature reviews also must contain at
least three basic elements: an introduction or background information
section; the body of the review containing the discussion of sources; and,
finally, a conclusion and/or recommendations section to end the paper.
Introduction: Gives a quick idea of the topic of the literature review, such
as the central theme or organizational pattern.
Body: Contains your discussion of sources and is organized either
chronologically, thematically, or methodologically (see below for more
information on each).
Conclusions/Recommendations: Discuss what you have drawn from
reviewing literature so far. Where might the discussion proceed?
Organizing the body
Once you have the basic categories in place, then you must consider how
you will present the sources themselves within the body of your paper.
Create an organizational method to focus this section even further.
To help you come up with an overall organizational framework for your
review, consider the following scenario and then three typical ways of
organizing the sources into a review:
You’ve decided to focus your literature review on materials dealing with
sperm whales. This is because you’ve just finished reading Moby Dick,
and you wonder if that whale’s portrayal is really real. You start with some
articles about the physiology of sperm whales in biology journals written in
the 1980′s. But these articles refer to some British biological studies
performed on whales in the early 18th century. So you check those out.
Then you look up a book written in 1968 with information on how sperm
whales have been portrayed in other forms of art, such as in Alaskan
poetry, in French painting, or on whale bone, as the whale hunters in the
late 19th century used to do. This makes you wonder about American
whaling methods during the time portrayed in Moby Dick, so you find
some academic articles published in the last five years on how accurately
Herman Melville portrayed the whaling scene in his novel.
Chronological
If your review follows the chronological method, you could write about the
materials above according to when they were published. For instance, first
you would talk about the British biological studies of the 18th century, then
about Moby Dick, published in 1851, then the book on sperm whales in
other art (1968), and finally the biology articles (1980s) and the recent
articles on American whaling of the 19th century. But there is relatively no
continuity among subjects here. And notice that even though the sources
on sperm whales in other art and on American whaling are written
recently, they are about other subjects/objects that were created much
earlier. Thus, the review loses its chronological focus.
By publication

Order your sources by publication chronology, then, only if the

order demonstrates a more important trend. For instance, you could
order a review of literature on biological studies of sperm whales if
the progression revealed a change in dissection practices of the
researchers who wrote and/or conducted the studies.
By trend
A better way to organize the above sources chronologically is to
examine the sources under another trend, such as the history of
whaling. Then your review would have subsections according to
eras within this period. For instance, the review might examine
whaling from pre-1600-1699, 1700-1799, and 1800-1899. Under
this method, you would combine the recent studies on American
whaling in the 19th century with Moby Dick itself in the 1800-1899
category, even though the authors wrote a century apart.
Thematic
Thematic reviews of literature are organized around a topic or issue,
rather than the progression of time. However, progression of time may still
be an important factor in a thematic review. For instance, the sperm whale
review could focus on the development of the harpoon for whale hunting.
While the aqstudy focuses on one topic, harpoon technology, it will still be
organized chronologically. The only difference here between a
“chronological” and a “thematic” approach is what is emphasized the most:
the development of the harpoon or the harpoon technology.
But more authentic thematic reviews tend to break away from
chronological order. For instance, a thematic review of material on sperm
whales might examine how they are portrayed as “evil” in cultural
documents. The subsections might include how they are personified, how
their proportions are exaggerated, and their behaviors misunderstood. A
review organized in this manner would shift between time periods within
each section according to the point made.
Methodological
A methodological approach differs from the two above in that the focusing
factor usually does not have to do with the content of the material. Instead,
it focuses on the “methods” of the researcher or writer. For the sperm
whale project, one methodological approach would be to look at cultural
differences between the portrayal of whales in American, British, and
French art work. Or the review might focus on the economic impact of
whaling on a community. A methodological scope will influence either the
types of documents in the review or the way in which these documents are
discussed.
Once you’ve decided on the organizational method for the body of the
review, the sections you need to include in the paper should be easy to
figure out. They should arise out of your organizational strategy. In other
words, a chronological review would have subsections for each vital time
period. A thematic review would have subtopics based upon factors that
relate to the theme or issue.
Sometimes, though, you might need to add additional sections that are
necessary for your study, but do not fit in the organizational strategy of the
body. What other sections you include in the body is up to you. Put in only
what is necessary. Here are a few other sections you might want to
consider:
Current Situation: Information necessary to understand the topic or focus
of the literature review.
History: The chronological progression of the field, the literature, or an
idea that is necessary to understand the literature review, if the body of
the literature review is not already a chronology.
Methods and/or Standards: The criteria you used to select the sources in
your literature review or the way in which you present your information.
For instance, you might explain that your review includes only peer-
reviewed articles and journals.
 Questions for Further Research: What questions about the field has the
review sparked? How will you further your research as a result of the
review?

Begin composing

Once you’ve settled on a general pattern of organization, you’re ready to write each
section. There are a few guidelines you should follow during the writing stage as well.
Here is a sample paragraph from a literature review about sexism and language to
illuminate the following discussion:
However, other studies have shown that even gender-neutral antecedents
are more likely to produce masculine images than feminine ones (Gastil,
1990). Hamilton (1988) asked students to complete sentences that
required them to fill in pronouns that agreed with gender-neutral
antecedents such as “writer,” “pedestrian,” and “persons.” The students
were asked to describe any image they had when writing the sentence.
Hamilton found that people imagined 3.3 men to each woman in the
masculine “generic” condition and 1.5 men per woman in the unbiased
condition. Thus, while ambient sexism accounted for some of the
masculine bias, sexist language amplified the effect. (Source: Erika Falk
and Jordan Mills, “Why Sexist Language Affects Persuasion: The Role of
Homophily, Intended Audience, and Offense,” Women and Language19:2.

