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Feedwater Heater Maintenance Guide
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Technical Report
Plant
Maintenance
Support Equipment
Reduced
Cost Reliability
Feedwater Heater Maintenance
Guide
1003470
Final Report, May 2002
EPRI Project Manager

A. J. Grunsky
EPRI • 3412 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, California 94304 • PO Box 10412, Palo Alto, California 94303 • USA
800.313.3774 • 650.855.2121 • askepri@epri.com • www.epri.com.
DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTIES AND LIMITATION OF LIABILITIES
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ACCOUNT OF WORK SPONSORED OR COSPONSORED BY THE ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH
INSTITUTE, INC. (EPRI). NEITHER EPRI, ANY MEMBER OF EPRI, ANY COSPONSOR, THE
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CITATIONS
This report was prepared by
Nuclear Maintenance Applications Center (NMAC)

EPRI
1300 W. T. Harris Boulevard
Charlotte, NC 28262
This report describes research sponsored by EPRI.
The report is a corporate document that should be cited in the literature in the following manner:
Feedwater Heater Maintenance Guide, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2002. 1003470.
iii
REPORT SUMMARY
This guide provides plant personnel with information on the operation, maintenance, and
performance of feedwater heaters. The contents of this guide will assist plant personnel in
improving feedwater heater reliability, performance, and maintenance practices.
Background
As the age of a feedwater heater increases, its operation and maintenance costs also increase. The
unit reliability and heat rate performance are affected by the condition of the feedwater heaters.
Objective
• To provide plant personnel with improved reliability, performance, and maintenance
practices for feedwater heaters
• To provide a comprehensive guide for feedwater heaters
Approach
This guide was structured to provide a comprehensive overview of feedwater heater equipment,
including input from utility and industry personnel. An extensive search of previously written
EPRI guides was conducted to provide relevant information for plant personnel in the operation,
maintenance, and performance of feedwater heaters.
Results
The guide includes information on the following topics:
• Auxiliary systems
• Charts
• Channel and cover repairs
• Codes and standards
• Complete replacement
• Components
• Cycle descriptions
• Data monitoring and trending
• Destructive testing and analysis
• Diaphragm repairs
• Failure data
• Failure mechanisms
• Fossil application
• General maintenance guidelines
v
• General operation
• Heater conditions
• Heater types and layout
• Industry survey results
• Material selection
• Miscellaneous repairs
• Nondestructive examination testing
• Pass partition repairs
• Performance degradation
• Preventive maintenance tasks
• Rebundling
• Remaining life assessment
• Retubing
• Run/repair/replace decisions
• Section/system problems
• Spare parts
• Summary failure chart
• Tube leak detection methods
• Tube repairs
• Tube-to-tubesheet repairs
• Unit uprating
The information in this guide is divided into the following sections:
• Introduction
• Tutorial
• Performance
• Troubleshooting
• Failure Modes
• Condition-Based Maintenance
• Repairs
• Replacements
EPRI Perspective
Feedwater heater operation and maintenance costs increase as the heater ages. Feedwater heater
performance affects unit reliability and energy costs. This guide provides a comprehensive
overview of the equipment practices needed for continued reliable operation.
Keywords
Feedwater heater
Performance
Maintenance
Reliability
Troubleshooting
vi
EPRI Licensed Material
ABSTRACT
The feedwater heater is a critical component in a nuclear power plant. As the age of the heater
increases, the maintenance costs required for continued operation also increase. Tube leaks
caused by erosion, corrosion, and vibration are the primary cause of lost production by the
heater.
In the last several years, flow-accelerated corrosion has caused thinning and some failures of the
heater shell. Periodic nondestructive evaluation testing programs can be used to monitor the
erosion and prevent any future failures.
Maintenance repairs include installing tube plugs and sleeves and repairing tubesheets,
diaphragms, pass partitions, channels, and covers. Replacement of heaters may be needed to
restore performance from plugged tubes.
This guide is a comprehensive treatment of all aspects of heater maintenance and is to be used by
plant maintenance engineers to improve heater performance and reduce maintenance costs.
vii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The Feedwater Heater Maintenance Guide was produced by the Nuclear Maintenance
Applications Center (NMAC) and the following members of the Feedwater Heater Guide
Technical Advisory Group. NMAC would like to thank the following individuals for their
participation in the preparation and review of this report:
Technical Advisory Group Members
Name Utility
Frank Francuzik Arizona Public Service
Iver Jacobson Entergy
Dick Labott Public Service Electric & Gas
Gregg Larson Exelon Corporation
Dennis Mason Duke Energy Corporation
Scott McVay Nuclear Management Company
Nally Osburn Duke Energy Corporation
Eric Sorenson Nuclear Management Company
Tim Eckert EPRI Plant Support Engineering
Name Vendor
Bruce Schafer Framatome ANP
Fritz Sutor Expansion Seal Technologies
NMAC and the Technical Advisory Group were supported in their efforts to develop this
guide by:
Sharon R. Parker EPRI NMAC contractor
ix
CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................1-1
1.1 Background..................................................................................................................1-1
1.2 Approach .....................................................................................................................1-1
1.3 Organization ................................................................................................................1-2
1.4 Pop Outs ......................................................................................................................1-3
2 TUTORIAL..............................................................................................................................2-1
2.1 Codes and Standards ..................................................................................................2-2
2.2 Auxiliary Systems ........................................................................................................2-3
2.2.1 Extraction Steam System....................................................................................2-3
2.2.2 Heater Drain System...........................................................................................2-4
2.3 Heater Types and Layout ............................................................................................2-6
2.3.1 Classification .......................................................................................................2-6
2.3.2 Types ..................................................................................................................2-7
2.3.3 Pressure..............................................................................................................2-7
2.3.4 Orientation...........................................................................................................2-7
2.3.5 Numbering of Heaters .........................................................................................2-8
2.3.6 Zones ..................................................................................................................2-8
2.3.6.1 Condensing Zone..........................................................................................2-9
2.3.6.2 Drains Cooling Zone ...................................................................................2-10
2.3.6.3 Two-Zone Heater ........................................................................................2-11
2.3.7 Condenser Neck Heaters..................................................................................2-13
2.4 Heater Components...................................................................................................2-14
2.4.1 Shell ..................................................................................................................2-14
2.4.2 Channel and Manways......................................................................................2-15
2.4.2.1 Full Access, Low Pressure..........................................................................2-15
2.4.2.2 Full Access, High Pressure.........................................................................2-17
2.4.2.3 Manway Access, Low Pressure ..................................................................2-18
xi
2.4.2.4 Manway Access, High Pressure .................................................................2-21

