5.

THE ROLE OF THE SOCIAL WORKER

5.1. What role the social worker should fulfil in the future will benefit from a
consideration of the variety of roles identified in the literature and which forms the
focus of this section of the review.

5.2. Just as 'social work' is a contested concept with competing and often conflicting
elements so too are there very different notions of what the actual role of the social
worker is or should be. In many respects, part of the current crisis in social work can
be attributed to the fact that there is a gap between what social workers think their
role should be and the role they are expected to fulfil.

Crisis in the Social Worker Role?

5.3. Disillusionment with the social work task (Françozo and Cassorla, 2004);
providing a first aid service in the face of organisational demands (Georgoussi,
2003); limited face to face work with clients (Rogers, 2001) have all been attributed
to the gap between what might be called the rhetoric and reality of the social work
role. Because of this, what have been referred to as 'technical fixes' which ignore
the deep rooted problems facing social work will perpetuate rather than alleviate
the crisis in social work (Jones et al., 2004). Being a social worker in itself is not
necessarily a bad thing. But being a social worker in a context where 'social work'
cannot be meaningfully practised has made for high turnover and poor retention
rates.

Social Work: Ideal Types

5.4. There are many notions of what the role of the social worker should be and
below we identify the more prevalent of them. These are not presented in terms of
any historical or chronological continuity but - to assist this brief analysis - almost as
ideal types. They are readily identified in the literature about the profession of
social work and also about the organisational structure of social work. They are also
inextricably associated with the values and principles seen to underpin social work
in general. The main ideal types can be identified as follows.
The social worker as counsellor or caseworker

5.5. The idea of the social worker as someone who works with or counsels
individuals has been a recurrent and powerful notion in social work throughout its
history (Younghusband, 1959). It has also been closely associated with some of the
key values of social work and in particular recognising the inherent worth of the
individual and respecting the person. Counselling and casework of course also
appeals to those whose view of social work as a whole is one in which helping or
supporting individuals is a key component. There is also implicit in the role of the
social worker as counsellor or caseworker the idea that change will be involved in
the behaviour or outlook of the client or service user. It is the loss of the casework
or counselling role which has been seen to be a major issue for social work as
provided through public services.

The social worker as advocate

5.6. The social worker can also be viewed as an advocate on behalf of the poor or
socially excluded. The advocacy role can also be played for individuals or groups
such as families or communities and in some respects the advocacy role can also be
associated with community work. The social worker in this role can give assist or
support individuals or groups by giving voice or assisting them to give their own
voice to their wishes, needs and aspirations. The advocacy role still privileges the
notion of a close relationship between client/service user and social worker.

The social worker as partner

5.7. The social worker can also be viewed as a partner of and working for
disadvantaged or disempowered individuals or groups. Again, there is a close
relationship between the social worker and those s/he is supporting. In reference to
both the social worker as advocate and social worker as supporter, the
empowerment of the client or group is an important and major objective.

The social work as assessor of risk and of need

5.8. Increasingly, social workers have been given a major role in the assessment of
need and risk over a number of client groups. The concern has been that whereas
assessment is an important task for social workers it may well be at the cost of
other activities important for social workers such as fulfilling the casework role and
working with individuals, families and groups. Similarly, the assessment role may
also be seen to be associated with a policing or surveillance role (Garrett, 2004). A
fracture in the relationship between the client/service user and the social worker
may well appear. The possible confusion and ambiguity in role has also been
explored in reference to the mental health role carried out by social workers (Myers,
1999).

The social worker as care manager

5.9. Social workers may also have a role as care manager. They may be involved in
arranging care for clients/service users but be involved in very little direct contact
with the clients whose care they are organising. In the mixed economy of care,
social workers may arrange care for individuals which is carried out by non qualified
social workers or those working within the voluntary or private sectors.

The social worker as agent of social control

5.10. The function of social work, particularly from a radical perspective, can be
seen to be a conservative force in perpetuating a social and economic system which
accounts for the inequalities and disadvantage experienced by many. So too can
the social worker be viewed as an agent of social control. In the broad sense this
can be taken to refer to the role the social worker may play in maintaining the
social system in general. One of the responses to our small consultation suggested
that if social work did not exist then there would be a breakdown in the social
system. In the narrower sense, the social worker can be considered as playing a
control role in the responsibilities s/he is required to fulfil in relation to social work
with offenders, or with those whose behaviour is problematic.

5.11. There is no suggestion in this report that social workers at any one time fulfil
only one of these roles. Social workers may play all of these different roles in
varying degrees of mix at any time in their career. The difficulty for many social
workers and social work commentators is that the mix may have swung more away
from the casework or counselling role involving direct work with clients to one in
which there is less and less such direct involvement. Social workers may have
become more social care managers, risk assessors and controlling or surveillance
agents (Jordan and Jordan, 2000; Jones et al., 2004).

5.12. One of the difficulties for social workers is that there may well be conflict
between these different ideal types because they make very different assumptions
about the function of social work; what should be expected of social workers and
because social workers may well be asked to fulfil conflicting roles at any one time.

5.13. Much of the comment on the disillusionment expressed by social workers is

because of this shift away from direct work with clients - a feature of the expected
social work which may have underpinned motivation to become a social worker in
the first place.

Too often today social workers are often doing little more than supervising the
deterioration of people's lives (Jones et al., 2004).

5.14. Whether such a stark statement can be generally acceptable as a prevalent

view on social work it is certainly one which informs many critiques of the role
played by social workers (Jordan and Parkinson, 2001). It also crystallises the
question as to just what form of social work is relevant or adequate to meet the
experiences and needs of large sections of the population in the 21st century.

5.15. We have already noted that community development or community social

work was also seen to be an important aspect in working with clients (Barclay,
1982). However, for many social workers there is little opportunity to carry out such
work, particularly in local authority social work departments.

Social Work Practice: Core Values

5.16. Though there may be disagreement over the primary role of the social worker
there is nevertheless as noted above little disagreement about the core value of
respecting persons and seeing the person as a whole person. This is also reflected
in the commitment in practice that what is or should be distinctive about the social
work role is the capacity to adopt a person centred approach locating the person in
the context of his/her life situation as a whole. Whereas other professions may be
concerned more with elements of a person's life, such as health, education, housing
or income, social work is committed to working with the whole person and
addressing the interrelatedness of different issues.

5.17. It is on the basis of these key value and practice principles that social work
lays its claim to being a distinctive profession. The Seebohm Report argued for
change in the provision of social services through the medium of a large scale
department which would improve service provision for clients but which would also
contribute to the professional identity of social workers. The position adopted now is
that the professional identity of social work does not depend on institutional or
organisational context but is rather more to do with the value and practice
distinctiveness of the social work role ( Community Care, 17 June 2004). This will
become particularly important when we consider the relationship between social
work and other professions.

5.18. Note should also be taken of a strand in the literature which addresses not
simply why some people choose to become social workers but also who chooses to
do so. In particular, the point is made by a number of commentators (Cree and
Cavanagh, 1995; Froschi, 2002; Bruckner, 2002; Harlow, 2004) that there may be a
gender bias influencing both motivation and retention in social work as the role of
the social worker, if conceived of as involving close and direct working with
individuals. The argument has been made that if social work continues to lose the
key element of working with people, it may be that women in particular will find
social work as a profession less appealing. Conversely, if there continues to be a
managerial and monitoring role associated with social work, it may be that men are
to better accommodate or tolerate this role in the absence of direct work with
individuals (Cree and Cavanagh, 1995; Froschi, 2002).

Social Work: Rural Contexts

5.19. The fact that much of the academic and professional literature relates to
social work in an urban setting has also been the focus of discussion by those who
argue for a form of social work which acknowledges that much social work is
practised in rural settings, and that rural social work may have to take a very
different form from the primarily urban (Turbett, 2004). A specific feature of the
writing on rural social work is that it identifies the importance of what could be said
to be lacking in much urban social work - the direct working with people in their
communities and the notion of not just working in but also with communities. We
would argue that there is much to be learnt from a further exploration of the value
of and specific nature of rural social work - especially for future developments in
Scotland. Turbett (Turbett, 2004) points to distinctive features of rural social work
and in particular emphasises the community role and face to face involvement with
service users as significant. The allocation of scarce resources, both human and
financial, with in a rural context might also merit further consideration.

5.20. The geographical position of rural communities; the isolation of the social
workers; the distribution of resources; accessibility to social work assistance; and
the potential for the deployment of modern information and communications
technologies allowing access to direct social work help all merit greater exploration
for their relevance to the Scottish context. Rural social work is relevant not just for
Scotland but also for most countries in Europe where large sections of the
population live in rural communities that present the common issues of poverty,
exclusion, ill health and limited labour market opportunities

Alternative Perspectives

5.21. The ideal types of the role of the social worker have largely been based on a
reading of UK and associated literature. It is important however to bear in mind that
the specific form of social work provision is culture and country located. This is best
summed up by the statement from the IASSW ( IASSW (International Association of
Schools of Social Work), 2001) which also gives a comprehensive profile of what role
social workers might play:

Social work utilises a variety of skills, techniques, and activities consistent with its
holistic focus on persons and their environments. Social work interventions range
from primarily person-focused psychosocial processes to involvement in social
policy, planning and development. These include counselling, clinical social work,
group work, social pedagogical work, and family treatment and therapy as well as
efforts to help people obtain services and resources in the community. Interventions
also include agency administration, community organisation and engaging in social
and political action to impact social policy and economic development. The holistic
focus of social work is universal, but the priorities of social work practice will vary
from country to country and from time to time depending on cultural, historical, and
socio-economic conditions.
5.22. There are other models of 'social work' in other countries and contexts which
merit consideration and in particular social pedagogy (Lorenz, 2000), which is a
distinctive form of social work offered in a number of countries in central and
eastern Europe though mainly Germanic in origin. The significance of examining the
distinctive contribution of 'social pedagogy' or 'education specialisée' is that it has
also been considered on occasion for its potential as a model for future
developments in the UK (Kornbeck, 2002).

5.23. Social pedagogy is perhaps best described as being 'education' based and is
clearly derived from pedagogics in general. The significance of the 'education'
element of social pedagogy is that it emphases the potential of individuals to
address their family and social situation through the acquisition of appropriate skills
and knowledge. The role of the social pedagogue is to assist the individual realise
his/her potential through a process of 'education' and 'instruction'. Put perhaps
rather too simply, social pedagogy involves-

* working with individuals on a relationship basis

* assisting individuals in acquiring the necessary knowledge and skills to be a

member of appropriate social groups - the family, community and society
( http://p.l3xicon.com/pedagogy.html)

* often sharing the life space of the individuals involved

5.24. One way of clearly illustrating the education based approach of the social
pedagogue is by outlining the tasks that the pedagogue should be equipped to
undertake and also profile the type of trainings/he may undergo:

On obtaining the BA Degree the social pedagogue should be able to: function as a
self aware professional, with a sound understanding of the psychodynamics of
his/her own behaviour and its likely effect on others, understand and hypothesise
about the behaviours and motivations of others, cope with complex and
unpredictable life situations, take responsibility for assessing and intervening
creatively in situations, work one to one or with groups of children and young
people and their families, liaise and work collaboratively with other professionals,
offer a variety of strategies for preventive and compensatory work with individuals
and groups (University of Ljubljana: http://www.pef.uni-lj.si/straniep_sope.html ).
And in terms of the kinds of courses the social pedagogue will take they include

* Theory of education

* Sport activities

* Developmental psychology

* Selected issues of educational psychology

* Sociology of education

* Selected chapters from philosophy

* Pedagogy of children with special needs

* Specific developmental troubles

* Personality theory and psychodynamics

* Social psychology and group dynamics

* Basic issues of criminology and penology

5.25. There is no guarantee that every training programme will offer this mix of
courses as at the University of Ljubljana but what it does clearly illustrate is the
heavy emphasis on 'education' as an approach to allowing individuals to realise
their potential as members of groups. But the self knowledge required of the social
pedagogue certainly fits well with the idea that social workers' own experiences
may be important and useful elements for becoming a social worker (Ruch, 2000).
Similarly, the emphasis on human relationships and a holistic approach certainly fits
with what many would take to be core elements of social work practice. What also
differentiates social work as understood in the UK and social pedagogy is the way in
which the client is viewed - a concern in the UK that the client or service user is
made to fit within a bureaucratic system. In social pedagogy, there is an
educational relationship less trammelled by specific bureaucratic structure.

5.26. Two comments can be made here. One is that far from being a distinctive
model of 'social work', social pedagogy greatly influenced the growth of casework in
America with the migration of many Europeans in the inter- and postwar years
(Ruch, 2000). The notion of social pedagogy cannot however be taken as the
equivalent of 'social work' and there is no guarantee that it would readily translate
into a UK context (Kornbeck, 2002) for all the reasons given above about the
importance of cultural and historical differences. But it does privilege working
directly with people much as promised by the core values of social work.

5.27. The second is that it should not be forgotten that the Kilbrandon report
(Kilbrandon, 1964) recommended that a separate service be established to support
the new integrated arrangements for dealing with children in need and those who
committed offences. This was not however to be a social work department (that was
only suggested in the 1968 White Paper) but was to be a social education
department. Though Kilbrandon did not fully elaborate on this there are grounds to
believe that what was intended was not an 'education' department in the traditional
sense but rather a department based on principles much akin to those of social
pedagogy. The social education department proposed by Kilbrandon may well have
had its roots more in the notion of allowing an individual to realise his/her potential
in society, much as with the role of the educateur in France.

5.28. Lyons (Lyons, 2002) also notes, in reference to the possible importing of social
pedagogy into the UK, that

'… current efforts ... Tend to focus on employment of social workers from Australia
or South Africa while experienced social pedagogues have had difficulty gaining
employment as social workers in the London area.'

5.29. Acknowledging the difficulties of importing social pedagogy, Kornbeck

(Kornbeck, 2002) suggests that it could be transformed into a UK context with some
modification to the benefit of British social work. Whether this might be possible at
a time when social work in the UK is seeking to establish its own distinct
professional identity is of course another issue.

5.30. As we have suggested elsewhere in this review, there is also no guarantee

that what works in one country will work in another because of the very different
social, political and cultural contexts involved. Nor do we suggest that social
pedagogy should be considered as an infallible model operating well in other
countries. For example, social pedagogy could be criticised for the way in which it
lends itself to social engineering. That is, it could be used to ensure that individuals
maintained appropriate political beliefs - a concern for those documenting the
history of social pedagogy in its relationship to Nazism.

5.31. Rather, our purpose is to identify social pedagogy as an example of an

approach to social work which privileges many aspects of working with individuals
which current critics suggest are lacking from current social work in the UK: working
face to face with individuals; emphasising the family, community and social context.