Use evidence
In the example above, the writers refer to several other sources when making their
point. A literature review in this sense is just like any other academic research paper.
Your interpretation of the available sources must be backed up with evidence to show
that what you are saying is valid.
Be selective
Select only the most important points in each source to highlight in the review. The type
of information you choose to mention should relate directly to the review’s focus,
whether it is thematic, methodological, or chronological.
Use quotes sparingly
Falk and Mills do not use any direct quotes. That is because the survey nature of the
literature review does not allow for in-depth discussion or detailed quotes from the text.
Some short quotes here and there are okay, though, if you want to emphasize a point,
or if what the author said just cannot be rewritten in your own words. Notice that Falk
and Mills do quote certain terms that were coined by the author, not common
knowledge, or taken directly from the study. But if you find yourself wanting to put in
more quotes, check with your instructor.
Summarize and synthesize
Remember to summarize and synthesize your sources within each paragraph as well as
throughout the review. The authors here recapitulate important features of Hamilton’s
study, but then synthesize it by rephrasing the study’s significance and relating it to their
own work.
Keep your own voice
While the literature review presents others’ ideas, your voice (the writer’s) should
remain front and center. Notice that Falk and Mills weave references to other sources
into their own text, but they still maintain their own voice by starting and ending the
paragraph with their own ideas and their own words. The sources support what Falk
and Mills are saying.
Use caution when paraphrasing
When paraphrasing a source that is not your own, be sure to represent the author’s
information or opinions accurately and in your own words. In the preceding example,
Falk and Mills either directly refer in the text to the author of their source, such as
Hamilton, or they provide ample notation in the text when the ideas they are mentioning
are not their own, for example, Gastil’s. For more information, please see our handout
on plagiarism.

Revise, revise, revise

Draft in hand? Now you’re ready to revise. Spending a lot of time revising is a wise idea,
because your main objective is to present the material, not the argument. So check over
your review again to make sure it follows the assignment and/or your outline. Then, just
as you would for most other academic forms of writing, rewrite or rework the language
of your review so that you’ve presented your information in the most concise manner
possible. Be sure to use terminology familiar to your audience; get rid of unnecessary
jargon or slang. Finally, double check that you’ve documented your sources and
formatted the review appropriately for your discipline. For tips on the revising and
editing process, see our handout on revising drafts.

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing the original version of this handout. This is not a
comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do
your own research to find the latest publications on this topic. Please do not use this list
as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation
style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries
citation tutorial.
Anson, Chris M. and Robert A. Schwegler, The Longman Handbook for Writers and
Readers. Second edition. New York: Longman, 2000.
Jones, Robert, Patrick Bizzaro, and Cynthia Selfe. The Harcourt Brace Guide to Writing
in the Disciplines. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1997.
 Lamb, Sandra E. How to Write It: A Complete Guide to Everything You’ll Ever Write.
Berkeley, Calif.: Ten Speed Press, 1998.
Rosen, Leonard J. and Laurence Behrens. The Allyn and Bacon Handbook. Fourth
edition. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 2000.
Troyka, Lynn Quitman. Simon and Schuster Handbook for Writers. Upper Saddle River,
N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2002.

Home - Write a Literature Review - Library Guides at University of ...

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28 Aug 2013 ... Introduction. Not to be confused with a book review, a literature review
surveys scholarly articles, books and other sources (e.g. dissertations, ...

Learn how to write a review of literature.

● What is a review of literature?

● Writing the introduction
● Writing the body
● Writing the conclusion

What is a review of literature?

The format of a review of literature may vary from discipline to discipline and from
assignment to assignment.

A review may be a self-contained unit -- an end in itself -- or a preface to and

rationale for engaging in primary research. A review is a required part of grant and
research proposals and often a chapter in theses and dissertations.

Generally, the purpose of a review is to analyze critically a segment of a published

body of knowledge through summary, classification, and comparison of prior
research studies, reviews of literature, and theoretical articles.

Writing the introduction

In the introduction, you should:

● Define or identify the general topic, issue, or area of concern, thus providing an
appropriate context for reviewing the literature.
● Point out overall trends in what has been published about the topic; or conflicts in
theory, methodology, evidence, and conclusions; or gaps in research and scholarship;
or a single problem or new perspective of immediate interest.
● Establish the writer's reason (point of view) for reviewing the literature; explain the
criteria to be used in analyzing and comparing literature and the organization of the
review (sequence); and, when necessary, state why certain literature is or is not
included (scope).

top

Writing the body

In the body, you should:

● Group research studies and other types of literature (reviews, theoretical articles, case
studies, etc.) according to common denominators such as qualitative versus quantitative
approaches, conclusions of authors, specific purpose or objective, chronology, etc.
● Summarize individual studies or articles with as much or as little detail as each merits
according to its comparative importance in the literature, remembering that space
(length) denotes significance.
● Provide the reader with strong "umbrella" sentences at beginnings of paragraphs,
"signposts" throughout, and brief "so what" summary sentences at intermediate points in
the review to aid in understanding comparisons and analyses.

Writing the conclusion

In the conclusion, you should:

● Summarize major contributions of significant studies and articles to the body of

knowledge under review, maintaining the focus established in the introduction.
● Evaluate the current "state of the art" for the body of knowledge reviewed, pointing out
major methodological flaws or gaps in research, inconsistencies in theory and findings,
and areas or issues pertinent to future study.
● Conclude by providing some insight into the relationship between the central topic of the
literature review and a larger area of study such as a discipline, a scientific endeavor, or
a profession.

top

For further information see our handouts on Writing a Critical Review of a

Nonfiction Book or Article or Reading a Book to Review It.

To learn more about literature reviews, take a look at our workshop on Writing
Literature Reviews of Published Research.