2.4.3 Pass Partitions, Plate and Cover ......................................................................2-22
2.4.3.1 Welded Pass Partition Design ....................................................................2-23
2.4.3.2 Bolted Pass Partition Design ......................................................................2-25
2.3.4.3 Floating Pass Partition Design....................................................................2-26
2.4.4 Tubesheets .......................................................................................................2-27
2.4.5 Tubes ................................................................................................................2-28
2.4.6 Tube Supports and Baffles................................................................................2-29
2.4.7 Shell Relief Valves ............................................................................................2-29
2.4.8 Vents .................................................................................................................2-30
2.4.9 Nozzles .............................................................................................................2-33
2.5 General Operation .....................................................................................................2-33
2.5.1 Startup...............................................................................................................2-34
2.5.2 Return to Service ..............................................................................................2-35
2.5.3 Station Shutdown ..............................................................................................2-35
2.5.4 Removal from Service.......................................................................................2-36
2.5.5 Layup ................................................................................................................2-36
3 PERFORMANCE....................................................................................................................3-1
3.1 Cycle Descriptions .......................................................................................................3-1
3.1.1 Rankine Cycle .....................................................................................................3-1
3.1.2 Nuclear Turbine Cycle.........................................................................................3-3
3.1.3 Feedwater Heater Arrangement..........................................................................3-4
3.2 Data Monitoring and Trending .....................................................................................3-6
3.2.1 Performance Monitor...........................................................................................3-7
3.2.2 Data Analysis ......................................................................................................3-8
3.2.2.1 Final Feedwater Temperature.......................................................................3-8
3.2.2.2 Power Changes ............................................................................................3-9
3.2.2.3 Heat Exchanger Workstation ......................................................................3-10
3.3 Performance Degradation..........................................................................................3-11
3.3.1 Plugged Tubes ..................................................................................................3-12
3.3.2 Heater Water Level ...........................................................................................3-13
3.3.3 Shell Corrosion..................................................................................................3-13
3.3.4 Dump Valve Leakage........................................................................................3-14
3.3.5 Vents .................................................................................................................3-14
3.4 Unit Uprating ..............................................................................................................3-14
xii
4 TROUBLESHOOTING ...........................................................................................................4-1
4.1 Heater Conditions ........................................................................................................4-1
4.1.1 Startup and Shutdown.........................................................................................4-1
4.1.2 Load Loss............................................................................................................4-2
4.1.3 Turbine Water Induction......................................................................................4-3
4.1.4 Water Chemistry .................................................................................................4-4
4.1.5 Excessive Flow ...................................................................................................4-5
4.1.6 Bypasses.............................................................................................................4-5
4.1.7 Condensate Flashing ..........................................................................................4-6
4.1.8 Tube Leaks .........................................................................................................4-6
4.1.9 Plugged Tubes ....................................................................................................4-7
4.1.10 Pass Partition Leaks ...........................................................................................4-7
4.2 Section/System Problems............................................................................................4-8
4.2.1 Condensing Zone................................................................................................4-8
4.2.2 Drains Cooler Zone .............................................................................................4-8
4.2.3 Vent System......................................................................................................4-11
4.2.4 Level Control System ........................................................................................4-12
4.3 Charts ........................................................................................................................4-14
5 FAILURE MODES ..................................................................................................................5-1

