The growth and body composition of an Animals

Growth commonly refers to an increase in size or weight of an animal. There is a need to

differentiate true growth caused by increase in the amount of living material (an increase in
cell mass) from the increase in weight caused, for example, by ingestion of water or food.
Sometimes the term growth has therefore been restricted to an increase in size of those parts of
an animal which are subsequently capable of growing more. Another aspect of growth is that
it involves change in shape and perhaps composition. This is the attributable to cellular
differentiation and is the main reason why it is of interest in meat science. Generally we want
to eat some parts of an animal but not others, or at least we prefer some parts to others. It is
therefore important to know how the yield of the desirable parts can be maximized. For
example, we might well want to maximize the yield of lean meat and reduce the proportion of
fat in the carcass.

Growth in Animal

The Growth Curve

If the weight of an animal is plotted against its age, an S shaped or sigmoid curve is produced
(Fig 2.1)

Fig. 2.1 The relationship between the weight and of an animal and its age

The weight increases slowly at first, the rate of increase reaches a maximum and then decreases
so the increase in live weight with age in old animals is small. This shape of growth curve can
be derived for most animals. The point of inflexion, where the curve changes from concave to
convex, occurs at the maximum growth rate and is therefore referred to as the maximum point
of growth. Food consumed by the animal is used for two processes: the maintenance of existing
tissues and the growth of new tissue. As growth is fastest at the maximum point of growth it is
most efficient because the proportion of the total energy available to the animal that is used for
maintenance of its body is relatively least. At any time, growth is determined by the balance
between accelerating and retarding forces. An example of an accelerating force is the increase
in the mass of the cells making up the body. Examples of retarding forces are the decrease in
available space for a tissue to grow, or lack of nutrients. The maximum point of growth is
where the two forces are balance. This occurs at puberty in mammals. Normally this is at about
30% of mature weight.

The process of growth:

As indicate above growth consist of a combination of increase in the total body cell mass and
differentiation of these cells. The differentiation makes certain tissues, organs or parts of the
body grow at different rates from that of whole body and leads to a change in shape as well as
size. It is a point of common observation that human babies have relatively big heads compared
with adults. The same is true for other young mammals including meat species. These often
also have relatively long thin legs. Because they grow at different rates, different parts of the
body mature at different time. This applies whether region of the body, different types of tissues
or different examples of a particular tissue are considered. The head develops faster and
matures earlier than the thorax, which in turns matures before the loin. Central nervous tissue
matures before bone, which matures before muscle. The last tissue mature is fat and, within
this tissue, different depots mature earlier or later. The first to mature is the fat surrounding the
kidneys (perinephric), followed by that between different muscles (intramuscular), that just
under the skin (subcutaneous)and finally the fat within the muscles (intramuscular).

Factors influencing the growth and development of meat animals

1- General:

As an animal grows up two things happen: (1) it increases in weight until mature size
is reached; this we call growth and (2) it changes in its body conformation and shapes, and its
various functions and faculties come into full being; this we call development. The curve
relating live weight to age has an S shape and is similar in sheep, cattle and pigs. There is a
short initial phase when live weight increases little with increasing age: this is followed by a
phase of explosive growth; then finally, there is a phase when the rate of growth is very low.
With the onset of sexual maturity, further differential muscular development occurs, whereby,
in the male, the muscles of the neck and thorax grow relatively fast. These assist in fighting for
dominance. In most of the animals, although the female mature earlier, the male is larger and
heavier than the female in adult life and since the different parts of the tissues of the body grow
at different rates, the difference in size between the sexes results in a difference in the
development of the body proportions. Castration in either sex tends to reduce sex differences
in growth rate and body conformation.

2- Genetic aspects:
 Genetic influences on the growth of animals are detectable early in embryonic life
till to death. Environmental and genetic factors are closely interrelated: favorable
environmental conditions are necessary for the full expression of the individual's genetic
capacity. The genetic heritability of certain traits of animals are given below.

Trait Heritability Trait Heritability

Reproductive efficiency 2–10% Growth 20–40%
Meat quality 15–30% Muscle/fat ratio 40–60%

Several economically important traits in meat animals are heritable to some and can thus be
selected for by animal breeding. In cattle, certain growth features are controlled by recessive
genes which have not so far been controlled, complicating breeding. One such trait is dwarfism;
another is the doppelender or "double muscling" condition, which causes muscle hypertrophy
and thereby increases the animal's commercial value. Genetic analysis continues to reveal the
genetic mechanisms that control numerous aspects of the endocrine system and, through it,
meat growth and quality

Genetic engineering techniques can shorten breeding programmes significantly because they
allow for the identification and isolation of genes coding for desired traits, and for the
reincorporation of these genes into the animal genome. To enable such manipulation, research
is ongoing (as of 2006) to map the entire genome of sheep, cattle and pigs. Some research has
already seen commercial application. For instance, a recombinant bacterium has been
developed which improves the digestion of grass in the rumen of cattle, and some specific
features of muscle fibres have been genetically altered.

Experimental reproductive cloning of commercially important meat animals such as sheep, pig
or cattle has been successful. The multiple asexual reproduction of animals bearing desirable
traits can thus be anticipated, although this is not yet practical on a commercial scale.