5.32. What has also been made clear to us is that in terms of alternative
perspectives, countries such as Japan are placing more emphasis on working with
individuals as members of families and communities.

The Role of the Social Worker: Summary

5.33. The literature indicates that there are a number of roles which social workers
play and include the social worker as advocate, counsellor, caseworker, partner, risk
assessor, care manager and agent of social control. This may of course not be an
exhaustive list but it does indicate the range of potentially conflicting roles which
social workers are seen to fulfil.

5.34. Though the roles attributed to social workers have changed and continue to
be subject to review, the values and principles on which social work is based have
remained relatively constant.

5.35. The extent to which social workers align themselves with any particular role
may also indicate the extent to which they consider they are practising social work
in terms of the key values and principles on which social work is based. For
example, the key principle of working with individuals on a relationship basis may
be compromised by the necessity to adopt the care manager role.

5.36. Alternative models of social work such as social pedagogy may well
emphasise working with individuals in terms of key social work principles but may
not be readily adaptable to a UK or indeed Scottish context. Other models of social
work likewise emphasise the importance of locating the service user at the centre of
social work and acknowledging the significance of the family, community and
society.

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3. SOCIAL WORK- ITS NATURE AND FUNCTION

In this section, we consider the nature and function of social work in anticipation of
the discussion on the role of the social worker.

Defining Social Work

3.1. Any attempt to explore the role and function of the social worker must of
necessity seek to answer or at the very least address one basic question - what is
social work? Our concern here is not to indulge in semantics though there is a
serious issue about the language within which social work is framed and to which
we will return later. Rather, our purpose is to identify the main definitions of social
work as a social movement.

3.2. The logic for this is very simple. Without some agreed notion of what it is that
constitutes social work, it is well nigh impossible to determine what the role of the
social worker might be; what skills and expertise social workers should have; what
training and education is appropriate for social workers; and what it is that
distinguishes social work from other professions.

3.3. Differences in what is taken to be social work can also account in part for the
gap between what social workers say they want to achieve and accomplish and
what they are able to achieve within the constraints of the institutional settings
within which they operate. It may also partly account for the gap in expectations of
those who seek to enter the profession of social work and what they experience
when they are in a work situations. It may also account for the fact that materials
and documentation relating to the training courses offered by training institutions
rarely (though with some exceptions) offer intending students any definition of what
social work is.

3.4. Cree (Cree, 2003, p.3) states that 'It is almost impossible to find a simple
definition of social work with which everyone is likely to agree'. Thompson
(Thompson, 2000, p.13) suggests 'Social work is what social workers do'. For Cree
(Cree, 2003, p.4), though the Thomson position is not seen by her to be very
helpful, goes on to state that:
We should not expect to find unanimity in books about social work, or even in
accounts of social workers. Social work is always subject to competing claims of
definition and practice, and cannot be separated from the society in which it is
located. Rather social work has to be seen as a collection of competing and
contradictory discourses that come together at a particular moment in time to
frame the task of social work.

Social Work as a Contested Concept

3.5. From this perspective, social work is what social work is seen to legitimately be.
This of course presents no statement as to the actual nature and function of social
work. It does though emphasise the importance that what social work is, is subject
to a process of what Askeland and Payne (Askeland and Payne, 2001) call
'validation'. That is, a process of legitimation validates what is seen to be the nature
of social work from a variety of conflicting definitions and assumptions. Social work
is a truly contested concept and at any point in time there are competing
definitions. What is clear is that what social work is taken to be has as much been
about whose definition is seen as legitimate rather than which definition.

Social work has always been subject to competing claims of definition and practice,
as social workers, politicians, service users and policy makers have struggled to lay
claims on what social work is, and what it might be.

And

To understand social work, therefore, we must understand how knowledge is

validated within the profession (Askeland and Payne, 2001, p.14).

3.6. What this inevitably implies is that there is no universal body of knowledge for
social workers. What is seen to be valid knowledge or indeed the function of social
work is defined by many others outwith the profession including academics,
educators, professionals, administrators, politicians, users, carers and the media.
There can be no doubt that within these different constituencies, there are very
different views and assumptions about social work and its function, fuelled by
vested interests and media representation, especially of problematic cases and
scenarios.

3.7. This of course makes it very difficult to identify what are the appropriate skills
and expertise needed for social work. It also accounts for the fact that social work
as a movement has since its earliest days been associated with continual change
and critical reflection on what it is; how best and where best it can be exercised. It
also makes it very difficult to establish a clear professional identity for social work
when the concept itself is subject to the views and assumptions of competing
constituencies. Similarly, accepted or validated notions of social work which are
embedded in the organisational structures of public social services may be entirely
unacceptable to those with a more radical bent (Searing, 2004). For some, the
resolution of this near chaos in competing statements about the nature and function
of social work resides in the importance of social workers themselves determining
what their specific professional identity is in order to ward off conflicting, indeed
detrimental, notions about social work and its role.

Defining Social Work: The International Federation of Social Work

3.8. However, one particular statement of the nature of social work has been agreed
in the international community and has been accepted by the many constituencies
within the UK and the international community (though Cree and others do not see
it as in itself an acceptable statement). In 2001, the International Association of
Schools of Social Work and the International Federation of Social Work agreed the
following definition:

The social work profession promotes social change, problem-solving in human

relationships, and the empowerment and liberation of people to enhance well-being.
Utilising theories of human behaviour and social systems, social work intervenes at
points where people interact with their environments. Principles of human rights
and social justice are fundamental to social work ( IASSW (International Association
of Schools of Social Work), 2001).

3.9. Though of a very general nature, what the IFSW statement does at least
present is a set of agreed commitments for social work. In particular, it promotes
change, and also locates the social work task at the interface between the
individual and the social; the individual and his/her environment. Similarly, it also
identifies the importance of social justice and rights and working with
disempowered members of our communities. It underlines the affinity between
social work, the human rights conventions and the more recent legislation that
strengthens the enforcement of human rights.

3.10. And again, though of a general nature it does accord with statements made
by others as to what constitutes the primary function of social work:

* Social work is committed to rights and justice (Clark, 2002).

* [social workers'] concern is for the individual and helping them achieve change,
a certain quality of life and/or protection from harm or harming others ( ADSW
(Association of Directors of Social Work), 2004).

3.11. Davies put the notion of helping the vulnerable more forcibly when he
asserted that:

the essence of social work is maintenance: maintaining a stable, though not a static
society, and maintaining the rights of and opportunities for those who in an
unplanned uncontrolled community would go to the wall (Davies, 1981, p.209 cited
in; Bamford, 1990 p.33).

3.12. Social work from this perspective then is about assisting, supporting and
enabling certain sections of the community. For that reason, one constancy in the
history of social work has been its concern with those who suffer from the negative
effects of social inequalities. For many this concern with inequality and poverty has
become increasingly important because of what is seen to be the growing gap in
modern societies between the rich and the poor or disadvantaged. For many (Jordan
and Parkinson, 2001; Jones et al., 2004) ( Community Care, 17 June 2004) there has
never been a more important time for social work to establish itself as a credible
profession working to ensure that the interests of less advantaged sections of the
community are promoted and protected.

In a society where the gaps between the haves and have nots have widened and
continue to widen, the social policy role of social work is going to be of major
significance (Bamford, 1990, p.168).
and social work might be

... really concerned with freeing the poor and the marginal underclass from
subordination and exclusion (Ferraro, 2003).

Social Work and Social Control

3.13. What is also clear is that whatever the legitimate or validated notion of social
work is seen to be, from other perspectives, social work can be seen to be an agent
of social control. Far from addressing the inequalities with which we live, it may well
play an important role in sustaining or perpetuating the very social and economic
system which promotes such inequalities. Rather than liberating, it can be viewed
as oppressive and for that reason not true to the core values on which it claims to
be based (Jordan and Parkinson, 2001; Jordan, 2004).

Social Work as an Integrating Force

3.14. Munday (2003) and others also suggest European systems of social work also
have a social integration function. On this view social work has as a key function the
integration or reintegration of sections of the community with mainstream society.
What would be lost from this perspective if social work did not exist would be the
necessary support and assistance offered to the most vulnerable sections of society
and the abdication of any responsibility to ensure their social inclusion. If social
work did not fulfil that task it is difficult to envisage what agency or body would. In
the connection it may be added that other agencies are only likely ever to take on
parts of the role of social work in a piecemeal and selective way; the integrated
view that characterises social work would be lost.

A Radical Social Work?

3.15. The demand for a radical social work which truly addresses the situation of
those in need has been another constancy in the development of social work since
the 1960s (Jones et al., 2004). Many of the current critiques of social work as a
profession have embedded within them comments which do echo the concerns of
those more inclined to a radical perspective on the role of social work. The
argument has been made that the current structures through which social work is
realised may not best serve those who are in need, and social work may do little
more than perpetuate the very system which creates their vulnerability. A number
of commentators (for example Bailey and Brake, 1975; Jordan and Jordan, 2000)
have expressed their concern that by working with those who are most
disadvantaged by the inequalities imposed by the economic system, social work
may well contribute to the perpetuation of that very system. It is such a situation
that Jordan (Jordan and Jordan, 2000) and others seek to address by proposing
'constructive social work'.

Social Work and Policy Failure

3.16. A related position is that the function of social work may well be to deal with
the failure of other policy areas such as crime, health or education. Social work is
then seen to be charged with not simply dealing with those in need but rather with
addressing the shortcomings of key policy areas in the public services.

3.17. From these kinds of arguments then, whatever it is that social workers are
expected to do or want to do at a face to face or micro level, at the macro level,
social work may well have other functions. What the literature then suggests is that

* There are competing definitions of social work

* Social work has a number of wider social functions

* The function of social work is highly contested

* Social work plays an important function in social integration

* Social work may fulfil a social control function

* Social work is expected to address the failure of social policies

3.18. The tension for social work has of course always been bridging the tension
between the personal and the political (Halmos, 1965); between supporting clients
and controlling them or subjecting them to forms of surveillance; between meeting
the needs of clients or addressing the social and political situation in which they find
themselves.

3.19. Though the IFSW statement on the nature of social work does note the
importance of social justice, it could be criticised for saying little about the
importance of seeing the service user/client/citizen in the context of his/her local
community. In fact, it may well understate the value of community social work. One
of the threads that has been woven through the history of social work and the
organisational structures through which social work is to be realised, is the
importance of seeing the client/service user as a member of a local community.

3.20. The Kilbrandon report (Kilbrandon, 1964), the Seebohm report (Seebohm,
1968), the Barclay report (Barclay, 1982) and the Griffiths report (Griffiths, 1988) all
evidence this. They all reflect the recurring emphasis on the importance of working
not just with individuals but with individuals as members of communities. These
reports highlight that community social work could play a significant role in
supporting community members to address the circumstances in which they find
themselves (see also Ferraro, 2003). The paradox is that although this is seen to be
the clear value of a community social work approach, organisational and structural
changes in the way social work services are provided are seen to have inhibited its
growth and development.

3.21. The argument made against the value of community social work, especially
from the radical perspective is of course also that such an approach does not
address the causal factors which propel many social work clients/service users into
disadvantage and poverty. The model for a future social work offered by Jordan,
drawing on the Australasian experience in offering what he calls a 'constructive
social work', provides solutions to this dilemma and emphasises the importance of
the local and the community. As we discuss later the 'constructive' approach takes
a user centred approach to social work and recognises the importance of addressing
family, local and national issues.

The Nature and Function of Social Work: Summary

3.22. In summary, several implications can be drawn from the contested nature of
social work and the fact that it is seen to have a number of wider functions. In
particular, the absence of a clear definition of social work - or at least a definition
agreed by all - means that it will continue to be difficult to identify just what the
skills, knowledge and expertise are required by social workers.

3.23. Establishing just what legitimate role social workers can play will also be
somewhat problematic in the absence of an agreed basis for the development of
the 'profession' of social work. The fact that there are competing notions of social
work maintained by different constituencies, including practitioners, users,
politicians, policy makers, and the public does suggest that there is a need to
establish clearly an agreed and accepted statement on the nature and function of
social work. Central to this is of course a statement of core values and principles -
discussed in the following section.

History of social work

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Social work has its roots in the struggle of society to deal with poverty and the resultant
problems. Therefore, social work is intricately linked with the idea of charity work; but must be
understood in broader terms. The concept of charity goes back to ancient times, and the practice
of providing for the poor has roots in all major world religions.[1]

Pre-Modern history
In the West, when Constantine I legalized the Christian Church, the newly legitimised church set
up poorhouses, homes for the aged, hospitals, and orphanages.[2][3][4] These were often funded, at
least in part, from grants from the Empire.[5]
By 590 the church had a system for circulating the consumables to the poor: associated with each
parish was a diaconium or office of the deacon.
As there was no effective bureaucracy below city government that was capable of charitable
activities, the clergy served this role in the west up through the 18th century.
During the Middle Ages, the Christian church had vast influence on European society and
charity was considered to be a responsibility and a sign of one’s piety. This charity was in the
form of direct relief (for example, giving money, food, or other material goods to alleviate a
particular need), as opposed to trying to change the root causes of poverty.
The practice and profession of social work has a relatively modern (19th century) and scientific
origin.[6]
Modern history
Social work, as a profession, originated in the 19th century. The movement began primarily in
the United States and England. After the end of feudalism, the poor were seen as a more direct
threat to the social order,[citation needed] and so the state formed an organized system to care for them.
In England, the Poor Law served this purpose. This system of laws sorted the poor into different
categories, such as the able bodied poor, the impotent poor, and the idle poor. This system
developed different responses to these different groups.

Social work involves ameliorating social problems such as poverty and homelessness.
The 19th century ushered in the Industrial Revolution. There was a great leap in technological
and scientific achievement, but there was also a great migration to urban areas throughout the
Western world. This led to many social problems, which in turn led to an increase in social
activism.[7] Also with the dawn of the 19th century came a great "missionary" push from many
Protestant denominations. Some of these mission efforts (urban missions), attempted to resolve
the problems inherent in large cities like poverty, prostitution, disease, and other afflictions. In
the United States workers known as "friendly visitors", stipended by church and other charitable
bodies, worked through direct relief, prayer, and evangelism to alleviate these problems.[6] In
Europe, chaplains or almoners were appointed to administer the church's mission to the poor.