5.1 Failure Data .................................................................................................................5-1
5.1.1 Institute of Nuclear Power Operations ................................................................5-1
5.1.1.1 Plant Events..................................................................................................5-2
5.1.1.1.1 Personnel Safety Events .......................................................................5-4
5.1.1.2 Significant Event Evaluation Information Network ........................................5-6
5.1.1.2.1 CHECWORKSTM Users Group Position Paper .....................................5-8
5.1.1.3 Operating Experience .................................................................................5-11
5.1.1.4 Nuclear Plant Reliability Data System/Equipment Performance and
Information Exchange ................................................................................................5-11
5.1.2 Operating Plant Experience Code.....................................................................5-13
5.1.3 Nuclear Regulatory Commission.......................................................................5-14
5.1.3.1 Licensee Event Reports..............................................................................5-14
5.1.3.2 Bulletins and Information Notices ...............................................................5-15
5.2 Failure Mechanisms...................................................................................................5-16
5.2.1 General Corrosion.............................................................................................5-16
xiii
5.2.1.1 Galvanic Corrosion .....................................................................................5-17

5.2.1.2 Crevice Corrosion .......................................................................................5-18
5.2.1.3 Pitting Corrosion .........................................................................................5-18
5.2.1.4 Intergranular Corrosion ...............................................................................5-19
5.2.1.5 Stress Corrosion .........................................................................................5-19
5.2.1.6 Flow-Accelerated Corrosion........................................................................5-20
5.2.1.6.1 Recommended Inspections for Shell Thinning....................................5-20
5.2.2 Erosion ..............................................................................................................5-22
5.2.2.1 Tube Inlet Erosion.......................................................................................5-23
5.2.2.1.1 Heater Design .....................................................................................5-24
5.2.2.1.2 Abnormal Operation ............................................................................5-25
5.2.2.1.3 Water Chemistry .................................................................................5-25
5.2.2.1.4 Preventive Practices ...........................................................................5-26
5.2.2.2 Tubesheet Erosion......................................................................................5-28
5.2.2.3 Impingement Erosion ..................................................................................5-28
5.2.2.3.1 Impingement Plate Inspection .............................................................5-31
5.2.3 Vibration ............................................................................................................5-32
5.2.3.1 Excitation Mechanisms ...............................................................................5-32
5.2.3.2 Common Tube Damage from Vibration ......................................................5-33
5.2.3.3 Failure Locations from Vibration .................................................................5-34
5.2.3.4 Root Causes of Vibration ............................................................................5-36
5.2.3.5 Prevention Practices for Vibration...............................................................5-37
5.3 Summary Chart of Feedwater Heater Failures ..........................................................5-38
6 CONDITION-BASED MAINTENANCE ..................................................................................6-1

6.1 General Maintenance Guidelines ................................................................................6-1
6.2 Preventive Maintenance Tasks....................................................................................6-3
6.2.1 PM Template.......................................................................................................6-3
6.2.2 Performance Monitoring......................................................................................6-5
6.2.3 Internal Inspection...............................................................................................6-5
6.2.3.1 Inspection Interval.........................................................................................6-5
6.2.3.2 Visual Inspection...........................................................................................6-6
6.2.3.2.1 Remote Visual Testing ..........................................................................6-9
6.2.3.3 Off-Line Inspection Example.......................................................................6-13
6.2.3.3.1 Leak Tests Prior to Disassembly.........................................................6-13
xiv
6.2.3.3.2 Routine Channel Inspections and Tests..............................................6-14