3-Environmental physiology:

The subject of heat regulation in farm animals has a wide economic significance. Sheep, cattle,
and pigs attempt to maintain their body temperature at a constant value which is optimum for
biological activity. Of the three domestic species, sheep most able to achieve this, and pigs
least able. In general it is not the degree of heat alone which causes distress to animals in the
tropics but its combination with humidity and the duration of these conditions. Low
temperatures tend to prolong animal development and high temperatures tend to retard it.
Depending on their size, body shape and insulation through tissue and fur, some animals have
a relatively narrow zone of temperature tolerance and others (e.g. cattle) a broad one.

4-Nutritional aspects:

All cold-blooded animals and a large number of warm-blooded ones spend an unexpectedly
large proportion of their time doing nothing to all, or at any rate, nothing in particular. When
they do begin, they spend the greater part of their lives eating. Finding enough of the right kind
of food is the most important general factor determining the development, dominance and
survival of all living organisms.
The quality and quantity of usable meat depends on the animal's plane of nutrition, i.e., whether
it is over- or underfed. Scientists disagree, however, about how exactly the plane of nutrition
influences carcass composition.

The composition of the diet, especially the amount of protein provided, is also an important
factor regulating animal growth. Ruminants, which may digest cellulose, are better adapted to
poor-quality diets, but their ruminal microorganisms degrade high-quality protein if supplied
in excess. Because producing high-quality protein animal feed is expensive, several techniques
are employed or experimented with to ensure maximum utilization of protein. These include
the treatment of feed with formalin to protect amino acids during their passage through the
rumen, the recycling of manure by feeding it back to cattle mixed with feed concentrates, or
the partial conversion of petroleum hydrocarbons to protein through microbial action.

The animals on different planes of nutrition, even if they are of the same breed and weight, will
differ greatly in form and composition. When an animal is kept on a sub maintenance diet, the
different tissues and body regions are utilized for the supply of energy and protein for life in
the reverse order of their maturity. Under such conditions fat is first utilized, followed by
muscle and then by bone; and these tissues are first depleted from those regions of the body
which are latest to mature.

4.2- Interaction with other species

Ruminants largely depend on the micro-organisms in their digestive tract to break down the
cellulose of plant foods to easily assimilable, energy-yielding molecules such as fatty acids;
and, in some cases, for the elaboration of vitamins and other accessory food factors.

4.3- Soils and plant growth

On the Earth, the major ultimate source of energy is sunlight; and it is only in the Plant
Kingdom that a mechanism exists for its conversion into a stored form – the photosynthesis of
carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water by the green, light-sensitive pigment chlorophyll.
In turn the availability of plants depends upon types of soil and the interaction of the latter with
climatic conditions.

4.4- Trace materials in soils and pastures

Pastures, of course, may also be deficient in trace organic substances, thus muscular dystrophy
occurs in sheep, cattle (especially young ones).

In plant feed, environmental factors influence the availability of crucial nutrients or

micronutrients, a lack or excess of which can cause a great many ailments. In Australia, for
instance, where the soil contains limited phosphate, cattle are being fed additional phosphate
to increase the efficiency of beef production. Also in Australia, cattle and sheep in certain areas
were often found losing their appetite and dying in the midst of rich pasture; this was at length
found to be a result of cobalt deficiency in the soil. Plant toxins are also a risk to grazing
animals; for instance, sodium fluoracetate, found in some African and Australian plants, kills
by disrupting the cellular metabolism. Certain man-made pollutants such as methylmercury
and some pesticide residues present a particular hazard due to their tendency to bioaccumulate
in meat, potentially poisoning consumers.

4.5- Unconventional feed sources

It has been demonstrated that yeast can ferment mineral hydrocarbon fractions to produce
protein of high biological value which is as effective for the growth of stock as soya meal or
fish protein concentrates. Bacteria can also subsist on crude petroleum; and, like yeast, they
can convert it into protein of high biological value for animal feeding and, simultaneously,
upgrade the hydrocarbon to produce high-grade domestic fuel.

5- Exogenous manipulation
5.1- Reproduction control
It can be manipulated by using,
Increased fertility
Meat producers may seek to improve the fertility of female animals through the administration
of gonadotrophic or ovulation-inducing hormones. In pig production, sow infertility is a
common problem — possibly due to excessive fatness. No methods currently exist to augment
the fertility of male animals.
Artificial insemination
Artificial insemination is now routinely used to produce animals of the best possible genetic
quality, and the efficiency of this method is improved through the administration of hormones
that synchronize the ovulation cycles within groups of females.
5.2- Growth control
It can be manipulated by using,
Hormones and tranquillizers
Growth hormones, particularly anabolic agents such as steroids, are used in some countries to
accelerate muscle growth in animals. This practice has given rise to the beef hormone
controversy, an international trade dispute. It may also decrease the tenderness of meat,
although research on this is inconclusive, and have other effects on the composition of the
muscle flesh. Where castration is used to improve control over male animals, its side effects
are also counteracted by the administration of hormones.
Sedatives may be administered to animals to counteract stress factors and increase weight gain.
Antibiotics
The feeding of antibiotics to certain animals has been shown to improve growth rates also. This
practice is particularly prevalent in the USA, but has been banned in the EU, partly because it
causes antibiotic resistance in pathogenic microorganisms. As we have seen, the present forms
of meat animals have arisen from long-term direct and indirect effects of natural factors on
their genetic potential; and, over a relatively short period, from the artificial selection by man
of desired variants. Deliberate, scientific manipulation of domestic livestock to alter their
reproduction, growth and development along largely predetermines lines is now possible.