Write a Literature Review Tags: ,

1. Introduction
Not to be confused with a book review, a literature review surveys scholarly articles,
books and other sources (e.g. dissertations, conference proceedings) relevant to a
particular issue, area of research, or theory, providing a description, summary, and
critical evaluation of each work. The purpose is to offer an overview of significant
literature published on a topic.

2. Components
Similar to primary research, development of the literature review requires four stages:

● Problem formulation—which topic or field is being examined and what are its
component issues?
● Literature search—finding materials relevant to the subject being explored
● Data evaluation—determining which literature makes a significant contribution to
the understanding of the topic
● Analysis and interpretation—discussing the findings and conclusions of pertinent
literature

Literature reviews should comprise the following elements:

● An overview of the subject, issue or theory under consideration, along with the
objectives of the literature review
● Division of works under review into categories (e.g. those in support of a
particular position, those against, and those offering alternative theses entirely)
● Explanation of how each work is similar to and how it varies from the others
● Conclusions as to which pieces are best considered in their argument, are most
convincing of their opinions, and make the greatest contribution to the
understanding and development of their area of research

In assessing each piece, consideration should be given to:

● Provenance—What are the author's credentials? Are the author's arguments

supported by evidence (e.g. primary historical material, case studies, narratives,
statistics, recent scientific findings)?
● Objectivity—Is the author's perspective even-handed or prejudicial? Is contrary
data considered or is certain pertinent information ignored to prove the author's
point?
● Persuasiveness—Which of the author's theses are most/least convincing?
● Value—Are the author's arguments and conclusions convincing? Does the work
ultimately contribute in any significant way to an understanding of the subject?
 3. Definition and Use/Purpose
A literature review may constitute an essential chapter of a thesis or dissertation, or may
be a self-contained review of writings on a subject. In either case, its purpose is to:

● Place each work in the context of its contribution to the understanding of the
subject under review
● Describe the relationship of each work to the others under consideration
● Identify new ways to interpret, and shed light on any gaps in, previous research
● Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies
● Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication of effort
● Point the way forward for further research
● Place one's original work (in the case of theses or dissertations) in the context of
existing literature

The literature review itself, however, does not present new primary scholarship.
Not to be confused with a book review, a literature review surveys scholarly articles,
books and other sources (e.g. dissertations, conference proceedings) relevant to a
particular issue, area of research, or theory, providing a description, summary, and
critical evaluation of each work. The purpose of a literature review is to offer an
overview of significant literature published on a topic.
Elements of a literature review
A literature review should include:
● An overview of the subject, issue or theory under consideration, along with the
objectives of the literature review
● Division of works under review into categories (e.g. those in support of a particular
position, those against, and those offering alternative theses entirely)
● Explanation of how each work is similar to and how it varies from the others
● Conclusions as to which pieces are best considered in their argument, are most
convincing of their opinions, and make the greatest contribution to the understanding
and development of their area of research
Steps to prepare a literature review
Preparation of a literature review may be divided into four broad stages:
1. Define your topic: you must define your topic and components of your topic
2. Search for materials: use search tools (such as the library catalogue, databases,
bibliographies) to find materials about your topic
3. Evaluate what you have found: read and evaluate what you have found in order to
determine which material makes a significant contribution to the understanding of the
topic
4. Analysis and interpretation: provide a discussion of the findings and conclusions of
the pertinent literature
● Return to top

Evaluating material
In assessing each piece, consideration should be given to:
● Provenance: What are the author's credentials? Are the author's arguments
supported by evidence (e.g. primary historical material, case studies, narratives,
statistics, recent scientific findings)?
● Objectivity: Is the author's perspective even-handed or prejudicial? Is contrary data
considered or is certain pertinent information ignored to prove the author's point?
● Persuasiveness: Which of the author's theses are most/least convincing?
● Value: Are the author's arguments and conclusions convincing? Does the work
ultimately contribute in any significant way to an understanding of the subject?
● Return to top
Uses and purpose of a literature review
A literature review may constitute an essential chapter of a thesis or dissertation, or may
be a self-contained review of writings on a subject (such as a journal article). In either
case, its purpose is to:
● Place each work in the context of its contribution to the understanding of the subject
under review
● Describe the relationship of each work to the others under consideration
● Identify new ways to interpret, and shed light on any gaps in, previous research
● Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies
● Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication of effort
● Point the way forward for further research
● Place one's original work (in the case of theses or dissertations) in the context of
existing literature
The literature review itself, however, does not present new primary scholarship.
● Return to top
Examples
Examples of literature reviews may be found by doing keyword searches in many of our
databases as well as in CLUES, the library catalogue. Literature reviews may be
published as scholarly articles, books, and as introductions to scholarly articles and
dissertations.
Here is an example of a literature review:
Mallett, S. (2004). Understanding home: A critical review of the literature. The
Sociological Review, 52(1): 62-89. Link to the article
● Return to top
For more information
Further information on the literature review may be found in:
● Conducting research literature reviews : from the Internet to paper by Arlene Fink
● Integrating research : a guide for literature reviews by Harris M. Cooper
● Evaluating research articles from start to finish by Ellen R. Girden
Adapted with permission and thanks from How to Write a Literature Review originally
created by Kenneth Lyons, McHenry Library, University of California, Santa Cruz.

Guidelines for writing a literature review

by Helen Mongan-Rallis. Last updated: November 17, 2006
[Note: For these guidelines, in some sections I have quoted directly some of the the
steps from: Galvan, J. (2006). Writing literature reviews: a guide for students of the
behavioral sciences (3rd ed.). Glendale, CA: Pyrczak Publishing.]

What is a literature review?