6.2.4 Cleaning (Non-Chemical)..................................................................................6-17
6.2.5 Chemistry Monitoring and Operator Rounds.....................................................6-18
6.2.6 Nondestructive Examination Tasks...................................................................6-18
6.2.7 PM Charts .........................................................................................................6-19
6.3 Nondestructive Examination ......................................................................................6-24
6.3.1 Ultrasonic Testing .............................................................................................6-24
6.3.2 Magnetic Particle Testing..................................................................................6-25
6.3.3 Liquid Penetrant Testing ...................................................................................6-25
6.3.4 Electromagnetic Testing....................................................................................6-26
6.3.4.1 Eddy Current Testing ..................................................................................6-27
6.3.4.1.1 Pre-Outage Planning...........................................................................6-32
6.3.4.1.2 Vendor Selection.................................................................................6-37
6.3.4.1.3 On-Site Inspection Activities................................................................6-38
6.3.4.1.4 Post-Inspection Activities ....................................................................6-39
6.3.4.2 Pulsed Eddy Current Testing ......................................................................6-43
6.3.5 Component Testing...........................................................................................6-45
6.3.5.1 Channel and Tubesheet Area .....................................................................6-45
6.3.5.2 Shell and Nozzle Area ................................................................................6-46
6.4 Destructive Testing and Analysis...............................................................................6-47
7 REPAIRS ................................................................................................................................7-1
7.1 Tube Leak Detection Methods .....................................................................................7-1
7.1.1 Operation Indications ..........................................................................................7-2
7.1.2 Acoustic Leak Detection......................................................................................7-2
7.1.3 Shell Pressurization ............................................................................................7-4
7.1.4 Leak Location in Tube.........................................................................................7-5
7.2 Tube Repairs ...............................................................................................................7-6
7.2.1 Tube Plugging .....................................................................................................7-7
7.2.1.1 Tube Stabilizing ..........................................................................................7-10
7.2.2 Tube Plugs ........................................................................................................7-11
7.2.2.1 Hammer-In Taper Type...............................................................................7-11
7.2.2.2 Elastomer Type...........................................................................................7-13
7.2.2.3 Mechanical Type.........................................................................................7-14
7.2.2.3.1 Breakaway Type Plugs .......................................................................7-15
xv
7.2.2.3.2 Torque Type Plug...............................................................................7-16

7.2.2.3.3 Expandable Thimble Style Plug .........................................................7-17
7.2.2.4 Welded Type...............................................................................................7-18
7.2.2.4.1 Manually Welded.................................................................................7-18
7.2.2.4.2 Explosively Welded .............................................................................7-19
7.2.3 Tube Plugging Records.....................................................................................7-21
7.2.4 Plug Removal....................................................................................................7-22
7.2.5 Tube Sleeves ....................................................................................................7-23
7.2.6 Tube Pulling ......................................................................................................7-27
7.3 Tube-To-Tubesheet Repairs......................................................................................7-30
7.3.1 Tubesheet Repairs............................................................................................7-34
7.4 Diaphragm, Pass Partition, and Channel Cover Repairs...........................................7-34
7.4.1 Diaphragm.........................................................................................................7-34
7.4.2 Pass Partition ....................................................................................................7-35
7.4.3 Channel Cover ..................................................................................................7-36
7.4.3.1 Gasketed Covers ........................................................................................7-37
7.5 Miscellaneous Repairs...............................................................................................7-39
7.6 Spare Parts ................................................................................................................7-40
8 REPLACEMENTS ..................................................................................................................8-1
8.1 Run/Repair/Replace Decision......................................................................................8-1
8.1.1 Run Decision.......................................................................................................8-1
8.1.2 Repair Decision...................................................................................................8-2
8.1.3 Replace Decision ................................................................................................8-2
8.2 Remaining Life Assessment ........................................................................................8-3
8.3 Retubing ......................................................................................................................8-3
8.4 Rebundling...................................................................................................................8-4
8.5 Complete Replacement ...............................................................................................8-5
8.5.1 New Heater Considerations ................................................................................8-5
8.6 Material Selection ........................................................................................................8-6
8.6.1 Heater Materials..................................................................................................8-7
8.6.1.1 Tubesheet Overlay........................................................................................8-8
8.6.2 Tube Materials ....................................................................................................8-8
8.6.2.1 Wall Thickness............................................................................................8-14
8.6.2.2 U-Bend Radii...............................................................................................8-15
xvi
8.6.2.3 Velocity .......................................................................................................8-16