Jane Addams (September 6, 1860 – May 21, 1935) was a founder of the U.S. Settlement House
movement and is considered one of the early influences on professional social work in the
United States.
During this time, rescue societies were initiated to find more appropriate means of self-support
for women involved in prostitution.[citation needed] Mental asylums grew to assist in taking care of the
mentally ill. A new philosophy of "scientific charity" emerged, which stated charity should be
"secular, rational and empirical as opposed to sectarian, sentimental, and dogmatic.[8]" In the late
1880s, a new system to provide aid for social ills came in to being, which became known as the
settlement movement.[9] The settlement movement focused on the causes of poverty through the
"three Rs" - Research, Reform, and Residence. They provided a variety of services including
educational, legal, and health services. These programs also advocated changes in social policy.
Workers in the settlement movement immersed themselves in the culture of those they were
helping.
In America, the various approaches to social work led to a fundamental question – is social work
a profession? This debate can be traced back to the early 20th century debate between Mary
Richmond's Charity Organization Society (COS) and Jane Addams's Settlement House
Movement. The essence of this debate was whether the problem should be approached from
COS' traditional, scientific method focused on efficiency and prevention or the Settlement House
Movement's immersion into the problem, blurring the lines of practitioner and client.[10]
Even as many schools of social work opened and formalized processes for social work began to
be developed, the question lingered. In 1915, at the National Conference of Charities and
Corrections, Dr. Abraham Flexner spoke on the topic "Is Social Work a Profession?" He
contended that it was not because it lacked specialized knowledge and specific application of
theoretical and intellectual knowledge to solve human and social problems.[11] This led to the
professionalization of social work, concentrating on case work and the scientific method.
[edit] American History
Following European settlement of northern America, the only social welfare was in the area of
public health. When epidemics occurred, quarantine facilities were built to prevent
contamination. As populations grew, Almhouses were built to house vulnerable people with no
other support, including people with a long term illness or older people without families. The
first recorded Almshouse was built in 1713 near Philadelphia by William Penn, and was only
open to Quakers. A second one was built nearby in 1728, this time with public money. In 1736
New York opened the Poor House of the City of New York (later renamed Bellevue Hospital)
and in 1737 New Orleans opened the Saint John's Hospital to serve the poor of the city [12].
Over the next 80 years, the facilities began to change. The precursors to modern hospitals began
to form on the grounds of Almshouses, while the Almshouses themselves focused more and
more on vulnerable people.
Modern social work in America has its roots in the mass migrations of the 19th Century. Many
of the migrants landed in New York and moved to other eastern cities, where mass crowding
lead to social problems and ill health [12]. Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell was the United States' first
female doctor [13] who set up the New York Infirmary for Indigent Women and Children in 1853.
The dispensary was run to assist the poor communities of East Side, and it soon diversified
beyond a basic pharmacy, providing social assessments and support to local families. In 1889
Jane Addams was a young medical student who set up Hull House in Chicago to work with poor
and immigrant communities. The house was both a community service centre and a social
research program. Precursors to modern social work arose in Blackwell's infirmary and in Hull
House as health professionals began to work with social determinants of poor health [12].
The first professional social worker to be hired in the United States was Garnet Pelton, in 1905 at
the Massachusetts General Hospital. Garnet retired after six months due to contracting
tuberculosis in the course of her work. She was replaced by Ida Cannon who worked in the role
for a further forty years. Dr. Richard Clarke Cabot was the a key advocate in the creation of the
role, as he believed there to be a link between tuberculosis and social conditions. Both Pelton and
Cannon had trained as nurses before taking up the role. Cabot was in charge of the outpatient
ward of the hospital, and together with the newly created social workers, they redefined the way
in which health and wellbeing was managed. The economic, social, family and psychological
conditions that underpinned many of the conditions that patients presented with were recognised
for the first time. Social workers would work in a complementary relationship with doctors, the
former concentrating on physiological health, and the latter on social health. In addition to this,
he saw that social work could improve medicine by providing a critical perspective on it while
working alongside it in an organisational setting.
This approach soon spread through other American hospitals, and in 1911, there were 44 social
work departments in 14 different cities. Two years later, the number of social work departments
had grown to 200.
[edit] Professionalisation
After 1905, most social workers were trained as nurses. The American Association of Hospital
Social Workers was set up in 1918 to increase the links between formal education and hospital
practice. In 1929 there were ten university courses in medical social work. Around this time,
psychiatry and psychology began to compete with social work as the complementary discourse
to medicine in hospitals. Social work practice adapted to this by aligning itself more closely with
psychoanalytic ideas, and became less concerned with living conditions and social health. While
this detracted from the social concerns, it added a more scientific basis to dealing with patients,
and challenging behaviours were more likely to be seen as a mental disfunction than poor moral
character. [12] The increase of social spending after World War Two saw another rise in the
number of social workers.
NOTE: In their 2002 article, "What is Humanistic Sociology"--appearing in The American
Sociologist (Volume 33, No. 4)--William Du Bois and R. Dean Wright see the creation of the
discipline of social work as a political effort within the establishment of sociology to keep its
original action-oriented, "change the world" mentality separate from the "rational, masculine
science of 'real' sociology (p. 7).
[edit] Australian History
Social work as a profession in Australia developed later than in England or America, with the
first professional social workers being hired in the 1920s. Social work training began in Australia
in 1940 at the University of Sydney. The profession took direction from the established schools
in England until the 1960s, when a more American model took hold. Most high level training
and theory was imported from abroad until the 1980s. Some Australian social work writers such
as Jim Ife has criticised the impact that this has had on Australians being able to develop
culturally appropriate theories and practices. Since the 1990s, Australian social work has
increasingly affiliated itself with Pacific Islander and New Zealand approaches [14].
Social Work has been a mostly public sector or not-for-profit sector profession in Australia, with
private practice being rare. The profession has experienced changes in two different direction in
the last 30 years. One is a pull towards a more managerial, professionalised model, and the other
is to a more community based, deprofessionalised approach. Further to this has been the trend by
large organisations to replace the "jack of all trades" social work approach with less highly
trained, more technical positions. Since the 1990s, other reactions to managerial control of social
work have followed theories of feminism, ecological sustainability and critical theories.[14]
English History
The growth of social work in England as a discipline had similar parallels to the American
experience of mass migration and social upheaval. The Industrial Revolution was a major cause
of these changes, as social and economic conditions changed, resulting in the massive growth of
cities. The first social workers were called hospital almoners, and were based in medical
institutions. The Royal Free Hospital hired Mary Stewart as the first almoner in 1895. Her role
was to assess people requesting treatment at the hospital to ensure that they were considered
"deserving enough" of the free treatment. The role soon developed to cover the provision of
other social programs, and by 1905 other hospitals had created similar roles. By this time, the
Hospital Almoners Council had been formed to oversee the new profession [12].

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Compiled by
S.Rengasamy
Madurai Institute of Social Sciences
S.Rengasamy-History of Social Welfare / Social Work
2
Contents
History of Social Welfare/ Social Work................................................................ ................................ .......................... 3 The need to
understand history of social work................................ ................................................................ ............. 3 Framework to understand
History of Social Welfare / Social Work................................................................ .............. 4
Understanding History through Historical Phases................................ ................................................................ .......5
Photos of Walter Friedlander & Simon Patten 9who used the term social work first time)................................ .... 9
The Settlement House................................ ................................ ................................................................ ............ 10
Understanding the History of Social Welfare from various Welfare Traditions................................ .......................11
Social Work in historical perspective................................................................ ................................ ...................... 11

2. Understanding the History of Social Welfare from various welfare

Traditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11 Three Social Welfare / Social Security
Tradition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.11 The Poor Law tradition................................ ................................................................ ................................ ...............11
Poor Law Tradition................................ ................................................................ ................................ .................. 12
The Poor Law Tradition................................ ................................................................ ................................ ...............12
Work House Conditions................................ ................................ ................................................................ ..... 14
Work Houses................................ ................................................................ ................................ ...................... 14

Social Insurance Tradition................................ ................................ ................................................................ ......14

Welfare Tradition................................ ................................................................ ................................ ...................17
The Welfare State ................................................................................................................................................17
–

The Welfare State Why did it all start?................................................................ ................................ .................17

Three Social Security Strategies................................................................ ................................................................ .18
The Social Assistance strategy originating in the Poor law tradition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Social Insurance Strategy................................ ................................ ................................................................ ............18 Social Allowance

Strategy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18 Founders of the Welfare State-Photo
Album................................ ................................................................ ............19
History of Social Welfare in USA................................................................ ................................................................ .. 20
1................................................................ ................................ ................................................................ .............. 20
3................................................................ ................................ ................................................................ .............. 23
4................................................................ ................................ ................................................................ .............. 24
Celebrating Social Welfare / Work
Pioneers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . .25

Elizabeth Gurney Fry................................ ................................................................ ................................ ............... 25 Octavia

Hill................................ ................................................................ .............................................................. 26 Arnold
Toynbee................................ ................................................................ ................................ ...................... 27 Jane
Addams................................ ................................................................ ........................................................... 28 Mary Richmond. . . . . . . . .
..............................................................................................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 George Orwell, John Howard Griffin, Pat Moore, Tolly Toynbee, Günther Wallraff, Barbara
Ehrenreich............ 30 Sir William Beveridge................................ ................................ ................................................................ ..............
32 Jane Jacobs (1916-2006)................................ ................................ ................................................................ ......... 33 Joel
Fischer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Understanding Social Work history by understanding the history of fields of social work................................ .....36
Indian History Timeline................................ ................................................................ ................................ ...............37

Evolution of Social Welfare Ministry in India............................................................................................................... 38 Table:

Establishing an Independent Ministry of Social Welfare–Timeline................................................................ . 39 Subjects allocated to the
Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment -India.............................................................. 41 Ministry of Women and Child Development
-India................................ ................................................................ ..... 42 Subjects allocated Ministry of Women and Child Development
-India................................................................ ....... 43
S.Rengasamy-History of Social Welfare / Social Work
3
History of Social Welfare/ Social Work
The need to understand history of social work
.
The need to understand history of social work
The diversity of social work represents a great challenge for social work research, education and practice in the rapidly
internationalizing and globalizing world. This challenge can be met successfully only with a deep philosophical and historical
understanding of the characteristics of a particular country - and welfare regime– including the specific traditions of welfare
systems and the position and role of social work within them. Research into the philosophy and history of social work strengthens
this understanding through analyzing the conceptual and genealogical fundamentals of the traditions of social work. This kind of
research contributes to the theoretical self-conception of social work which is necessary for the development of social work as a
modern professional system, a scientific discipline and a research-based activity. The development of social work as a modern
social system depends on its intellectual capacity based on this kind of theoretical self- conception.

Issues within the philosophy of science, political philosophy and the general theory of social action play an important role in the
philosophy of social work. Philosophical analyses are closely connected with the history of concepts of social work, but also
contribute to the history of social work as a professional social system and social work practices in individual countries. There
are several specific areas in practical social philosophy dealing significantly with the theoretical self-conception of social work,
for example the philosophy of family, educational philosophy, the philosophy of law, and the theory of human rights. In addition
to this, issues of philosophy of science are of great importance for the development of the science of social work.
http://eris.osu.eu/index.php?kategorie=35174&id=5176
…to reach an understanding of

what Social Welfare / Social Work

is?.. the issues it should address..
how it should be carried out?…
social workers travelled a long
path…and it is worth knowing
IN AN ERA OF CHANGE
S.Rengasamy-History of Social Welfare / Social Work
4
Framework to understand History of Social Welfare / Social Work

Framework to understand
History / evolution of
Social Welfare / Social
Work can be understood in
several ways
Understanding history through historical phases /
Chronolo
g
ical histor
y
Understanding history by understanding different
Welfare traditions
Understanding the Social Welfare / Social Work
history in UK & USA that shaped the global history
Understanding history by understanding
contributions of pioneers of Social Work
Understanding William Beveridge Contribution that
shaped global welfare policies

Understanding the historical development of

various fields of social work–Medical &
Psychiatric Social Work, School/Correctional
Social Work etc

Understanding the evolution of Social Welfare in

India, largest democratic & welfare state in the
world
 S.Rengasamy-History of Social Welfare / Social Work
5
Understanding History through Historical Phases
Prior to
1600
Tofler‟s Agricultural Society: special values about caring for individuals evolve. Emergence of
unconditional charity toward individuals in times of hardship
1084
Almshouses for the poor and handicapped are established in England.
1300s

Bubonic plague kills nearly 1/3 of European population. Labor shortages force the State to
intervene. Laws passed to compel all able-bodied men to accept employment. Alms to able-bodied
beggars were forbidden.

1313 Christianity legalized by Roman Emperor, Constantine. Church sanctioned to use donated funds to aid the poor. Charitable attitudes
and behaviors expected of the rich; redistribution of wealth not part of charitable principles

1348 The Statute of Laborers is issued in England, requiring people to remain on their home manors
and work for whatever lords want to pay. Begging and Almsgiving is outlawed except for the aged
and those unable to work. For the first time, a distinction is made between the "worthy poor" (the
aged, handicapped, widows, and dependant children), and the "unworthy poor" (able-bodied but
unemployed adults).
1500

Henry VIII in England broke from the Roman church. State confiscates Church wealth, leaving it
without means to carry out charity expectations. Spain introduces first State organized registration
of the poor.
History of Social Work– UK & USA

Social Work during primitive stage (before 1200 AD)

Social Work during 1200 -1500 A.D
Social Work during 1500– 1600 A.D.
Social Work during 1500– 1600 A.D.
Social Work during 1600 -1800 A.D.
Social Work during 1800 -1900 A.D.
Social Work during 1900 onwards
Social Work during 1600 -1800 A.D.
1600 - 1800
1600s
Poor Law principles introduced to New World by Plymouth colonists. Poor and unfortunate

divided into two groups: "deserving" sick, disabled, widows, orphans and thrifty old; and "undeserving" offenders, unmarried
mothers, vagrants, unemployed and the old without savings.

1601 The Elizabethan Poor Law is established. Built on the experiments of the earlier Henrician
Poor Law (1536) and the Parish Poor Rate (1572), this legislation becomes the major codification
of dealing with the poor and disadvantaged for over 200 years. It also becomes the basis for
dealing with the poor relief at the colonial level, taxes people in each parish pay for their own
poor, establishes apprentice programs for poor children, develops workhouses for dependant
people, and deals harshly and punitively with able bodied poor people.
1650

The influence of Luther, Calvin, and others has become established and manifested as the
Protestant ethic, a philosophy that becomes influential in England, parts of Europe, and American
colonies. It emphasizes self-discipline, frugality, and hard work and leads many of its adherents to
frown on those who are dependant or unemployed.
1662
The Law of Settlement and Removal is established in England as one of the world‟s first

"residency requirements" in determining eligibility to receive help. Municipal authorities to help

only poor local citizens and to expel from their jurisdictions anyone else who might become
dependant for assistance. This law causes authorities to evaluate people as to the likelihood of
their becoming poor. Thus, though the law is basically harsh and punitive, some efforts too look at
the causes of poverty are codified.
1
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Understanding History through Historical Phases
 S.Rengasamy-History of Social Welfare / Social Work
6
1697

The workhouse system is developed in Bristol and soon spreads throughout England and parts
of Europe. It is designed to keep down poor taxes by denying aid to anyone who refuses to enter
a workhouse. These institutions are usually managed by private entrepreneurs who contract with
the legal authorities to care for the residence in exchange for the residence in exchange for using
their work. Residence - including very young children, the handicapped and very old people– are
often given minimal care and are worked long hours as virtual slaves.
1700
Humanitarian groups in Quebec establish centers for the relief of the poor; Nova Scotians
adopt English Poor Laws.