A literature review is not an annotated bibliography in which you summarize briefly each
article that you have reviewed. While a summary of the what you have read is contained
within the literature review, it goes well beyond merely summarizing professional
literature. It focuses on a specific topic of interest to you and includes a critical analysis
of the relationship among different works, and relating this research to your work. It may
be written as a stand-alone paper or to provide a theoretical framework and rationale for
a research study (such as a thesis or dissertation).

Step-by-step guide

These guidelines are adapted primarily from Galvan (2006). Galvan outlines a very
clear, step-by-step approach that is very useful to use as you write your review. I have
integrated some other tips within this guide, particularly in suggesting different
technology tools that you might want to consider in helping you organize your review. In
the sections from Step 6-9 what I have included is the outline of those steps exactly as
described by Galvan. I also provide links at the end of this guide to resources that you
should use in order to search the literature and as you write your review.
In addition to using the step-by-step guide that I have provided below, I also
recommend that you (a) locate examples of literature reviews in your field of study and
skim over these to get a feel for what a literature review is and how these are written (I
have also provided links to a couple of examples at the end of these guidelines (b) read
over other guides to writing literature reviews so that you see different perspectives and
approaches: Some examples are:

1. Review of Literature: University of Wisconsin - Madison The Writing Center.

2. How to ..Write a Literature Review: University of California, Santa Cruz University
Library).
3. Information Fluency - Literature Review: Washington & Lee University
4. How to Do A Literature Review? North Carolina A&T State University F.D.
Bluford Library.
5. Writing up research: using the literature. Language Center, Asian Institute of
Technology (Thailand).
6. Selected Links to Resources on Writing a Literature Review

Step 1: Review APA guidelines

Read through the links provided below on APA guidelines so that you become familiar
with the common core elements of how to write in APA style: in particular, pay attention
to general document guidelines (e.g. font, margins, spacing), title page, abstract, body,
text citations, quotations.
Step 2: Decide on a topic
It will help you considerably if your topic for your literature review is the one on which
you intend to do your final M.Ed. project, or is in some way related to the topic of your
final project. However, you may pick any scholarly topic.
Step 3: Identify the literature that you will review:

1. Familiarize yourself with online databases (see UMD library resource links below
for help with this), identifying relevant databases in your field of study.
2. Using relevant databases, search for literature sources using Google Scholar
and also searching using Furl (search all sources, including the Furl accounts of
other Furl members). Some tips for identifying suitable literature and narrowing
your search :
1. Start with a general descriptor from the database thesaurus or one that
you know is already a well defined descriptor based on past work that you
have done in this field. You will need to experiment with different
searches, such as limiting your search to descriptors that appear only in
the document titles, or in both the document title and in the abstract.
2. Redefine your topic if needed: as you search you will quickly find out if the
topic that you are reviewing is too broad. Try to narrow it to a specific area
of interest within the broad area that you have chosen (remember: this is
merely an introductory literature review for Educ 7001). It is a good idea,
as part of your literature search, to look for existing literature reviews that
have already been written on this topic.
3. As part of your search, be sure to identify landmark or classic studies and
theorists as these provide you with a framework/context for your study.
 3. Import your references into your RefWorks account (see: Refworks Import
Directions for guide on how to do this from different databases). You can also
enter references manually into RefWorks if you need to.

Step 4: Analyze the literature

Once you have identified and located the articles for your review, you need to analyze
them and organize them before you begin writing:

1. Overview the articles: Skim the articles to get an idea of the general purpose
and content of the article (focus your reading here on the abstract, introduction
and first few paragraphs, the conclusion of each article. Tip: as you skim the
articles, you may want to record the notes that you take on each directly into
RefWorks in the box for User 1. You can take notes onto note cards or into a
word processing document instead or as well as using RefWorks, but having
your notes in RefWorks makes it easy to organize your notes later.
2. Group the articles into categories (e.g. into topics and subtopics and
chronologically within each subtopic). Once again, it's useful to enter this
information into your RefWorks record. You can record the topics in the same
box as before (User 1) or use User 2 box for the topic(s) under which you have
chosen to place this article.
3. Take notes:
1. Decide on the format in which you will take notes as you read the articles
(as mentioned above, you can do this in RefWorks. You can also do this
using a Word Processor, or a concept mapping program like Inspiration
(free 30 trial download), a data base program (e.g. Access or File Maker
Pro), in an Excel spreadsheet, or the "old-fashioned" way of using note
cards. Be consistent in how you record notes.
2. Define key terms: look for differences in the way keys terms are defined
(note these differences).
3. Note key statistics that you may want to use in the introduction to your
review.
4. Select useful quotes that you may want to include in your review.
Important: If you copy the exact words from an article, be sure to cite the
page number as you will need this should you decide to use the quote
when you write your review (as direct quotes must always be
accompanied by page references). To ensure that you have quoted
accurately (and to save time in note taking), if you are accessing the
article in a format that allows this, you can copy and paste using your
computer "edit --> copy --> paste" functions. Note: although you may
collect a large number of quotes during the note taking phase of your
review, when you write the review, use quotes very sparingly. The rule I
follow is to quote only when when some key meaning would be lost in
translation if I were to paraphrase the original author's words, or if using
the original words adds special emphasis to a point that I am making.
5. Note emphases, strengths & weaknesses: Since different research studies
focus on different aspects of the issue being studied, each article that you
 read will have different emphases, strengths. and weaknesses. Your role
as a reviewer is to evaluate what you read, so that your review is not a
mere description of different articles, but rather a critical analysis that
makes sense of the collection of articles that you are reviewing. Critique
the research methodologies used in the studies, and distinguish between
assertions (the author's opinion) and actual research findings (derived
from empirical evidence).
6. Identify major trends or patterns: As you read a range of articles on your
topic, you should make note of trends and patterns over time as reported
in the literature. This step requires you to synthesize and make sense of
what you read, since these patterns and trends may not be spelled out in
the literature, but rather become apparent to you as you review the big
picture that has emerged over time. Your analysis can make
generalizations across a majority of studies, but should also note
inconsistencies across studies and over time.
7. Identify gaps in the literature, and reflect on why these might exist (based
on the understandings that you have gained by reading literature in this
field of study). These gaps will be important for you to address as you plan
and write your review.
8. Identify relationships among studies: note relationships among studies,
such as which studies were landmark ones that led to subsequent studies
in the same area. You may also note that studies fall into different
categories (categories that you see emerging or ones that are already
discussed in the literature). When you write your review, you should
address these relationships and different categories and discuss relevant
studies using this as a framework.
9. Keep your review focused on your topic: make sure that the articles you
find are relevant and directly related to your topic. As you take notes,
record which specific aspects of the article you are reading are relevant to
your topic (as you read you will come up with key descriptors that you can
record in your notes that will help you organize your findings when you
come to write up your review). If you are using an electronic form of note
taking, you might note these descriptors in a separate field (e.g. in
RefWorks, put these under User 2 or User 3; in Excel have a separate
column for each descriptor; if you use Inspiration, you might attach a
separate note for key descriptors.
10. Evaluate your references for currency and coverage: Although you can
always find more articles on your topic, you have to decide at what point
you are finished with collecting new resources so that you can focus on
writing up your findings. However, before you begin writing, you must
evaluate your reference list to ensure that it is up to date and has reported
the most current work. Typically a review will cover the last five years, but
should also refer to any landmark studies prior to this time if they have
significance in shaping the direction of the field. If you include studies prior
to the past five years that are not landmark studies, you should defend
why you have chosen these rather than more current ones.
Step 5: Summarize the literature in table or concept map format