8.6.2.4 Temperature ...............................................................................................8-16
8.6.2.5 Tube Supports ............................................................................................8-17
8.6.2.6 Tubesheet Holes.........................................................................................8-18
9 REFERENCES, ACRONYMS, AND GLOSSARY..................................................................9-1

References ............................................................................................................................9-1
Acronyms ..............................................................................................................................9-5
Glossary ................................................................................................................................9-8
A 2001 SURVEY RESULTS..................................................................................................... A-1
B FOSSIL APPLICATIONS...................................................................................................... B-1

B.1 Fossil Flow Diagram ................................................................................................... B-1
B.2 Heater Types and Layout ........................................................................................... B-3
B.2.1 Vertical Orientation............................................................................................. B-3
B.2.2 Desuperheating Zone......................................................................................... B-4
B.2.3 Layout ................................................................................................................ B-5
B.2.4 Header Type Heater......................................................................................... B-14
B.2.5 Deaerators ....................................................................................................... B-15
B.3 Tube Materials .......................................................................................................... B-16
B.4 Problems................................................................................................................... B-17
B.4.1 Desuperheating Zone....................................................................................... B-18
B.4.2 Joint Cracks ..................................................................................................... B-19
C POP OUT SUMMARY........................................................................................................... C-1
D UPGRADE/UPRATE SURVEY RESULTS ........................................................................... D-1
xvii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2-1 Typical Nuclear Power Plant Cycle ..........................................................................2-1

Figure 2-2 Normal Heater Drain System Arrangement..............................................................2-5
Figure 2-3 Emergency and Normal Heater Drain System Arrangement....................................2-5
Figure 2-4 Low-Pressure, Single-Zone Horizontal Feedwater Heater .......................................2-9
Figure 2-5 High-Pressure, Two-Zone Horizontal Feedwater Heater........................................2-11
Figure 2-6 Short Drains Cooler Design....................................................................................2-12
Figure 2-7 Long Drains Cooler Design ....................................................................................2-13
Figure 2-8 Full Access, Low-Pressure Pass Partition Cover Design .......................................2-16
Figure 2-9 Full Access, Low-Pressure Pass Partition Design..................................................2-17
Figure 2-10 Full Access, High-Pressure Channel Design........................................................2-18
Figure 2-11 Manway Access, Low-Pressure Feedwater Heater Designs................................2-20
Figure 2-12 Manway Access, High-Pressure Feedwater Heater Designs ...............................2-21
Figure 2-13 Welded Pass Partition Design ..............................................................................2-23
Figure 2-14 Welded Partition Plate ..........................................................................................2-24
Figure 2-15 Bolted Pass Partition Design ................................................................................2-25
Figure 2-16 Bolted Partition Plate ............................................................................................2-25
Figure 2-17 Floating Pass Partition Design .............................................................................2-26
Figure 2-18 Continuous Vent Orifice Assembly .......................................................................2-32
Figure 3-1 Nuclear Power Plant Rankine Cycle with Moisture Separation and Reheat ............3-1
Figure 3-2 Basic Nuclear Steam Turbine Cycle.........................................................................3-3
Figure 3-3 Basic Feedwater Heater Arrangement .....................................................................3-4
Figure 3-4 Typical Feedwater Heater Configuration ..................................................................3-5
Figure 3-5 Final Feedwater Temperature Change.....................................................................3-9
Figure 4-1 Example Liquid Level Settings for a Horizontal Heater ............................................4-3
Figure 4-2 Drains Cooler Zone ..................................................................................................4-9
Figure 5-1 Plug Removal Protection Plates ...............................................................................5-6
Figure 5-2 Damage to the 4B Feedwater Heater Lagging and Adjacent Piping ........................5-7
Figure 5-3 Detailed View of Rupture of 4B Feedwater Heater...................................................5-7
Figure 5-4 Nuclear Plant Reliability Data System Failure Records..........................................5-12
Figure 5-5 Potential Corrosion for Heater Materials ................................................................5-17
Figure 5-6 Recommended Heater Coverage, Longitudinal Direction ......................................5-21
Figure 5-7 Recommended Heater Coverage, Circumferential Direction..................................5-22
xix
Figure 5-8 Tube Inlet Erosion ..................................................................................................5-23