1782 The Gilbert Act is passed in England, enabling humanitarians, appalled by the exploitation of
workhouse residence, to institute reforms in many English jurisdictions. Many workhouses are
closed, assistance to the poor in their own home is established, and children under 6 are placed
with families. Many private entrepreneurs are replaced by municipal employees as managers of
the remaining workhouses.
1795

Speemhamland system establishes earliest "poverty line" based on the price of bread and
number of dependents in a workers family; subsidization provided when wages dipped below the
poverty line.
Social Work during 1800 -1900 A.D.
1800-1900
1800s
Reforms to Elizabethan Poor Laws. Denigrating principles of "less eligibility" and "perception of
need" imbedded in society‟s attitudes toward the poor and less able bodied. Reform activists work
for the abolition of illiteracy, preventable diseases, sweated labor, slums and overcrowding,
unemployment and poverty.
 C h a r i t y
O r g a n i z a t i o n
S o c i e t i e s ( C O S )
f o r m i n E n g l a n d
w i t h a n e m p h a s i s o n
d e t a i l e d

investigations.
Volunteers recruited to befriend applicants, make individual assessments and correct their
problems.
 T h o m a s M a l t h u s ,
B r i t i s h E a s t I n d i a
C o m p a n y e c o n o m i s t ,
d o c u m e n t s
p o p u l a t i o n n u m b e r s
multiplying faster than production of goods to meet their needs. Coincides with Darwin‟s theory of
evolution based on natural selection. Applied to human condition by Herbert Spencer‟s declaration
that poverty was part of natural selection; helping the poor would only perpetuate unfit laziness
and non industriousness.
 P r o t e s t a n t E t h i c
e m p h a s i z e s s e l f -
d i s c i p l i n e ,
f r u g a l i t y a n d h a r d
w o r k ; e n c o u r a g e d
d i s a p p r o v a l o f
dependence on others.
 F e m i n i s t s i n
A m e r i c a c o n v e n e t o
d e c l a r e t h e g o a l o f
e q u a l r i g h t s f o r
w o m e n ; s u f f r a g e ,
e q u a l
opportunities in education and jobs, and legal rights.
1819
Scottish preacher and mathematician Thomas Chalmers assumes responsibility for Glasgow‟s

poor. He develops private philanthropies to help meet the economic needs of the poor and
organizes a system of volunteers to meet individually and regularly with disadvantaged people to
give them encouragement and training.
1833
Antoine Ozanam established in the Saint Vincent de Paul Society in Paris, using lay volunteers
to provide emergency economic and spiritual assistance to the poor.
1834

The new Poor Law is established in England to reform the Elizabethan Poor Law (1601). The
underlying emphasis of the new law is on self-reliance. Public assistance is not considered a right,
and government is not seen as responsible for the unemployed. The principle of "less eligibility" (a
recipient of aid can never receive as much as does the lowest-paid worked) is enforced.
1844
1844: The first YMCA is established in London, England.
1867

1867: The British North America Act created a political union between New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Canada East, and Canada
West -- the Dominion of Canada. Responsibility for social welfare given to the provinces. Welfare was not seen as a major
function of governments.
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 S.Rengasamy-History of Social Welfare / Social Work
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1883
Chancellor Bismarck of a newly united Germany introduces first national health insurance
system.
1887
Royal Commission on the Relations of Labor and Capital reported on conditions for workers in
the Dominion of Canada.
1889 In Chicago, Jane Addams and Ellen Gates Starr open Hull House, which becomes one of the
most influential social settlement houses in the United States.

1898 The first school for social workers is established. The New York School of
Philanthropy (later to become the Columbia University School of Social Work) grows
out of a series of summer workshops and training programs for volunteers and
friendly visitors and offers a one-year educational program. Faculty member and COS
administrator Mary E. Richmond publishes Friendly Visiting Among the Poor.
1897
Herbert Ames' study of the poor in Montreal was published.
Social Work during 1900 onwards
1900 - 1950
1900
 E d u c a t o r S i m o n N .
P a t t e n c o i n s t h e
t e r m " s o c i a l
w o r k e r s " a n d
a p p l i e s i t t o
f r i e n d l y v i s i t o r s a n d
settlement house residences. He and Mary Richmond dispute whether the major role of social
workers should be advocacy or delivering individualized social services.
1910-21 Jane Addams and Mary Richmond trade leadership positions in the National Conference of
Charities and Corrections (NCCC). Later renamed National Conference of Social Work.
1911
 G r e a t B r i t a i n
p a s s e s t h e N a t i o n a l
I n s u r a n c e A c t ,
w h i c h o r g a n i z e s a
h e a l t h a n d
c o m p e n s a t i o n
program paid for by contributions from workers, employees, and public.
1914
 C a n a d a ‟ s f i r s t
s c h o o l o f s o c i a l
s e r v i c e s a t t h e
U n i v e r s i t y o f
T o r o n t o ; e m p h a s i s
o f f i r s t

curriculum on social economics, social psychology and social ethics theories; practice emphasis on
social settlements and community work, penology, medical social services, recreation,
immigration, labor, and child welfare.
 C a n a d a ‟ s f i r s t
w o m e n ‟ s r i g h t t o
v o t e l e g i s l a t i o n i n
M a n i t o b a .
1915
Einstein‟s special law of relativity; forerunner of quantum physics and subsequent sciences of

complexity in the 20th century.

In an address to the National Conference on Social Welfare, Abraham Flexner declares that
social work has not yet qualified as a profession, especially because its members do not have a
great deal of individual responsibility and because it still lacks a written body of knowledge and
educationally communicable techniques.
1917 Mary Richmond publishes Social Diagnosis. Social workers use her book as a primary text and
as an answer to Flexner.
 T h e f i r s t
o r g a n i z a t i o n f o r
s o c i a l w o r k e r s i s
e s t a b l i s h e d . T h e
n a t i o n a l S o c i a l
W o r k e r s E x c h a n g e
exists primarily to process applicants for social work jobs.
1919

The 17 schools of social work that exist in the United States and Canada form the
Association of Training Schools for Professional Social Work to develop uniform
standards of training and professional education. This group is later renamed the
American Association of School of Social Work (AASSW), eventually becoming the
Council on Social Work Education (CSWE).
 S o c i a l w o r k e r s
e m p l o y e d i n s c h o o l s
o r g a n i z e a s t h e
N a t i o n a l
A s s o c i a t i o n o f
V i s i t i n g T e a c h e r s .
 T h e C h a r i t y
O r g a n i z a t i o n
S o c i e t i e s ( C O S )
b e c o m e s o r i e n t e d
i n c r e a s i n g l y t o w a r d
h e l p i n g

families. Many local societies change their names to Family Welfare Agency. The National Alliance for Organizing Charity is
renamed the American Association for Organizing Family Social Work. By 1946 this Organization is known as the Family
Service Association of America (FSAA), renamed Family Service America (FSA) in 1983.
1927
Canada introduces social security; subsidized old-age pension program for over 70 year old
citizens, based on a strict and often humiliating means test -- Old Age Pensions Act
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1928

International Permanent Secretariat of Social Workers founded; Canada is a charter member;

spear headed by Dr. Rene Sand, Belgian advocate of social medicine; predecessor to International
Federation of Social Workers (IFSW).
1928
 T h e M i l f o r d
C o n f e r e n c e c o n v e n e s
t o d i s c u s s w h e t h e r
s o c i a l w o r k i s a
d i s p a r a t e g r o u p o f
technical specialties or a unified profession with more similarities than differences among its
specialties. In 1929 the report of the conference is published as Social Case Work: Generic and
Specific.
1929
Famous Five women from Alberta (Murphy, McClung, Parlby, Edwards, McWhinney) win
approval from Privy Council in England that women are included as "persons" making them
eligible for appointment to Canada‟s Senate.
 S t o c k m a r k e t
c r a s h e s a n d G r e a t
D e p r e s s i o n b e g i n s .

1930Gordon Hamilton extends Richmond‟s "man in his environment" concept to "person-in-

situation" within a organist context; Bertha Reynolds saw social work in a "between client and
community" context.
1931Social worker Jane Addams becomes co recipient of the 1931 Nobel Peace Prize.

1937 The AASSW declares that beginning in 1939 the requirement for social work accreditation will be a two-year master‟s degree
program. The MSW becomes a requirement to be considered a professional social worker
1939
American Association of Schools of Social Work, the accrediting body for social workers,
declared MSW degree as the minimum requirement to be a professional social worker.
1940
Mary Parker Follett‟s posthumous book Dynamic Administration is published; it becomes an
influence in the field of social welfare administration.
1941
Atlantic Charter; historical meeting between Churchill and Roosevelt, formulated as one of its
agreements citizen rights to social security.
1942
The Beveridge Report is issued in Great Britain, recommending as integrated social security
system that attempts to ensure cradle-to-grave economic protection for its citizens. Many of the
report‟s recommendations go into effect after World War II.
1945
World War II ends. On October 24, the United Nations is established.
1946
Great Britain establishes its National Health Service.
Social Work during from 1935 onwards
1950 - Present
1950
 C a n a d a h a s 8
g r a d u a t e s c h o o l s o f
s o c i a l w o r k o f f e r i n g
t w o - y e a r
p r o f e s s i o n a l
p r o g r a m s –
Maritime School, Laval, University of Montreal, McGill, St. Patrick‟s, Toronto, Manitoba and UBC.
1952
 The CSWE is formed through a merger of the AASSW and the NASSA–the two competing
organizations that had been setting standards for schools of social work. CSWE is soon granted
the authority to accredit graduate (MSW) schools of social work.

1954 In social casework, the so-called "diagnostic" and "functional" schools begin to merge and lose
their separate identities. The functional school had been oriented toward a highly focused, goal-
oriented approach to casework intervention. The diagnostic school had been influenced by
Freudian theory, but adherents of this approach develop more of a psychosocial orientation in the
1950s.

1955 On October 1, the National Association of Social Workers (NASW) is created through
the merger of seven organizations– the AASSW, plus the American Association of
Medical Social Workers (AAMSW), the American Association of Psychiatric Social
Workers (AAPSW), the National Association of School Social Workers (NAASW), The
American association of Group Workers (AAGW), the Association for the Study of
Community Organization (ASCO), and the Social Work Research Group (SWRG).
Membership is limited to members of the seven associations and subsequently to
master’s degree-level workers graduating from accredited schools of social work.
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Photos of Walter Friedlander & Simon Patten 9who used the term social work first time)
1958
Working Definition of Social Work Practice, headed by Harriett Bartlett, defines person-in-
environment as social work‟s comprehensive domain of practice; published in 1970 by Bartlett in
Common Base of Social Work; reaffirmed in two special issues of Social Work on conceptual
frameworks in 1977 and 1981.
1959

Social Work Education Curriculum Study, headed by Werner Boehm, claimed a broad-based
orientation for social work that recognized five specialization methods: casework, group work,
community organization, administration, and research.
1962
NASW organises the Academy of Certified Social Workers (ACSW), restricted to NASW members
with accredited MSW degrees, two years‟ agency experience under certified social work
supervision, and adherence to the NASW Code of Ethics. ACSW membership requirements are
subsequently revised to include testing and professional recommendations.
 C S W E r e c o g n i z e s
c o m m u n i t y
o r g a n i z a t i o n a s a
l e g i t i m a t e
s p e c i a l i z a t i o n f o r
s o c i a l w o r k
education.

1966 Canada Assistance Plan introduced; a cost-sharing conditional grant from federal government on an open-ended basis: 50% of
provincial expenditures for welfare and social services of all kinds.
1972Canadian Association of Schools of Social Work (CASSW) becomes Canada‟s accrediting
body for social work education.
1974
Council of Social Work Education, social work‟s new accrediting body in the U.S., revises former
standard to include the BSW as a professional social worker.
1975
CASW reorganized into a federated structure of 11 organizational members: 10 provincial and 1
territorial associations.
1977
CASW develops comprehensive code of ethics, based on Canadian Bar Association guidelines;
revised in 1983; accepted as a national standard in 1984; updated in 1994.
1982
Global definition of social work approved by the 44 nation members of IFSW; Members from
Canada and Spain had the special honor of preparing and presenting the final draft to the
federation‟s General Meeting for approval.
1983

NASW establishes the National Peer Review Advisory Committee and trains social workers to
evaluate the work of other social workers to promote accountability and to meet quality control
requirements of government and third-party funding organizations. The CSWE issues a Curriculum
Policy Statement for baccalaureate as master‟s degree programs in social work education. BSW
education is recognized as the first level of professional social work education.
1987

The NASW Center for Social Policy and Practice is established to co-ordinate the exchange of
information, education, and policy formulation pertaining to social work and social welfare in the
United States.
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Walter Friedländer
(1891- 1984)
1900E duca tor

Simon N. Patten
coins the term "social
workers" and applies
it to friendly visitors
and settlement house
residents. He and
Mary Richmond
dispute whether the
major role of social
workers should be
advocacy or
delivering
individualized social
services.
S.Rengasamy-History of Social Welfare / Social Work
10
The Settlement House

The settlement house, an approach to social reform with roots in the late 19th century and the Progressive
Movement, was a method for serving the poor in urban areas by living among them and serving them directly.
As the residents of settlement houses learned effective methods of helping, they then worked to transfer
long-term responsibility for the programs to government agencies. Settlement house workers, in their work to
find more effective solutions to poverty and injustice, also pioneered the profession of social work.
The term "neighborhood center" (or in British English, Neighbourhood Centre) is often used today for similar
institutions, as the early tradition of "residents" settling in the neighborhood has given way to professionalized
social work.
The first settlement house was Toynbee Hall in London, founded in 1883. The first American settlement house
was The Neighborhood Guild (later the University Settlement), founded by Stanton Coit, begun in 1886.
The best-known settlement house is perhaps Hull House in Chicago, founded in 1889 by Jane Addams with
her friend Ellen Starr. Lillian Wald and the Henry Street Settlement in New York is also well known. Other
settlement houses, like Both of these houses were staffed primarily by women, and both resulted in many
reforms with long-lasting effect and many programs that exist today. Other individuals known as settlement
house leaders include John Lovejoy Elliott and Mary Simkhovitch.
Mary McDowell, Alice Hamilton, Florence Kelley, Francis Perkins, John Dewey and Eleanor Roosevelt
are among the many women and men connected at some point in their careers with settlement houses.
The settlement House
S.Rengasamy-History of Social Welfare / Social Work
11
Understanding the History of Social Welfare from various Welfare Traditions
“Any religion that professes to be concerned with the souls of men and is not concerned with the slums
that damn them, the economic conditions that cripple them, is a dry-as-dust religion”
Social Work in historical perspective
2. Understanding the History of Social Welfare from various
Welfare Traditions
Three Social Welfare /
Security Traditions

The Poor Law tradition

The Social Insurance tradition

The Welfare State tradition

The modern welfare state is a

European invention - in the
same way as the nation state,
mass democracy, and
industrial capitalism. It was
born as an answer to
problems created by capitalist
industrialization; it was driven
by the democratic class
struggle; and it followed in the
footsteps of the nation state
(Flora 1986: XII)

Social Work in Historical Perspective

Historic Shift
• H i s t o r i c a l l y t h e s o c i a l
w e l f a r e n e e d s o f
i n d i v i d u a l s w e r e h a n d l e d
b y
less formal means.
• E v e r y o n e k n e w e a c h o t h e r
a n d p r o b l e m s w e r e m o r e
v i s i b l e t h a n t h e y
are today.
• With the rise of the industrial society that changed.
• A need for a different model of delivering social welfare services was
required.
The Business of Social Welfare
• When the less informal means of meeting social welfare needs were
inadequate the business of social welfare evolved.
Liberalism Vs Conservatism
Liberalism
• D e m o c r a t
• I n s t i t u t i o n a l V i e w o f
S o c i a l
Welfare
• E n c o u r a g e m o d e r a t e
change.
• G o v e r n m e n t r e g u l a t i o n a n d
intervention is necessary and
required.
Conservatism
•

Republican
•

Residual View of
Social Welfare
•

Resistance to change.
•

Individuals are
autonomous
•

Government regulation
and intervention should be
avoided
Is there a middle, or more
rational, way?