1. Galvan (2006) recommends building tables as a key way to help you overview,
organize, and summarize your findings, and suggests that including one or more
of the tables that you create may be helpful in your literature review. If you do
include tables as part of your review each must be accompanied by an analysis
that summarizes, interprets and synthesizes the literature that you have charted
in the table. You can plan your table or do the entire summary chart of your
literature using a concept map (such as using Inspiration)
1. You can create the table using the table feature within Microsoft Word, or
can create it initially in Excel and then copy and paste/import the the Excel
sheet into Word once you have completed the table in Excel. The
advantage of using Excel is that it enables you to sort your findings
according to a variety of factors (e.g. sort by date, and then by author; sort
by methodology and then date)
2. Examples of tables that may be relevant to your review:
1. Definitions of key terms and concepts.
2. Research methods
3. Summary of research results

Step 6: Synthesize the literature prior to writing your review

Using the notes that you have taken and summary tables, develop an outline of your
final review. The following are the key steps as outlined by Galvan (2006: 71-79)

1. Consider your purpose and voice before beginning to write. In the case of this
Educ 7001 introductory literature review, your initial purpose is to provide an
overview of the topic that is of interest to you, demonstrating your understanding
of key works and concepts within your chosen area of focus. You are also
developing skills in reviewing and writing, to provide a foundation on which you
will build in subsequent courses within your M.Ed. and ultimately in your final
project. In your final project your literature review should demonstrate your
command of your field of study and/or establishing context for a study that you
have done.
2. Consider how you reassemble your notes: plan how you will organize your
findings into a unique analysis of the picture that you have captured in your
notes. Important: A literature review is not series of annotations (like an
annotated bibliography). Galvan (2006:72) captures the difference between an
annotated bibliography and a literature review very well: "...in essence, like
describing trees when you really should be describing a forest. In the case of a
literature review, you are really creating a new forest, which you will build by
using the trees you found in the literature you read."
3. Create a topic outline that traces your argument: first explain to the reader your
line or argument (or thesis); then your narrative that follows should explain and
justify your line of argument. You may find the program Inspiration useful in
mapping out your argument (and once you have created this in a concept map
 form, Inspiration enables you to convert this to a text outline merely by clicking on
the "outline" button). This can then be exported into a Microsoft Word document.
4. Reorganize your notes according to the path of your argument
5. Within each topic heading, note differences among studies.
6. Within each topic heading, look for obvious gaps or areas needing more
research.
7. Plan to describe relevant theories.
8. Plan to discuss how individual studies relate to and advance theory
9. Plan to summarize periodically and, again near the end of the review
10. Plan to present conclusions and implications
11. Plan to suggest specific directions for future research near the end of the review
12. Flesh out your outline with details from your analysis

Step 7: Writing the review (Galvan, 2006: 81-90)

1. Identify the broad problem area, but avoid global statements

2. Early in the review, indicate why the topic being reviewed is important
3. Distinguish between research finding and other sources of information
4. Indicate why certain studies are important
5. If you are commenting on the timeliness of a topic, be specific in describing the
time frame
6. If citing a classic or landmark study, identify it as such
7. If a landmark study was replicated, mention that and indicate the results of the
replication
8. Discuss other literature reviews on your topic
9. Refer the reader to other reviews on issues that you will not be discussing in
details
10. Justify comments such as, "no studies were found."
11. Avoid long lists of nonspecific references
12. If the results of previous studies are inconsistent or widely varying, cite them
separately
13. Cite all relevant references in the review section of thesis, dissertation, or journal
article

Step 8: Developing a coherent essay (Galvan, 2006: 91-96)

1. If your review is long, provide an overview near the beginning of the review
2. Near the beginning of a review, state explicitly what will and will not be covered
3. Specify your point of view early in the review: this serves as the thesis statement
of the review.
4. Aim for a clear and cohesive essay that integrates the key details of the literature
and communicates your point of view (a literature is not a series of annotated
articles).
5. Use subheadings, especially in long reviews
6. Use transitions to help trace your argument
 7. If your topic teaches across disciplines, consider reviewing studies from each
discipline separately
8. Write a conclusion for the end of the review: Provide closure so that the path of
the argument ends with a conclusion of some kind. How you end the review,
however, will depend on your reason for writing it. If the review was written to
stand alone, as is the case of a term paper or a review article for publication, the
conclusion needs to make clear how the material in the body of the review has
supported the assertion or proposition presented in the introduction. On the other
hand, a review in a thesis, dissertation, or journal article presenting original
research usually leads to the research questions that will be addressed.
9. Check the flow of your argument for coherence.