Figure 5-9 Tubesheet Damage from Incorrect Tube Insert Installation ...................................5-26
Figure 5-10 Tube Erosion Around a Tube Insert .....................................................................5-27
Figure 5-11 Tubesheet Erosion ...............................................................................................5-28
Figure 5-12 Predominant Steam Impingement Erosion Locations ..........................................5-29
Figure 5-13 Tube Vibration Damage at the U-Bend ................................................................5-34
Figure 5-14 Tube Support Baffles at the U-Bend.....................................................................5-35
Figure 5-15 Failure Summary Chart ........................................................................................5-38
Figure 6-1 Rigid Borescope .....................................................................................................6-10
Figure 6-2 Fiberscope..............................................................................................................6-11
Figure 6-3 Videoborescope......................................................................................................6-12
Figure 6-4 Process of Generating Eddy Currents and Magnetic Fields...................................6-28
Figure 6-5 ET Flowchart ..........................................................................................................6-31
Figure 6-6 Finding Allowable Wall Loss...................................................................................6-35
Figure 6-7 Taking Pulsed Eddy Current Readings on the Feedwater Heater Shell.................6-45
Figure 7-1 Schematic of a Feedwater Heater Leak Detection System ......................................7-3
Figure 7-2 Tube Leak Locator....................................................................................................7-6
Figure 7-3 Tube Leak Flowchart ................................................................................................7-8
Figure 7-4 Special Plugging Tool...............................................................................................7-9
Figure 7-5 Rod and Cable Tube Stabilizer...............................................................................7-10
Figure 7-6 Hammer-In Taper Plug ...........................................................................................7-12
Figure 7-7 Two-Piece Ring Plug ..............................................................................................7-12
Figure 7-8 Mechanical Gripper Type Plug, Shelf Condition.....................................................7-13
Figure 7-9 Mechanical Gripper Type Plug, Installed................................................................7-14
Figure 7-10 Breakaway Type Plug, Pop-A-Plug II ...................................................................7-15
Figure 7-11 High Pressure Tube Plug .....................................................................................7-16
Figure 7-12 Expandable Thimble Style Plug............................................................................7-17
Figure 7-13 Welded Tapered Plug...........................................................................................7-18
Figure 7-14 Welded Hollow Plug .............................................................................................7-19
Figure 7-15 Explosively Welded Plug ......................................................................................7-20
Figure 7-16 Plug Removal Tool ...............................................................................................7-23
Figure 7-17 Explosive Sleeve in Tube and Tubesheet ............................................................7-24
Figure 7-18 Hydraulically Expanded Deep Bundle Sleeve ......................................................7-25
Figure 7-19 Design and Assembly of Tube Cutting Tools .......................................................7-28
Figure 7-20 Tube Cutting Sequence........................................................................................7-29
Figure 7-21 Tube Removal Sequence .....................................................................................7-30
Figure 7-22 Front Face Fillet-Welded Joint..............................................................................7-31
Figure 7-23 Front Face Groove Weld ......................................................................................7-31
xx
Figure 7-24 Expanding Tool.....................................................................................................7-32

Figure B-1 Flow Diagram for Chalk Point Generating Station .................................................. B-2
Figure B-2 Desuperheating and Condensing Zone, Horizontal Feedwater Heater .................. B-6
Figure B-3 Desuperheating, Condensing and Subcooling Zone, Horizontal Feedwater
Heater ........................................................................................................................... B-7
Figure B-4 Condensing Zone, Vertical Channel-Down Feedwater Heater ............................... B-8
Figure B-5 Condensing and Subcooling Zone, Vertical Channel-Down Feedwater Heater...... B-9
Figure B-6 Desuperheating, Condensing and Drains Cooling Zone, Vertical Channel-
Down Feedwater Heater ............................................................................................. B-10
Figure B-7 Condensing Zone, Vertical Channel-Up Feedwater Heater .................................. B-11
Figure B-8 Condensing and Subcooling Zone, Vertical Channel-Up Feedwater Heater ........ B-12
Figure B-9 Desuperheating, Condensing and Subcooling Zone, Vertical Channel-Up
Feedwater Heater ....................................................................................................... B-13
Figure B-10 Horizontal Header Type Feedwater Heater ........................................................ B-14
Figure B-11 Catastrophic Failure of a Feedwater Heater Forging .......................................... B-20
xxi
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2-1 Miscellaneous Shell Nozzle Sizes ...........................................................................2-33