In the 20th Century there

was a move towards developing
a middle, and more rational,
approach to the polar opposites
of liberalism & conservatism.
S.Rengasamy-History of Social Welfare / Social Work
12
Poor Law Tradition
Debate
The Residual versus Institutional View of Social Welfare
• T h e d e b a t e b e t w e e n t h e
r e s i d u a l a n d i n s t i t u t i o n a l
v i e w s o f s o c i a l w e l f a r e
h a s b e e n i n e x i s t e n c e
throughout history– it is as old as humankind.

• T h e d e b a t e w i l l c o n t i n u e .

• T h e r e i s p r o b a b l y n o

r i g h t o r w r o n g a n s w e r t o

t h e d e b a t e – b o t h s i d e s

h a v e t h e i r p o s i t i v e

a s p e c t s .

• I n t e l l i g e n t p e o p l e ,

p e o p l e o f g o o d i n t e n t c a n

a n d d o d i f f e r o n t h e i r

v i e w s i n t h i s a r e a .
The Institutional View
• S o c i a l w e l f a r e i s a n
a c c e p t a b l e , a n d
l e g i t i m a t e ,
function of modern industrial society in helping
individuals achieve self-fulfillment.
• D i f f i c u l t i e s a r e o f t e n
b e y o n d t h e p e r s o n s
immediate control.
• S o c i a l I n s u r a n c e p r o g r a m s
s u c h a s O l d A g e ,

Survivor, and Health Insurance are examples of institutional programs– as are public assistance programs.
The Rugged Individualism Approach
• F u n d s a n d s e r v i c e s a r e
n o t a r i g h t ( s o m e t h i n g
you are entitled to) but a gift.
• W h o e v e r r e c e i v e s t h a t
g i f t h a s c e r t a i n
responsibilities and obligations.
• U s u a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
w a n t i n g t o h e l p “ t h e
deserving poor.”
• G e n e r a l b e l i e f t h a t , i n
g e n e r a l , a p e r s o n s
misfortunes (with few notable exceptions) are of
their own making.
•

A societal stigma attached to receiving

services.
The Poor Law Tradition

It originates from the secularization

of poor relief stated in the English
Poor Law Acts from 1598 and 1601
under the reign of Queen Elizabeth
the 1st.
It is rooted in economic liberalism
and Christian values, with respect to
the principle of individual
responsibility and work ethics.
It distinguishes between ''deserving
poor'' (=orphans, aged, disabled)
and ''undeserving poor''
(=vagrants and beggars)

The Poor Law Tradition

represents important values in
social welfare and service
delivery today:
 R u g g e d i n d i v i d u a l i s m
a n d s e l f
reliance or self sufficiency: public
assistance should be a last resort
 I m p o r t a n c e o f t h e
f a m i l y i n
supporting its own members
 L e g a l r e s i d e n c e a n d
d u r a t i o n o f

settlement is still an issue for

immigrants and refugees. The latter
are given short time limited benefits
on arrival which are cut off after one
year when they are on their own.
Fear of a powerful central
government leads to de-
centralization of services and great
variability in programs, and benefit
rates
ELIZABETH I 1558-1603
The daughter of Henry VIII and Anne
Boleyn, Elizabeth was a remarkable woman,
noted for her learning and wisdom. From
first to last she was popular with the people
and had a genius for the selection of
capable advisors. Drake, Raleigh, Hawkins,
the Cecils, Essex and many many more
made England respected and feared. The
Spanish Armada was decisively defeated in
1588 and Raleigh's first Virginian colony was
founded. The execution of Mary Queen of
Scots marred what was a glorious time in
English history. Shakespeare was also at
the height of his popularity. Elizabeth never
married.
S.Rengasamy-History of Social Welfare / Social Work
13
Feudalism
 T h r e e e l e m e n t s e x i s t e d a n d c h a r a c t e r i z e
t h e
period: lords, vassals and fiefs. Feudalism is
defined by how these three elements fit together.
 A l o r d w a s a n o b l e w h o o w n e d l a n d . A
v a s s a l

was a person who was loaned land by the

lord. The land was known as a fief. In
exchange for the fief, the vassal would
provide military service to the lord. The
obligations and relations between lord, vassal
and fief form the basis of feudalism.
Decline of Feudalism

By the thirteenth century Europe's economy

was involved in a transformation from a mostly
agrarian system to one that was increasingly
money-based and mixed.
Industrialism, trade, and money were
Replacing land.
Many people were displaced from the land and
their communities
Events of the middle ages:

 F a m i n e s

 W a r s

 C r o p f a i l u r e s

 P e s t i l e n c e

 B r e a k d o w n o f t h e f e u d a l s y s t e m .

 F o r m e r m e t h o d s o f p r o v i d i n g f o r

r e l i e f ( c h u r c h ,
family, etc.) were ineffective.
 W i d e s p r e a d b e g g i n g e n s u e d .
The Early Middle Ages
 A l l s o c i e t i e s d e v e l o p w a y s t o m e e t
t h e n e e d s
of those who are unable to do it for themselves.
 S o c i e t i e s d o t h i s f o r h u m a n i t a r i a n a s
w e l l a s
utilitarian (Genuine interest in relieving suffering
& Interest in avoiding social unrest) reasons:
 A s t h e C h u r c h b e c a m e
s t e a d i l y m o r e p o w e r f u l
In the Middle Ages it developed and provided a
variety of human services.
Monasteries served as sanctuaries, refuge,
and places of treatment for the mentally ill.
 B e l i e f t h a t t h e w e a l t h y
o r t h o s e w i t h
adequate resources had a duty to help the less
fortunate.
 L i t t l e i n t e r e s t i n
f i n d i n g o u t t h e c a u s e o f
poverty or other social problems.
 P e o
p
le were hel
p
ed sim
p
l
y
because the
y
needed the help.
The Elizabethan Poor Law
England passed several Poor Laws between
the mid-1300s and the mid-1800s.

The most significant was the Elizabethan Poor Law of 1601 enacted during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I.

The fundamental provisions of this law were

incorporated into the laws of the American
Colonies.

Fundamental purpose was NOT to alleviate

poverty but to eliminate, or at least control,
widespread begging.
Who Received Relief?
Three categories of relief recipients were
established.
1. Able-bodied Poor

Given low-grade employment, and citizens were

forbidden to offer them financial help. Anyone
who refused help was placed in stocks, or in jail.
2. The Impotent Poor
 P e o p l e u n a b l e t o w o r k . T h i s i n c l u d e d
t h e
elderly, blind, deaf, mothers with young children,
and those with physical or mental disability.
 T h e y w e r e p l a c e d t o g e t h e r i n a n
a l m s h o u s e
unless they had a place to reside, and it was
cheaper for them to stay there.
 P e o p l e l i v i n g o u t s i d e t h e a l m s h o u s e
w e r e
given “outdoor relief” usually “in kind” (food,
clothing, and fuel).
3. Dependent Children

Children with parents or grandparents unable

to support them were apprenticed out to other
citizens.
Boys were taught a trade and had to serve
until their 24th birthday.
 Girls were brought up as domestic servants
and were required to remain until they were 21 or
married.
How It Worked
People were ineligible if parents, spouse,
children, or other relatives were able to provide

for them.
The parish (town or community) was
assigned
the responsibility of implementing the provisions
using donations and tax revenue.

Residency requirements: The parish

responsibility extended only to its residents
(usually being born there or residing there for 3
years)
S.Rengasamy-History of Social Welfare / Social Work
14
Work House Conditions
Work Houses
ocial Insurance Tradition
Management of Work Houses - Pamphlet issued during that period

Before 1834, poor people were looked after by buying food and clothing from money collected from
land owners and other wealthy people.
The Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834, ensured that no able-bodied person could get poor relief
unless they went to live in special workhouses. The idea was that the poor were helped to support
themselves. They had to work for their food and accommodation.
Workhouses were where poor people who had no job or home lived. They earned their keep by
doing jobs in the workhouse. Also in the workhouses were orphaned (children without parents) and
abandoned children, the physically and mentally sick, the disabled, the elderly and unmarried
mothers. Workhouses were often very large and were feared by the poor and old.
A workhouse provided:
*a place to live * a place to work and earn money *free medical care *food *clothes
*free education for children and training for a job.
The staff of a workhouse included:
*a Master *a Matron *a Medical Officer *a Chaplain *a porter *a school-teacher
Workhouses provided almost everything that was needed onsite:
Why were workhouses feared by the poor and old?
The government, terrified of encouraging 'idlers' (lazy people), made sure that people feared the
workhouse and would do anything to keep out of it.How did they do that?
What were workhouses like?
Women, children and men had different living and working areas in the workhouse, sof a mili es
were split up. To make things even worse they could be punished if they even tried to speak to
one another! The education the children received did not include the two most important skills of
all, reading and writing, which were needed to get a good job. The poor were made to wear a
uniform. This meant that everyone looked the same and everyone outside knew they were poor

and lived in the workhouse. Upon entering the workhouse, the poor were stripped and bathed
(under supervision).The food was tasteless and was the same day after day.
The young and old as well as men and women were made to work hard, often doing unpleasant
jobs. Children could also find themselves 'hired out' (sold) to work in factories or mines.
What were workhouses?
S.Rengasamy-History of Social Welfare / Social Work
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Social Insurance Tradition
Bismarck in Germany
introduced the first
rudimentary state
social insurance scheme
Social insurance

Social insurance is a program

that is implemented and
carried out by the government
with the aim of providing
economic assistance to people
who are unemployed, disabled,
injured or part of a group of
senior citizens or the elderly.
Social insurance aims to
provide economic assistance
by providing these people with
financial assistance that is
mainly obtained from the
monetary contributions of
employed individuals,
employers and those who are
paying taxes. Financial
assistance may also be taken
from the revenue of the
government.

Germany became the first nation in the world to adopt an old-age social insurance program in 1889,
designed by Germany's Chancellor, Otto von Bismarck. The idea was first put forward, at Bismarck's
behest, in 1881 by Germany's Emperor, William the First, in a ground-breaking letter to the German
Parliament. William wrote: ". . .those who are disabled from work by age and invalidity have a
well-grounded claim to care from the state."

Bismarck was motivated to introduce social insurance in Germany both in order to promote the well-
being of workers in order to keep the German economy operating at maximum efficiency, and to
stave-off calls for more radical socialist alternatives. Despite his impeccable right-wing credentials,
Bismarck would be called a socialist for introducing these programs, as would President Roosevelt 70
years later. In his own speech to the Reichstag during the 1881 debates, Bismarck would reply:" Ca ll
it socialism or whatever you like. It is the same to me."

The German system provided contributory retirement benefits and disability benefits as well.
Participation was mandatory and contributions were taken from the employee, the employer and the
government. Coupled with the workers' compensation program established in 1884 and the "sickness"
insurance enacted the year before, this gave the Germans a comprehensive system of income security
based on social insurance principles. (They would add unemployment insurance in 1927, making their
system complete.)
S.Rengasamy-History of Social Welfare / Social Work
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Social insurance is any government-sponsored
program with the following three
characteristics:
* The benefits, eligibility requirements and
other aspects of the program are defined by
statute;
* It is funded by taxes or premiums paid by
(or on behalf of) participants (although
additional sources of funding may be provided
as well); and
* The program serves a defined population,
and participation is either compulsory or the
program is heavily enough subsidized that
most eligible individuals choose to participate.
Social insurance has also been defined as a
program where risks are transferred to and
pooled by an organization, often
governmental, that is legally required to
provide certain benefits.

Similarities to private
insurance
Typical similarities
between social insurance
programs and private
insurance programs
include:
* Wide pooling of risks;
* Specific definitions of the
benefits provided;
* Specific definitions of
eligibility rules and the
amount of coverage
provided;
* Specific premium,
contribution or tax rates
required to meet the
expected costs of the
s
y
stem.
Social Insurance Vs Private Insurance
Typical differences between private insurance programs and social insurance programs
include:
* Equity versus Adequacy: Private insurance programs are generally designed with

greater emphasis on equity between individual purchasers of coverage, while social insurance
programs generally place a greater emphasis on the social adequacy of benefits for all
participants.
* Voluntary versus Mandatory Participation: Participation in private insurance

programs is often voluntary, and where the purchase of insurance is mandatory, individuals
usually have a choice of insurers. Participation in social insurance programs is generally
mandatory, and where participation is voluntary, the cost is heavily enough subsidized to
ensure essentially universal participation.
* Contractual versus Statutory Rights: The right to benefits in a private insurance
program is contractual, based on an insurance contract. The insurer generally does not have
a unilateral right to change or terminate coverage before the end of the contract period
(except in such cases as non-payment of premiums). Social insurance programs are not
generally based on a contract, but rather on a statute, and the right to benefits is thus
statutory rather than contractual. The provisions of the program can be changed if the
statute is modified.
* Funding: Individually purchased private insurance generally must be fully funded. Full

funding is a desirable goal for private pension plans as well, but is often not achieved. Social
insurance programs are often not fully funded, and some argue that full funding is not
economically desirable.
S.Rengasamy-History of Social Welfare / Social Work
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Welfare Tradition
Definition of Welfare State
The Welfare State consists of a number of programs through which governments pursue
the
g
oal of social
p
rotection a
g
ainst economic and social risks of life & well-bein
g
The Welfare State–
The Welfare State Why did it all start?
A long time ago….