Reference:
Galvan, J. (2006). Writing literature reviews: a guide for students of the behavioral
sciences ( 3rd ed.). Glendale, CA: Pyrczak Publishing.

Resources

1. UMD & library resources and links:

1. M. Ed. Graduate Programs Research Resources. Includes links to
guidelines & resources on capstone project, proposal guidelines and
examples, Internet resources, APA resources, general writing guidance,
and human subjects application
2. UMD library: Master of Education Research Guide: Provides information
and links to: Indexes & Databases for Locating Journal Citations;
RefWorks; Finding Journal Articles; Finding Books; APA Style Manual;
Distance Education Services; Library Services
3. UMD library research tools: includes links to
4. Refworks Import Directions: Links to step-by-step directions on how to
important to Refworks from different databases
2. Writing guidelines:
1. Purdue OWL (Online Writing Lab): A user-friendly writing lab that parallels
with the 5th edition APA manual.
3. APA guidelines:
1. APA Style Essentials: overview of common core of elements of APA style.
2. APA Research Style Crib Sheet is a summary of rules for using APA style.
3. Citing References APA Style (5th ed.): provides common examples of the
APA style for citing source materials
4. APA Style for Electronic Media and URL's: commonly asked questions
regarding how to cite electronic media
5. Lesley University APA guide: APA online manual. Provides guidelines,
formatting, examples, and how to make bibliographies.
4. Examples of literature reviews:
1. Johnson, B. & Reeves, B. (2005). Challenges. Literature review chapter
from unpublished master's thesis, University of Minnesota Duluth,
Minnesota.
 2. Maguire, L. (2005). Literature review – faculty participation in online
distance education: barriers and motivators. Online Journal of Distance
Learning Administration, Volume 8, No. 1, Spring 2005. State University of
West Georgia, Distance Education Center.
3. Achacosa, M. (2003). Evaluating technology and instruction: literature
review and recommendations. Austin, TX: The University of Texas at
Austin, Division of Instructional Innovation and Assessment. (download
pdf). [The literature review begins on pg. 7]

How To Write A Problem Statement

SUMMARY
● A problem statement is a clear description of the issue(s), it includes a vision, issue
statement, and method used to solve the problem.
● The 5 'W's can be used to spark the discussion about the problem.
● A problem statement expresses the words that will be used to keep the effort focused
and it should represent a solvable problem.
How to Write a Problem Statement
A problem statement is a clear concise description of the issue(s) that need(s) to be
addressed by a problem solving team. It is used to center and focus the team at the
beginning, keep the team on track during the effort, and is used to validate that the
effort delivered an outcome that solves the problem statement. It has a specific form:
● Vision - what does the world look like if we solve the problem?
● Issue Statement - one or two sentences that describe the problem using specific
issues. It is not a "lack of a solution" statement. For example, our problem is that we
don't have an ERP system.
● Method - the process that will get followed to solve the problem. For example, DMAIC
or Kaizen.
How to get started
The 5 'W's+H - Who, What, Where, When and Why and How - is a great tool that helps
get pertinent information out for discussion.
 ● Who - Who does the problem affect? Specific groups, organizations, customers,
etc.
● What - What are the boundaries of the problem, e.g. organizational, work flow,
geographic, customer, segments, etc. - What is the issue? - What is the impact of
the issue? - What impact is the issue causing? - What will happen when it is
fixed? - What would happen if we didn’t solve the problem?
● When - When does the issue occur? - When does it need to be fixed?
● Where - Where is the issue occurring? Only in certain locations, processes,
products, etc.
● Why - Why is it important that we fix the problem? - What impact does it have on
the business or customer? - What impact does it have on all stakeholders, e.g.
employees, suppliers, customers, shareholders, etc. Each of the answers will
help to zero in on the specific issue(s) and frame the Issue Statement. Your
problem statement should be solveable. That is, it should take a reasonable
amount of time to formulate, try and deploy a potential solution.
Example
Consider a software development and hosted data services company that supplies
products and services to wireless carriers. They had issues deploying new software
releases into the production environment. Deployment in this case is the work
necessary for taking a production ready binary and installing, testing and releasing it
into the production environment. The company failed to deploy the releases on-
schedule over 50% of the time.
Problem Statement:
We want all of our software releases to go to production seamlessly, without defects,
where everyone is aware and informed of the outcomes and status. (Vision)
Today we have too many release failures that result in too many rollback failures. If we
ignore this problem; resources will need to increase to handle the cascading problems,
and we may miss critical customer deadlines which could result in lost revenue, SLA
penalties, lost business, and further damage to our quality reputation. (Issue Statement)
We will use our Kaizen Blitz methodology in evaluating the last release to help us
improve our processes. (Method)
Conclusion
A problem well stated is half solved, Wally Davis taught me that one. And he's right,
the better the clarity around what the team is attempting to fix, the more efficient they'll
be in solving the problem, the solution will better 'fix' the issues, and the team can get
back to executing the business versus fixing it.
Our experts are trained and well seasoned in defining problem statements and keeping
teams on track to deliver results. Let us help your team get better solving your
problems. Contact us today.
How to Write a Problem Statement
Sample Problem Statements Writing Your Own Problem Statement
In various situations, you may be asked to come up with the specific kind of written item
that is known as a problem statement. Whether you encounter this as a student, or as
someone involved in planning or other scenarios, take some time to understand what it
means to craft one of these specific documents. A problem statement is essentially a
clear description of an issue that faces a group or individual. In academic situations, a
problem statement can be used for accommodating research purposes, or for general
learning, for example, in setting up a mathematical problem or other educational puzzle.
In planning, it generally helps to make existing problems more concrete in helping to
develop potential solutions.