The Welfare state began during the second

World War.


During the war, the government appointed a

committee under Sir William Beveridge– to
investigate the problems of social insurance


The report said that there were five evil

giants
facing Britain which had to be destroyed…
The Five Evil Giants
1. Want


Many people were living in poverty through

no fault of their own because they were sick,
widowed or unemployed.


This was attacked by the introduction of

National Insurance 1945 - 51
2. Disease


Although medical insurance had been

introduced, there was no free medical treatment
and many people could not afford to see a doctor
when they were ill.


This was attacked by the establishment of the

National Health Service. Providing free hospital
treatment for everyone.
3. Ignorance


Secondary education was only available to

those who could pay or who passed a scholarship
at the age of 11.


Most children left school at the end of

elementary education when they were 14.

 This was attacked by 1944 education act
which introduced secondary education and raised
the school leaving age to 15.
4. Squalor


Although council housing had been

introduced at the end of the nineteenth century,
there was not enough and many people were still
living in slums.


This was attacked by a massive council

housing program and the New Towns Act. This
enabled the setting up of new towns in the
countryside; removed from the slums of the big
cities.
5. Idleness


At the start of the war over 10% of the

workforce was unemployed. This was however,
there own choice.


This was attacked by the government

nationalizing some industries and setting up
boards to help industries in high areas of
unemployment.
1.The Welfare State… today.
The Welfare State in the UK uses National
Insurance and taxes to provide…


Free education for everyone up to the age of

18, and help with university education.


Free doctors and hospitals for everyone. Help

with dentistry, opticians and prescriptions.


Payments for the unemployed



Social security so that everyone has a

minimum income.


Pensions for old people



Child benefit for children under 19 in full time

education


Housing benefits


Job centers for setting up in employment.

2. It provides training so everyone can find
work.

The Welfare Tradition

It originates in the ideas of Lord Beveridge exposed in his
reports: Social Insurance and Allied Services (1942) andFull
Employment in a Free Society(19 44 ).

It is rooted in humanistic convictions that there is a common

responsibility of the society as a whole for the well-being of
all citizens.
It is to promote social integration and progress towards an
equal society with full employment by state intervention:
social expenditure is seen as desirable.
S.Rengasamy-History of Social Welfare / Social Work
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William Beveridge
Father of Social Welfare
Born
5 March 1879Rangpur, India (now Bangladesh)
Died
16 March 1963 (aged 84) Oxford, Oxfordshire, England.
Nationality
British
Education
Charterhouse School and Balliol College, Oxford.
Occupation
Economist
Title
1st Baron Beveridge
Known for
Work towards founding Britain's welfare state.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/bsp
/hi/pds/19_07_05_beveridge.pdf
Three Social Security Strategies
From these three social security traditions emerged three types of social security strategies in Europe

The Social Assistance strategy

originating in the Poor law
tradition
The redistributive goal is to
reduce poverty that is to provide
a socially acceptable minimum
support. Vertical redistribution.

Social assistance is targeted on

individuals meeting certain
criteria of neediness.
Criticism: economists have

argued that it can discourage

labour supply because of the risk
of poverty-traps and that it can
increase costs of administration
and surveillance
Social Insurance Strategy

The redistributive goal is horizontal

redistribution from workers to
retired old, from childless to families
with children, from healthy to the
sick, etc. Benefit entitlement is
dependent on and related to past
contributions or earnings
The social security goal is poverty
prevention. It provides a social
security the market can hardly
supply.
Criticism: it leaves outside of the

coverage the non regular full-time

employees: self-employed, atypical
forms of contracts
,
etc.
Social Allowance Strategy

This strategy aims at universal

coverage and vertical
redistribution is considered as a
goal. It considers a guaranteed
minimum income as a right of
nation-state citizenship.
Social allowances are granted
according to demographic criteria
such as children and age.
Criticism: very expensive, today

facing financial crisis; risk of

inadequate levels of benefits with
persistent poverty; risk of
welfare-dependent underclass
S.Rengasamy-History of Social Welfare / Social Work
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Founders of the Welfare State-Photo Album

Edwin Chadwick
Josephine Butler
Joseph Chamberlain
Octavia Hill
Charles Booth
Ebenezer Howard
The Webbs
R.I. Morant
Lloyd George
Seebohm Rowntree
Eleanor Rathbone
William Beveridge
R.H. Tawney
Aneurin Bevan
Richard Titmuss
Sir Edwin Chadwick
1800 1890
–

Joseph Chamberlain
(1836 - 1914)
Josephine Butler
1828-1906
Octavia Hill
(1838-1912)
Beatrice Webb
(1858 1943) –

Sir Ebenezer
Howard
(
1850-1928
)
Charles Booth
1868-1921
Sidney Webb
(1859 1947) –

David Lloyd George

(1863 1945) –

Seebohm Rowntree
(1871 1954) –

Eleanor Rathbone
(1872 1946) –

William Beveridge
(
1879 1963
–

)
Richard Henry
Tawney (1880-1962)
Aneurin Bevan
(1897 1960) –

Richard M Titmuss
(1907 1973) –

R.I. Morant
Founders of The Welfare State
S.Rengasamy-History of Social Welfare / Social Work
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History of Social Welfare in USA
1
Puritan Beliefs and Charity-Religious
beliefs of the Pilgrims shape attitudes

Puritan beliefs became the foundation for

early America's social welfare philosophy.
These Puritans believed in an ordered,
hierarchical universe with God reigning
supreme. The world, as God's creation,
reflected this hierarchy and the presence of a
permanent underclass fit into this world view.
Believing in predestination, Puritans could
look at poverty as revealing a flaw in the poor
person's character; a sign that he or she was
out of favor with the higher power.
While acts of charity to help the needy were
an important part of religious practice, there
was not an expectation that such charitable
acts would raise the underclass out of poverty.
Charity was viewed as comfort to those
unfortunates doomed to suffer in this world,
and the charitable act a sign of the goodness
of the giver.
A New Nation -Democratic spirit and
new religious fervor

The newly independent United States of

America enjoyed great prosperity and
expansion in the early nineteenth century. An
invigorating democratic spirit influenced all
aspects of society.
Responsibility for governing was now in the
hands of the
p
eo
p
le. The nation's elite saw a

need to educate, improve, and uplift the people to best prepare them for this new
challenge. The creation of societies for civic improvement was widespread and social
movements like temperance and abolition got their start.
A similar spirit of optimism and hope was alive in the Church. A movement called "The
Great Awakening," begun in the 1700's, had challenged the deterministic view of the
Puritans. Emphasizing spiritual rebirth and salvation, this view held more hope for the
underclass.
Monarchy had relied on rigid class distinctions that allowed no upward mobility. Religion
had reinforced acceptance of a permanent impoverished class. With its space and
abundant resources, egalitarian philosophy, and a renewed religious vigor, America
enthusiastically tackled social ills.
Poor Laws of 1601 - Elizabethan laws lay the
groundwork for social policy in America.

America's foundation for social welfare comes from

the laws and traditions of England. English welfare
practices had been codified into law by Parliament
during the reign of Elizabeth.
Main principles included local control, with
administrative units made up of parishes, and select
residents of the parish designated "overseers of the
poor."
These overseers had responsibility for the poor of
the parish, including finding work, taking care of
neglected children and providing relief for "the lame,
impotent, old, blind, and such other among them,
being poor and not able to work." Emphasizing care
for the disabled and aged made a distinction
between "deserving" and "undeserving" poor.
For neglected children, whose parents were found by
the overseers to be unfit to "keep and maintain"
them, care took the form of being apprenticed to a
local tradesman.
Local control of social welfare under the Poors of
1601 also meant local financing, with overseers given
broad authority to levy taxes on parish residents
The 1601 Poor Laws were the basis of English social
policy until the mid-1800's. Their influence on
American practice, particularly in New England, was
tremendous. In fact, until recent times, New
Hampshire welfare case-workers were called
"overseers of the poor."

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Social Workers begun their great
journey as friendly visitors

In the 1850s, rapid urbanization &Industry- alization, increased city social problems. Poverty & its accompanying difficulties forced society to address

needed services. As a result, new charities, both public and private, responded to the challenge. As charity resources expanded, experienced workers saw

the need for improved organization and management and they began to to apply order to the problems in their communities. The hardship and slow

economy of the 1870s threw millions of men out of work and sparked riots and strikes. The strikes shut down most of the nation's railroad traffic and, as a

result, commerce came to a halt. Elected officials, shocked and frightened by the poverty, destitution and general unrest, expanded local relief efforts

hoping to moderate the depression's severity and to re-establish social order. During this time, a new movement of charitable organizations began to appear

that we now associate more directly with the evolution of early social work.

The charity organizations were created to reorganize the public and private resources that had proliferated during the 1870s. In 1877, the first American

charity organization society was established in Buffalo, New York. At the turn of the century, virtually every major urban area in America hosted some

form of charity organization society. Leaders believed poverty could

be
eradicated
through

planned intervention or treatment rather than by direct relief (i.e. monetary

assistance) alone. Many were disturbed by what they saw as an inefficient and chaotic array of urban philanthropy.

Therefore, a central record keeping system was created to track those who received assistance and prevented the indigent

from receiving relief from more than one agency. Someone, though, had to perform the crucial tasks of investigation and treatment, and that
someone was the “friendly visitor”, and yielded

the birth of what would be the social work profession was born. In the early 1890s, Mary Richmond, then director of the Baltimore Charity Organization,
began
developing

training programs. In 1898, the New York Charity Organization started the first

school for social workers. The original curriculum was designed as a six week set of summer classes and included formal lectures and field work.
Mary Richmond
S.Rengasamy-History of Social Welfare / Social Work
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2
Early Reforms - "Outdoor" relief moves "Indoor"

The social welfare practices of colonial America and the early United States were a
legacy of English practice.
Appointed overseers of the poor in each community made provision for the needy:

securing pensions, apprenticing wayward youth to tradesmen, and, in some cases, auctioning off care of
people to the lowest bidder. The low bidder would be paid to care for an indigent person in his home, with
little financial incentive to provide quality care.
This decentralized system was called "outdoor" relief because care took place in people's homes, outside
an institution.
While at times abused by its disinterested overseers, outdoor relief was also criticized for delivering service
in homes, instead of motivating the needy to get out and help themselves.
Reformers of the time stressed the environmental factors that shaped social ills, such as poverty and
alcoholism. They built institutions to provide corrected, safe environments. Homes for the disabled, mental
institutions, even prisons grew out of this movement.
Many states created institutions for the impoverished. "Indoor" relief was born, and the era of the
p
oorhouse be
g
an.
The Gilded Age - Industrialized economy booms for some.

In 1869, the just-completed transcontinental railroad connected

the West to the East.
With North and South no longer at war, the nation moved solidly
in the direction of commerce. The railroad united new industries
and vast fortunes were made in steel, oil, and banking.
While some tycoons, like Andrew Carnegie and
John D. Rockefeller, would become legendary philanth
-rapists ,so-called "robber-barons" viewed the world
exclusively as a competitive arena where every possible advantage
should be exploited.
These "Social Darwinists" extrapolated the "Survival of the Fittest"
theories of Charles Darwin to mean the pursuit of individual
wealth was natural and right.
Darwin's work challenged prevailing religious views about Man's
origins. Just as some religious interpretation had led to acceptance
of a permanent underclass, this interpretation of Darwin's work
served the purpose of the wealthy
Cities and Settlement Houses - Immigration,
urbanization challenge cities.
Post-Civil War industrialization and immigration lead to enormous
city growth, as many newcomers to America were crowded into
cramped and filthy tenements.
The settlement house movement sought to relieve the pressures
of urban immigrant life by providing community social services in
an informal, neighborly setting.
The most famous example is Chicago's Hull House, founded by
social reformer Jane Addams. Less concerned with providing the
moral improvement charitable organizations sought, Hull House
offered some practical services to its community, like the first
childcare and kindergarten in Chicago.

Civil War - War redefines

balance between state and
federal.

The US Civil War was a conflict

between state and federal power.
One consequence, though
perhaps coincidental,
was a change in the
federal government's
role in social welfare,
particularly in public
health.
At the War's outset, appalling
numbers of troops succumbed to
disease, due largely to poor
sanitation. A very effective
Sanitary Commission was
established to disseminate proper
health practices.
Though it was not a government
agency, the Commission
demonstrated to federal and state
governments that a nationally led
organization could be effective in
promoting the public welfare.
It also demonstrated that some
issues, like public health, were
larger than local concerns and
required cooperation between
units of government.
The Commission also created new
roles for women by putting nurses
near the front.

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3
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Social Security - Wisconsin economist directs effort

After the Band-Aid work of emergency relief, Roosevelt turned to developing a more
permanent safety net to keep Americans from destitution in the future.
A Committee of Economic Security was established with University of Wisconsin Professor
Edwin E. Witte as its director. Witte was an economist who had worked on Wisconsin's pioneering
unemployment insurance program. The committee devised a widespread program of social insurance that
became law in 1935, little more than a year after the committee began its work.Old age pensions and
unemployment insurance were funded by payments from both employers and employees. Funding was
provided to states to administer relief to the disabled, widowed, and to single-parent families in a
program that would become AFDC.
For the first time in US history, a certain amount of assistance was federally guaranteed to all citizens as
an "entitlement."
The Progressive - Era Government gets
involved .

Around the turn of the last century, the

excesses of the Gilded Age became politically
unpalatable. The laissez-faire style of
government that had allowed unrestricted
commerce did little to protect the rights of
workers or provide for the needy.
In Wisconsin, Bob LaFollette fought political
corruption. In Washington, President
Theodore Roosevelt broke up the trusts that
had monopolized whole sectors of the
economy. And around the country, farmers
and laborers organized for political unity.
Journalistic endeavors in this era of
muckraking shed light on dangerous work
conditions and squalid housing. Famous
examples include Jacob Riis's photography and
writing about tenement life and Upton
Sinclair's exposure of unsafe meatpacking
practices.
A 1909 White House Conference on
Dependent Children signaled a change in
government interest in children's welfare.
Previously considered a local or private
charitable concern, children's welfare received
federal attention with the creation of a US
Children's Bureau.
The Social Worker - The rise of the profession.