Edit Sample Problem Statements

Sample Academic Problem Statement

Sample Problem Statement
Sample Work Problem Statement

Edit Writing Your Own Problem Statement

Set up a thesis statement. The thesis statement, or opening statement, will identify the
problem, and is an important part of a problem statement.

written and/or custom works for students to purchase and turn in as their own work—
have been an increasing problem for universities across the nation since the advent of
the Internet.

Set up a thesis statement

Identify solutions. Another part of writing a problem statement is to identify

various solutions that the writer can come up with. The placement of these
solutions depends on the overall format of the problem statement, but generally,
these are presented in the context of fact after the problem has been clearly
identified.
“Essay mills”—companies that sell pre-written and/or custom works for
students to purchase and turn in as their own work—have been an
increasing problem for universities across the nation since the advent of
the Internet.

Some researchers believe that over 10% of papers turned in come from one of
these services (or from similar plagiarism, like buying from friends).

In order to combat this, stronger analytical tools are needed to compare the
student’s past body of work to the existing work being turned in.

Apply the 5 W's. Within the problem statement, it's good to keep the focus on
presenting as wide an array of facts as possible. This includes the common
meme of the five W's, or in other words, who, what, why, when and how.
Addressing each of these can make a problem statement more informative and
effective.

‣ who, what, why, when and how. Addressing each of these can make a problem
statement more informative and effective

Think about including a vision in the problem statement. The vision for a
problem statement is simply described as "what you want" or what the group
wants out of the situation. In other words, it is the desirable outcome.

“Essay mills”—companies that sell pre-written and/or custom works for

students to purchase and turn in as their own work—have been an
increasing problem for universities across the nation since the advent of
the Internet. Some researchers believe that over 10% of papers turned in
come from one of these services (or from similar plagiarism, like buying
from friends).

In order to combat this, stronger analytical tools are needed to compare the
student’s past body of work to the existing work being turned in.

Professors, overworked as they can be, need also turn a sharper eye toward the
work they’re given.
Including a vision in the problem statement

Conclude the problem statement. Bring all of this information together in an

effective conclusion that restates the issue and the main ideas that the writer is
trying to address.

“Essay mills”—companies that sell pre-written and/or custom works for

students to purchase and turn in as their own work—have been an
increasing problem for universities across the nation since the advent of
the Internet. Some researchers believe that over 10% of papers turned in
come from one of these services (or from similar plagiarism, like buying
from friends).

In order to combat this, stronger analytical tools are needed to compare the
student’s past body of work to the existing work being turned in.
Professors, overworked as they can be, need also turn a sharper eye
toward the work they’re given.

Students turning in work improperly labeled as their own are a serious problem to
every school that wants to be taken seriously. We must take more steps in
analyzing the work to mitigate the practice’s impact on education and society.

Conclude the problem statement

● Think of the conclusion as a concise restatement of the general issue. It's

also sometimes useful to make a final appeal to the reader or present the
entire issue in a new or different way. For example, some effective
conclusions can add a sense of urgency to underscore what the writer has
been saying throughout the document, especially if the writer is
approaching the issue from an angle of advocacy.

Do a final edit. The final edit will help the writer to catch all sorts of
problems, from simple typos to larger problems with grammar and style.
 ‣ The final edit will help the writer to catch all sorts of problems, from simple typos
to larger problems with grammar and style

Do a final edit

● Figure out whether the entire problem statement is cohesive and flows
easily. Make sure all of the main principles are addressed and key
information is not left out. The final edit is often the difference between a
great problem statement and a poorly written or somewhat ineffective one.

HOW TO WRITE A STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM IN FOUR STEPS

INTRODUCTION

This is a simplified version of my notes on writing a statement of the problem

found elsewhere on this website.

Let€™s define it:

Research can be defined as a systematic investigation into and study of materials

and sources in order to establish facts and reach new conclusions. It is normally
born out of a problem hence the phrase €œstatement of problem€• or
€œProblem statement€•.

A "Problem Statement" is a description of a difficulty or lack that needs to be solved or

at least researched to see whether a solution can be found. It can also be described as
either a gap between the real and the desired or a contradiction between principle and
practice.

What is the goal of a statement of problem?

The ultimate goal of a problem statement is to transform a generalized problem

(something that bothers you; a perceived lack) into a targeted, well-defined
problem€”one that can be resolved through focused research and careful decision-
making.

Writing a Problem Statement should help you clearly identify the purpose of the project
you will propose. Often, the Problem Statement will also serve as the basis for the
introductory section of your final proposal, directing your reader€™s attention quickly to
the issues that your proposed project will address and providing the reader with a
concise statement of the proposed project itself.

A statement problem need not be long and windy. One page is more than enough for a
good statement of problem.

What are the key characteristics of a statement of problem?

A good research problem should at minimum:

1. Address a gap
2. be significant enough to contribute to the existing body of research
3. be one that will lead to more research
4. renter itself to be investigated via collection of data
5. be interesting to the researcher and suit his/her skills, time and resources
6. be ethical

What is the format (parts of a problem statement)?

A persuasive problem statement consists of three parts: 1) the ideal, 2) the

reality, and 3) the consequences.

1. Part A- the ideal: Describes a desired goal or ideal situation; explains how
things should be.

2. Part B €“ the reality: Describes a condition that prevents the goal, state, or
value in Part A from being achieved or realized at this time; explains how the
current situation falls short of the goal or ideal.