In 1921, at a Milwaukee conference, the American

Association of Social Workers was established. This
movement toward a more professional approach
evolved throughout the early decades of the 20th
century.
The complexity of modern life and the social ills
associated with city growth were thought too
daunting for the traditional untrained charity worker.
The social work profession devised standards and
training and advocated social research and scientific
methods.
While such professionalism lead to more consistent
and focused care for individuals in need, much of the
reformist zeal and desire for social change, so vital in
the 19th century, fell by the wayside.
The Great Depression - Millions of unemployed;
"alphabet soup" of agencies

After the 1929 stock market crash, and President

Hoover's ineffectual response, America faced its
greatest economic crisis. Millions of newly
unemployed were exhausting private relief
organizations.
In New York state, Governor Franklin Roosevelt

viewed the unemployed as a vast social problem that could only be fixed by government. An emergency
temporary relief agency delivered funds to local work projects and relief providers.
As President, Roosevelt's first major act was creation of the Federal Emergency Relief Administration
(FERA, the first of an "alphabet soup" of relief agencies) to fund locally administered unemployment relief.
The principle of locally funded, locally controlled welfare dates back to America's colonial era and the Poor
Laws of 1601. But the problems of the Depression proved too great for local governments or charities.
Federal funding came with guidelines, including the hiring of social workers. Many private charity social
workers now entered government service.
S.Rengasamy-History of Social Welfare / Social Work
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4
War and Postwar - Wartime
factories retooled for prosperity

"The more women work, the sooner

we win" read this recruiting poster
from World War II.
Millions of men were away in the
military. To keep them supplied in the
field, factories hired women for jobs
that had previously been only done by
men.
After so many years of widespread
unemployment, the enormous needs
of the national war effort brought
unprecedented opportunities for
women and for minorities.
Just a few years before, aid to support
single mothers at home had been
passed as part of the Social Security
Act. Now a very different public image
of women was being projected.
Although "Rosie the Riveter" was
expected to return to homemaking
after the war, seeds of social
transformation were planted.
Wartime production gave way to
postwar prosperity, as factories turned
out consumer items for a growing
middle class. But amid the apparent
affluence and anti-Communist fever of
the postwar era, there was a growing
"Other America"– rural areas and
inner cities that had not enjoyed an
economic boom.
The Great Society -War on poverty, and war in Vietnam
.

Having grown up in the remote Texas Hill Country, Lyndon B.

Johnson understood the "Other America"– places like
Appalachia where poverty persisted. Having seen electricity
come to the Hill Country, Johnson felt government could do
great things.
A die-hard New Deal Democrat who had idolized FDR, LBJ
wanted to make a similar mark. Taking many initiatives started
under Kennedy, Johnson created a program dubbed the "Great
Society." Central to the program was a "War on Poverty."
Although Edwin Witte was able to devise Social Security in a
matter of months, speed worked against the War on Poverty.
The crisis mentality of War meant many programs were poorly
conceived and badly administered.
Meanwhile, another war, a real one in Vietnam, consumed
more of Johnson's attention. Protests against the war and
urban rioting showed that Johnson was ineffective at providing
either guns or butter. His effort to fight Communism overseas
divided the country. A riotous underclass destroyed the image
of a prosperous, united nation. Government seemed impotent
at quelling rebellion, on one extreme, and a failure at providing
economic justice for the largely minority underclass, on the
other extreme.
While there were some Great Society successes like Head Start
and adding two-parent families to AFDC, Johnson Era programs
would become the prototype of the "Big Government"
approach neoconservatives would fight against for years to
come.
1996 Welfare Reform Bill Ending welfare as we know it.

The 1994 Congressional elections would be dubbed the "Republican Revolution," as

Newt Gingrich engineered a majority-taking election effort. Republicans united by the
"Contract with America" made welfare reform a top priority.
Core to these Republicans' philosophy was a belief in "devolution"– the ceding of federal power to state
or local government. Local government should be more empowered and more responsive than a federal
bureaucracy could ever be.
History had expanded the federal role in social welfare through the Civil War, Progressive Era, and greatly
so during the Depression.
This new approach called back upon the principles of local control codified in the Poor Laws of 1601, the
original model for American social policy. As Gingrich praised the idea of orphanages, he approached the
reformist zeal of early American "indoor" relief advocates.
Negotiating with a Republican Congress, President Clinton signed the Personal Responsibility and Work
Opportunity Reconciliation Act in 1996.
Wisconsin had for many years been experimenting with programs to emphasize work over welfare. The
bill's passage paved the way for even more bold experimentation, and for states to follow Wisconsin's
lead.

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Elizabeth Gurney Fry (1780-1845) is most known for her successful reform of British prisons. It was a
complete innovation that a woman would do this kind of work. It was also new that she established a
voluntary committee of women for this work. Fry became known as „the
angel of the prisons‟. Since 2002 she is honored for her work through
being depicted on the British five pound note.

Betsy Gurney grew up in a well off Quaker community in Norfolk, the

east of England. The Quakers had strong ideals about equality and peace.
They belong to the early opponents of slave trade and were very active in
a wide range of philanthropic projects. The death of her mother when
Betsy was 12 years old had a significant impact on the young girl and cast
a shadow over her youth. At the age of 17 she started organising a primary
school for poor children at her home. After her marriage with
Joseph Fry (in 1800) she gave birth to eleven children. Even so she
continued her social work, such as taking care of lonely sick neighbours.
It is 1813 when Elisabeth Fry First entered Newgate prison (in London,
closed and demolished early 20th century). She was shocked by the inhuman circumstances in which
women and children were imprisoned.

The reports on her conversations with the women in Newgate prison were impressive. She also invited
important people to come and visit the prison to see the poor living conditions themselves. Fry
opposed the solitary imprisonment, which was standard procedure at the time. She argued it was bad
practice for the health and mental sanity of the prisoners. Fry became the first prison reformer to
focus on the moral improvement of prisoners through personal contact, conversations, education and
work. To accomplish this work, she established a voluntary committee of women.
The method used by Elizabeth Fry had three core ingredients:


Male and female prisoners had to be separated. Guards had to be same gender as the prisoners.
This became international practice since.


For the visits of female prisoners, women committees had to be established. The volunteers had to take care of education, paid
work and support after their clients were discharged from prison. This task developed into professional probation services.


Prisoners had to get opportunities for education and paid work.

Fry visited many prisons across the UK. Her actions were effective for her approach was (partially) incorporated in the British
prison law of 1823. She was consulted by Queen Victoria, Parliament and became a source of inspiration for nursing pioneer
Florence Nightingale. She also took her work internationally, e.g. to the Netherlands. Thanks to the work of Elizabeth Fry,
treatment of prisoners became more humane.
To commemorate the contribution Fry made to social work, the school of social work of the university
of Stanford is housed in a building named after her.
Read more


Young, A. F., & Ashton, E. T. (1956), British social work in the nineteenth century,
http://www.steyaert.org/canonpdfs/1965,%20Young%20Ashton,%20British%20social%20work%
2019th%20century%20OCR.pdf
Celebrating Social Welfare / Work Pioneers
Elizabeth Gurney Fry (1780-1845)
Celebrating Social Welfare / Work Pioneers
Elizabeth Gurney Fry
S.Rengasamy-History of Social Welfare / Social Work
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Octavia Hill

training enabling them to act as social workers. Octavia Hill works in a way that strengthens self respect and trust in own
capabilities. These days, we would call that empowerment and resilience. She hates philanthropy that creates dependency. In
1869, she is one of the founding members of the Charity Organization Society that aims to modernize poverty work. Its origins
go back to Elberfeld, Germany.
Octavia Hill starts advocacy work for nature in and around London in 1975. She becomes one of the
three founding members of the National Trust in 1894. The organization is still an important actor in
the maintenance of parks, castles and nature in the UK. Octavia‟s influence is far reaching, and has
links to Amsterdam, Berlin and Chicago. Her 1883 publication The homes of the London poor
(http://www.victorianlondon.org/publications/homesofthelondonpoor.htm) helps spreading her ideas across the world.

Although by the end of her life, interest in her thinking declined because of her great emphasis on individual and small-scale
social work, the past few decades have seen a renewed interest. Hill refused to acknowledge that significant government
intervention could be needed to deal with major social problems such as poverty, housing and unemployment. In her thinking,
government initiatives should never replace voluntary action. With the emergence of the welfare state, her popularity
eroded. Within the current discussion about the sustainability of the welfare state, parts of Hill‟s work
emerge again.
Octavia Hill is remarkable in the history of social work because she rejected alms. Those would only
bring curses and keep citizens at the edge of pauperism. Hill believed in a paternalistic approach that

changed the attitudes of poor people. More and better houses wouldn‟t help to get rid of slums: “The people‟s homes are bad,
partly because they are badly built and arranged, they are tenfold worse because the tenants‟ habits and lives are what they are.
Transplant them tomorrow to healthy and commodious homes and they would pollute and destroy them” (1875)
Read more
1.
Smith, Mark K. (2008), Octavia Hill: housing, space and social reform, 2. Hill, Octavia (1883), Homes of the
London Poor3. Lewis, J. E. (1991), Octavia Hill, 1838-1912,4. Lewis, J. E. (1991), Women and social action in
Victorian and Edwardian England,Li nks The Octavia Hill society (and birthplace) Wikipedia about Octavia Hill

It is 1864 when teacher and artist Octavia Hill (1838-1912) starts to work in the poor neighborhoods of Late Victorian London
(in what is now Marylebone burough and one of the most expensive places to live). She works with people at the bottom of the
social ladder: poor, unemployed, living in cold and damp dwellings. Housing is her main focus. Hill sees a well-maintained
house, however small, with light, air and space– and with neighbours who care about each other– as life necessity

# 1. Money from the art critic John Ruskin enables her to buy three houses in what is now central London. Each week, she
personally collects the rent and discusses issues with the tenants. Housing is the basis, but also the starting point of other
activities: development of gardens, play gardens for the children, excursion. Octavia Hill starts living in the Marylebone borough
of London herself, and builds an accommodation behind her house to host weekend- and evening activities for children, women
and elderly persons.

As a result of careful housing management, she succeeds in having a 5% return-on-investment. Her housing projects become an
attractive investment. She expands her work, gathers more funds and support. Many women receive
Celebrating Social Welfare / Work Pioneers
Octavia Hill
(
1838-1912
)

S.Rengasamy-History of Social Welfare / Social Work

27
conditions. The confrontation with the harsh reality of social inequality would not only sharpen their
University Extension, an outreaching type of learning in which students worked with the poorer
parts of the population and applied their course material as a way of voluntary work. Students thus
would become more aware of daily living sense for social responsibility, but also bridge class
segregation. This idea was later labelled Practical Socialism (1888) by Toynbee‟s think-alike and
Anglican priest Samuel Barnett. It received plenty of support in Oxford and Cambridge, from which
it gained international recognition.
After Toynbee‟s death, Barnett continued work on the University Extension. Students would not

only work to enhance the living conditions of the poor, they would also live among them for at least a year. The University
Settlement was born. This would guarantee a stronger link between scholars and urban slums, and achieve better results. In 1884
Toynbee Hall opened in East London. Graduated students cam and lived there, while often working elsewhere, and contributed to
neighbourhood development. They studies the living conditions and necessities of the working class, and organised activities to
contribute to community building, (informal) education and social liberation. They worked to achieve improvements in the poor
law, better pension rights and an overall enhancement of living conditions. Toynbee Hall quickly became an inspiring example of
community development in both the US and Europe. In the beginning of the 20th century, one of the people to live and work at
Toynbee Hall for a short period of time was William Beveridge.
(http://www.historyofsocialwork.org/details.php?id=4)
Extra Toynbee Hall celebrated it's 125th anniversary in 2009. On the 1st of June, there was a
party for the volunteers. This was also the launch of the movie "Celebrating Volunteers at

Toynbee Hall".( http:/ / w w w .yout ube .com/ w a tc h? v= fw Ho5 5Iz D6Y& )

Read more
Additional information


Barnett-Rowland, Henrietta (1913), Canon Barnett, his life, work and friends,
(http://www.archive.org/stream/canonbarnetthisl01barnuoft)
Links


Wikipedia on Arnold Toynbee(htt p :/ / e n.wikipe dia . org/ w iki/Ar nold _J ._ To ynbe e )



Toynbee Hall now(htt p :/ /w w w .toynbe eha ll.org .u k/)



Settlements and social action centers( http :/ / w w w .infed. org/ a ssocia tio n/ b -s ettl.htm )

Arnold Toynbee (1852-1881) didn‟t get to live long, but was much
appreciated in his short life as a scholar. He lectured economical history in
Oxford where he was very critical about the industrial revolution he saw
emerging all around him. His key message was that: “The effects of the

Industrial Revolution prove that free competition may produce wealth

without producing well-being". The biggest poverty became concentrated
in urban slums. This didn‟t allow for indifference. As a consequence, he
urged his students to show some real engagement.
Using the ideas of Edward Denison (1840-1970), Toynbee argued for
Celebrating Social Welfare / Work Pioneers
Arnold To

S.Rengasamy-History of Social Welfare / Social Work

28
Jane Addams (1860-1935) was born in Cedarville, Illinois in a well-off Quaker family. After her studies,
she visited Toynbee Hall in London and inspired by it, she developed a very similar initiative in Chic-
ago. Together with her friend Ellen Starr, she started the first settlement house in 1889 in Near West
Side, a neighbourhood with plenty of European immigrants: Hull House. It quickly developed into a
real action centre with plenty of room for children, education for adults, culture and focus on social
progress. Addams however didn‟t only work with the poor but also engaged in political action aimed at
establishingnew laws to protect the poor.
Addams assembled a group of very committed young women. They became the female face of the
democratisation movement in the Progressive Era. From 1900 onwards the United States saw a wave
of interest in women‟s emancipation, new social laws and attention for social and racial tensions. The
Hull House group professionalised the contribution of women in social work. With their neighbourhood
work, they contributed to a more structural political focus.
They started from a profound analysis of real situations and by doing so contributed to later social science research. In the Hull
house maps and papers they reported on the effects of concentration of different ethnicities and their living conditions, about
labour circumstances in the sweatshops, about
child labour. This was work done by e.g. Julia Lathrop and Florence Kelley. This approach to „mapping‟

contributed to the start of the famous Chicago school in urban sociology with key figures like George Herbert Mead and John
Dewey. For the academic researchers, Addams and her colleagues were just data collectors, while for themselves their research
was a tool and starting point for social action.

With the strong combination of professional interventions and structured reseach, Addams succeeded in establishing a specific
basis for American social work which raised international interest. From the very
beginning,
Hull
house
received
numerous
visitors
from
abroad.
Many initiatives were launched from Hull house. Julia Lathrop later became the first director of the
Children‟s Federal Bureau (1912). She succeeded in raising concerns about child labour and child
deaths.

The power of the settlement work translated to a broad social engagement of Jane Addams in which she combined here work for
Hull House with an at least equally passionate contribution to the peace movement during the First World War. That earned her
the nickname Saint Jane. Four years before her death, she received the Nobel Prize for the peace (1931).
Extra
]

Jane Addams is still actively being remembered in the US. The social work department of the
University of Illinois at Chicago is named after her: Jane Addams College of Social Work.
(http://www.uic.edu/jaddams/college/)
Read more


Allen, J. D. (2008), Jane Addams (1860-1935): social worker and peace builder,
Additional information


Addams, Jane (1910), Twenty Years at Hull-House,

(http://xroads.virginia.edu/%7EHYPER/ADDAMS/title.html)


Hull House museum in Chicago( http:/ / w w w .ui c.ed u/ ja dda ms/hul l/ )

The urban experience in Chicago: Hull House and its neighborhoods
(http://www.uic.edu/jaddams/hull/urbanexp/)
Celebrating Social Welfare / Work Pioneers
Jane Addams (1860-1935)
Jane Addams
S.Rengasamy-History of Social Welfare / Social Work
29
Mary Richmond

With her book Social Diagnosis from 1917, Mary Ellen Richmond (1861- 1928) constructed the foundations for the scientific
methodology development of professional work. She searched for the causes of poverty and social exclusion in the interaction
between an individual and his or her environment. Mary Richmond can be described as the mother of social casework.

Richmond spent her youth in Baltimore on the American east coast. Aged 4, she became an orphan. She was an intelligent young
lady and was raised by her feminist grandmother. After having worked for eight years in a bookshop, she dedicated the rest of her
live from 1889 onwards to modernizing and professionalizing of care for the poor.

She started her career with the Charity Organization Society (COS) in Baltimore, a US branch of the organization Octavia Hill
established in the UK. Richmond‟s capacities didn‟t remain unnoticed and soon she was offered leading position in COS in
Baltimore and Philadelphia. From 1909 until her death, she was director of the charity department of the Russell Sage Foundation
in New York, an influential fund supporting social science research.

In modern social work, about everybody agrees there is a need for diagnosis and research to happen before care provision. It was
Richmond who systematically developed the content and methodology of diagnosis in the period around 1910. Her first principle
was that care had to focus on the person within her or his situation. Building on extensive research, she developed what she
labeled as „social
diagnosis‟. Her famous circle diagram visualized the correspondence of client and environment.

Richmond identified six sources of power that are available to clients and their social workers: sources within the household, in
the person of the client, in the neighborhood and wider social network, in civil agencies, in private and public agencies. This is a
precursor of the system theory that was so popular
in 1970‟s social work.

Through her approach to research, Richmond gave social work clients a voice for the first time. In this way, she opened a new
and fruitful area of social research which is up to now a cornerstone of social work. With her broad instructions on how to gather
information, interview methodologies, establishing contact and conducting conversations, Richmond gave social casework a
strong professional status. In her second big publication What is social casework? (1922) Mary Richmond introduced the
methodology of „learning from cases‟. She provided extensive comments to six elaborately described

practice situations. New was her plea to also cover psychological elements. First came however an open and honest
communication with clients, without encumbering formalities. Strengthening the resilience of clients is a natural component of
this approach. Richmond‟s plea to involve clients in the solving of their problems still provides inspiration, even a century later.
The work of Mary Richmond was highly influential in the US, UK and internationally. There are few
countries where current social work has not been influenced by her work and thinking.
Additional information

 Richmond, Mary Ellen (1899), Friendly Visiting among the Poor. A Handbook for Charity Workers

 Richmond, Mary Ellen (1908), The good neighbor in the modern city

 Richmond, Mary Ellen (1913), A study of nine hundred and eighty-five widows known to
certain charity organization societies in 1910
 Richmond, Mary Ellen (1917), Social diagnosis
Richmond, Mary Ellen (1922), What is social case work? An introductory description
Celebrating Social Welfare / Work Pioneers
Mary Ellen Richmond (1861-1928)
S.Rengasamy-History of Social Welfare / Social Work
30
George Orwell, John Howard Griffin, Pat Moore, Tolly Toynbee, Günther Wallraff, Barbara Ehrenreich
There was a time when Eric Blair wasn‟t yet know as George Orwell, the

author of19 84 and Animal Farm. It was a time in which he was so poor that he needed to move to Paris where the cost of living
at the time was much lower. He wrote up his experiences combined with those upon his return to London and thus provided a
great description of what poverty really looked like. He provided a view on the (in)humanity behind statistics with more
vividness than any quantitative research could ever achieve.

To give one example, Orwell describes how he and his Russian friend Boris
are short of food and spent their last money on some bread and garlic. The
combination is part of their survival skills: "the point of rubbing garlic on
bread is that the taste lingers and gives one the illusion of having fed
recently." Others wrote similar accounts of poverty and injustice. Well known
examples include John Howard Griffin, a white man who decided to dye
himself black to experience society like „a black‟. During some months in 1959,

he lived like a black citizen in the segregated deep south of the US. The
diaries he kept were published the year after as Black like me and showed
the many (ugly) faces of day-to-day racism. Griffin became a respected civil
rights activist but also received death threats and was at one time severely
beaten by members of the Ku Klux Klan. Similar to Griffin‟s work is Pat
Moore‟s Disguised, a true story from 1985. A student of gerontology,

Moore wanted to get a better understanding of what it meant to be a senior

citizen and started being one by applying a gray wig and e.g. blurring her
sight by applying baby oil to her eyes. Travelling through the US and Canada
in this disguised way, she organized her own excursions into the world of the
elderly. Although somewhere in the intro to her book she is described as not
bein
g
asocial worker
,
she most definitel
y
is.

Her project became a great example of how bad design of products (incl. buildings, transport,...) excludes people with
impairments. She also clearly illustrated how working on social progress can go hand in hand with business interests.

Griffin and Moore worked in North America and are not very known in Europe. The same approach has however gained
widespread fame in Europe through the work of the German journalist Günther Wallraff. Around the same time as Pat

Moore‟s work, Wallraff disguised as a Turkish immigrant worker. He worked for several companies, including German‟s steal
industry giant Thyssen and the fast food champion McDonald‟s. His book Ganz Unten was translated in many

languages and made a great impact as it illustrated both the exploitation of immigrant workers in the labour market as well as day
to day racism from German people.
All of the above are prime examples of the use of immersive research and role play techniques to highlight situations of social
injustice. This is not something from the past, but still being done in our time. Examples include the UK journalist Tolly Toynbee
who worked as a low-skilled employee and published her experiences in Hard work, the US writer Barbara Ehrenreich who did
the
Celebrating Social Welfare / Work Pioneers
George Orwell, John Howard Griffin, Pat Moore,Tolly Toynbee, Günther Wallraff, Barbara Ehrenreich
S.Rengasamy-History of Social Welfare / Social Work
31
same and published Nickled and dimed, and the French journalist Florence
Aubenas who lived for six months as a low-skilled single woman in a poor area
of the French city Caen. All three of these recent examples of immersive
research illustrate life at the bottom of society is not easy.

If three well educated woman with plenty of life experiences did not manage
to remain out of poverty when acting as a low-skilled person, how could
somebody really in that situation do it? Their research shows that society still
has not succeeded in building „ladders out of poverty‟.
Additional information


Orwell, G. (1933), Down and out in Paris and London


Griffin, J. H. (1960), Black Like Me


Moore, P., Conn, C. P., & Conn, P. (1985), Disguised: A True Story


Wallraff, G. (1985), Ganz unten, translated as 'Lowest of the low'



Toynbee, P. (2003), Hard work, life in low-pay Britain



Ehrenreich, B. (2002), Nickel and dimed, undercover in low-wage

USA


Aubenas, F. (2010), Le Quai de Ouistreham

S.Rengasamy-History of Social Welfare / Social Work
32
Most social work in Western countries is currently provided within the context of the welfare state, whose origins can be traced
back to the work of sir William Henry Beveridge at the time of the second World War.

Beveridge was born in 1879 in India, at that time part of the British Empire. He studied law in Oxford and quickly became
fascinated by early forms of social security, rapidly turning into an authority on pensions and unemployment benefits. At the
beginning of the twentieth century, his thinking already had an impact on the development of national insurance and policy on
poverty in the UK. Soon after the First World War, he was knighted. His work was greatly influenced by the Fabian society, who
clearly also liked his work for they gave him the post of director of the London School of Economics (LSE). Early on during the
Second World War, the Minister of Health commissioned a report on the state of social insurances in the UK and invited
Beveridge to be chair. In 1942, they published their report Social Insurance and Allied Services, which quickly simply became
know as „the Beveridge report‟. It was followed in 1944 by a report entitled Full Employment in a Free Society. Both reports
were to
have far reaching consequences, way beyond the government‟s initial
intentions.
Beveridge‟s work labeled the main challenges for social policy as „the five
giants‟: avoid squalor, ignorance, want, idleness and disease. Social insurance

was but one element to address these challenges. Equally important were education, health care, and housing and employment
services. Each of these is currently a sector where social workers are active. Beveridge argued for a central role of the state in
guaranteeing the necessary resources for the welfare state, as well as being the main provider of services. Every citizen would
contribute to this universal system of solidarity according to his/her capabilities, and would be able to make use of it according to
his/her needs. Key to all this was full employment.

In 1945, the Labour party won the elections and defeated Churchill. They quickly announced the intention to build a welfare state
as described by Beveridge. This resulted in, among other things, the start of the National Health Service (NHS) in 1948. The
relevance of Beveridge was however not limited to the United Kingdom. Many leading politicians from across the world spent
time in London during the Second World War, and were well aware of the ideas proposed in the Beveridge report. Once peace
established, the ideas were exported e.g. by Arie van Rhijn to the Netherlands and Louis Major to Belgium. As such, it can be
said that Beverigde was the architect of the global building plans for the welfare state.
There ma
y
have been one buildin
g p
lan
,
but it was not one welfare state that
developed. Implementation of the ideas in the Beveridge report was influenced

by local politics, and as a consequence welfare states across the world differed from each other and from the original plans. Well
known classifications of welfare states to describe this diversity have been made by Richard Titmuss (1974) and later by Gøsta
Esping-Andersens (1990).
Additional information
 Beveridge, W. (1942), Social insurances and allied services the first 20 pages of 'the Beverigde
report' (http://www.canonsociaalwerk.eu/1942_ENG_Beveridge/1942,%20Beveridge,%20social%
20insurance%20and%20allied%20services.pdf)
 Beveridge, J. (1954), Beveridge and his plan
 Timmins, N. (1996), The five giants, a biography of the welfare state
Celebrating Social Welfare / Work Pioneers
Sir William Henry Beveridge
Sir William Beveridge
S.Rengasamy-History of Social Welfare / Social Work
33
Jane Jacobs (1916-2006)
More than anyone else, Jane Jacobs (1916-2006) influenced our thinking about cities and city life
during the second half of the twentieth century. A lack of any formal education in city planning or
related subjects didn‟t put a brake on her influence. At a very early age, she moved to Greenwich

Village, a neighborhood in Manhattan, New York, where she had to take several different jobs to
survive amidst the economic crisis. Times of unemployment were filled with long walks through the
city. During that time, her eloquent writing and sharp analytic eye became to be noted. She married
an architect and started writing for Architectural Forum. In this way, she developed a keen interest in
cities and city life.

Jacobs published here best-known book in 1961: The death and life of great American cities. It
was a protest against the megalomaniac plans of Robert Moses, the city architect of New York. He
wanted to build huge traffic gateways through the inner city to give maximal freedom to car transport.
Jacobs was furious about these drawing board plans, and argued a city is not created on maps but
grows like a living organism. Cities are like bodies, and streets are the arteries. Through her
publications and protest actions, Jacobs together with many others succeeded in stopping the building
of the Lower Manhattan Expressway. She had been wrestling with Moses, and won.
In 1968, Jane Jacobs moved to Toronto as a protest against the war in Vietnam and to avoid military
service for her sons. She‟d stay in Toronto until her death in 2006. The situation Jacobs found in
Toronto wasn‟t that different to New York. Plans existed to build the huge Spadina Expressway all the

way through the center of town. Jacobs became one of the most visible activists against these plans,
and again she and her companions succeeded in stopping the further planning and building of this
expressway.

In many cities across the Western world, the notion of make room for car mobility has gradually been replaced by the notion that
other transport is equally relevant and car-free zones are a benefit for the city.
Celebrating Social Welfare / Work Pioneers
Jane Jacobs (1916-2006)
S.Rengasamy-History of Social Welfare / Social Work
34
A few key elements in Jacobs‟ vision on the city are still present in our present day thinking. She
argued that a mix of functions on the local level was a key element for general attractiveness of a
neighbourhood. If functions would become geographically separated, we get neighborhoods that are
only partially used, e.g. places where people only come to sleep, places where people only shop,
places that are only used during office hours. Jacobs had a strong preference to intertwine these
functions in the same locality, thus making for continuous activity.

Related to this Jacobs introduced the notion of eyes on the street. Plenty of people that make use of the city at different hours
would create a light form of social control that would enhance public safety. Robert Putnam would later use and expand this
notion in his work on social capital.
Another still very popular idea from Jane Jacobs is her saying that „old ideas can sometimes use new
buildings, but new ideas must use old buildings‟. City development is not about destroying old
buildings and constructing new ones, but about giving old buildings a new purpose. Numerous
examples exist, such as Tate Modern in London, housed in an old power station.
To commemorate Jane Jacobs, several cities have installed Jane‟s walks: city tours focuses on the
current live in neighborhoods, guided by citizens themselves. These give a view on the living city, not
on the historical „dead‟ city. They are also called urban safaris.
Read more


Hospers, G.-J. (2006), Jane Jacobs: her life and work, (http://www.dime-
eu.org/files/active/0/Jane%20Jacobs.pdf)
Additional information


Jacobs, J. (1961), The death and life of great American cities



Sparberg Alexiou, A. (2006), Jane Jacobs, urban visionary



Flint, A. (2009), Wrestling with Moses, how Jane Jacobs took on New York's master
builder and transformed the American city.


Goldsmith, S., & Elizabeth, L. (Eds.). (2010), What We See, Advancing the Observations of
Jane Jacobs,

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