3. Part C €“ the consequences: Identifies the way you propose to improve the
current situation and move it closer to the goal or ideal.

Here are your simple four steps to write a statement problem

Step 1 (statement 1)

Construct statement 1 by describing a goal or desired state of a given situation,

phenomenon etc. This will build the ideal situation (what should be, what is expected,
desired)

Step 2 (statement 2)
Describe a condition that prevents the goal, state, or value discussed in step 1 from
being achieved or realized at the present time. This will build the reality, the situation as
it is and establish a gap between what ought to be and what is

Step 3

Connect steps 1 and 2 using a term such as "but," "however,"

"Unfortunately," or "in spite of";

Step 4 (statement 3)

Using specific details show how the situation in step 2 contains little promise of
improvement unless something is done. Then emphasize the benefits of research by
projecting the consequences of possible solutions as well.

Examples

Example 1

Part A. According to the XY university mission statement, the university seeks to

provide students with a safe, healthy learning environment. Dormitories are one
important aspect of that learning environment, since 55% of XY students live in
campus dorms and most of these students spend a significant amount of time
working in their dorm rooms.

However,

Part B. Students living in dorms A B C, and D currently do not have air conditioning
units, and during the hot seasons, it is common for room temperatures to exceed 80
degrees F. Many students report that they are unable to do homework in their dorm
rooms. Others report problems sleeping because of the humidity and temperature. The
rooms are not only unhealthy, but they inhibit student productivity and academic
achievement.

Part C. In response to this problem, our study proposes to investigate several

options for making the dorms more hospitable. We plan to carry out an all inclusive
participatory investigation into options for purchasing air conditioners (university-funded;
student-subsidized) and different types of air conditioning systems. We will also
consider less expensive ways to mitigate some or all of the problems noted above (such
as creating climate-controlled dorm lounges and equipping them with better study areas
and computing space).

Example 2

STEP 1 (statement 1)

The government of Kenya has a goal to industrialize by the year 2030 (quote). In this
regard it has encouraged growth oriented micro and small enterprises (MSEs) that
should graduate into medium and large enterprises capable of contributing to the
industrialization goal. There are several sessional papers (quote/cite) that contain
specific measures to encourage and support MSEs.

Step 2 and 3 (STATEMENT 2)

Despite the said government efforts there is slow growth of micro into small
enterprises and even slower growth of small into medium scale enterprises(quote,
show statistics). The government has officially acknowledged that there exists a
€œmissing middle€• in Kenya meaning that there is a gap between small and large
enterprises in the country (cite, quote).

STATEMENT 3

Should the €œmissing middle€• gap persist then the industrialization goal may be
difficult to achieve. Need therefore arises to investigate why despite government efforts
there is a persistent €œmissing middle€•.

Example 3

STATEMENT 1

In order to accomplish their missions public universities need motivated workforces.

STATEMENT 2

There are however frequent and severe disciplinary actions, absenteeism as well as
various forms of unrests in public universities which affect the accomplishment of the
set missions. Our preliminary investigation reveals that both non-management and
management staff are not adequately motivated.
STATEMENT 3

Without effective motivational packages and procedures the said vices are likely to
continue and retard the achievement of the universities€™ missions

Need arises to examine the public universities€™ motivation systems and procedures
hence this proposed research

Example 4

STATEMENT 1

The Ministry of Youth is dedicated to allocating enterprise development funds to both

the youth and women. These funds are made available in order to start entrepreneurial
ventures that create and expand employment. (provide relevant statistics and quote)

STATEMENT 2

One of the main focuses of the ministry is consistency. Unfortunately, consistency in

allocating funds to the next generation of recipients requires prior knowledge of previous
allocations and established practices. The current continuous disbursement method
does not allow for adequate analysis of previous disbursements before a current
disbursement is done.

STATEMENT 3

Continuing with this current disbursement method prevents consistency and causes
decisions to become grossly political, which in turn inhibits the achievement of the goals
of the funds. Developing a more informed disbursement system could help better
implement the consistency focus of the ministry and at the same time help the ministry
better monitor and evaluate its funds.

STATEMENT 4

This proposed research aspires to explore options for a new funds disbursement
system that would focus on consistency. To do this, the researcher will carry out a full
stakeholder analysis and use it to propose appropriate policy interventions.

By Prof. Henry M. Bwisa €“ bwihem@gmail.com

PROBLEM STATEMENT KEY WORDS

Identify define relate describe
justify indicate explain conceptualise
contrast clarify assess interpret
suggest analyse derive demonstrate
review deduce apply categorise
compare create argue differentiate
illustrate resolve design formulate
propose debate evaluate construct
integrate suggest establish challenge
compile develop criticise consolidate
ascertain appraise calculate formulate
estimate solve construct recommend

Identify define relate describe review justify indicate formulate explain compare
contrast suggest interpret analyse assess construct apply demonstrate illustrate
categorise deduce create resolve debate propose differentiate construct argue
derive design evaluate establish conceptualise suggest integrate compile
develop challenge consolidate clarify criticise formulate ascertain appraise
calculate recommend

Kenal pasti menentukan berkaitan menggambarkan kajian menunjukkan mewajarkan

merumuskan menjelaskan membandingkan Sebaliknya mencadangkan mentafsir
menganalisis menilai membina memohon menunjukkan menggambarkan
mengkategorikan simpulkan mewujudkan menyelesaikan perbahasan mencadangkan
membezakan membina berhujah diterbitkan? reka bentuk menilai menubuhkan
mengilhamkan nyamencadangkan mengintegrasikan menyusun membangunkan
mencabar menyatukan menjelaskan mengkritik merumuskan menentukan menilai
mengira mengesyorkan