Table 3-1 Feedwater Heater Responses .................................................................................3-10
Table 3-2 Feedwater Heater Impact on Thermal Performance................................................3-12
Table 4-1 Degraded Heater Performance Symptoms and Causes .........................................4-14
Table 4-2 Troubleshooting Feedwater Heater Problems .........................................................4-15
Table 4-3 Troubleshooting Guide ............................................................................................4-16
Table 4-4 Feedwater and Condensate Water System Diagnostics Guide...............................4-17
Table 4-5 Feedwater Heater Failure Mechanisms, Evidence and Causes ..............................4-17
Table 5-1 Plant Events Database Information on Feedwater Heaters.......................................5-2
Table 5-2 Equipment Performance and Information Exchange Failure Records.....................5-12
Table 5-3 Operating Plant Experience Code Data...................................................................5-13
Table 5-4 Licensee Event Reports for Feedwater Heaters ......................................................5-14
Table 5-5 Relative Erosion-Corrosion Resistance of Feedwater Heater Tube Materials ........5-24
Table 5-6 Maximum Tube Side Velocity ..................................................................................5-25
Table 6-1 Feedwater Heater Preventive Maintenance Template ..............................................6-4
Table 6-2 Visual Inspection Template........................................................................................6-8
Table 6-3 Failure Locations, Degradation Mechanisms, and PM Strategies ...........................6-20
Table 6-4 PM Tasks and Their Degradation Mechanisms .......................................................6-22
Table 6-5 Tube Wall Degradation Factors ...............................................................................6-34
Table 6-6 Recommended Grid Sizes.......................................................................................6-47
Table 7-1 Tube Failure Report Example..................................................................................7-21
Table 7-2 Recommended Spare Parts List..............................................................................7-40
Table 8-1 Feedwater Heater Material Selection ........................................................................8-7
Table 8-2 Tubesheet Overlay Materials.....................................................................................8-8
Table 8-3 Tube Material Specifications....................................................................................8-11
Table 8-4 Technical and Commercial Properties of Feedwater Heater Tubing .......................8-12
Table 8-5 Design Minimum Tube Wall Thickness....................................................................8-14
Table 8-6 Maximum Tube Side Velocity ..................................................................................8-16
Table 8-7 Maximum Metal Temperature for Tube Materials ....................................................8-16
Table 8-8 Maximum Temperature of Expanded Tube Joints ...................................................8-17
Table 8-9 Maximum Spacing for Baffle and Support Plates ....................................................8-17
Table 8-10 Tube Hole Diameters and Tolerances for Tubesheets ..........................................8-18
xxiii
Table A-1 Nuclear Survey Results............................................................................................ A-2

Table A-2 Fossil Survey Results............................................................................................... A-3
Table B-1 Feedwater Heater Tube Materials.......................................................................... B-16
Table D-1 Upgrade/Uprate Survey Results .............................................................................. D-2
xxiv
1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
With the age of the feedwater heaters approaching 25 years for nuclear plants and 40 years for
fossil units, the cost for operating and maintaining this equipment is increasing. The testing
frequencies, tube leaks, repairs, and replacements are examples of why these costs have
increased. The unit reliability and heat rate performance are affected by the condition of the
feedwater heaters.
The unplanned capacity loss factor (UCLF) events are tabulated by the Institute of Nuclear
Power Operations (INPO). For January 1999 through December 2000, feedwater heaters ranked
number three with 41 events.
From this input to EPRI, it was decided to develop a feedwater heater guide that would
emphasize reliability, performance, and maintenance practices. Several existing EPRI guides
were used in the development of this guide. Some of them are:
• Failure Cause Analysis – Feedwater Heaters, CS-1776
• Recommended Guidelines for the Operation and Maintenance of Feedwater Heaters, CS-
3239
• Nuclear Plant Feedwater Heater Handbook Volumes 1-3, NP-4057
• Feedwater Heaters Maintenance and Repair Technology: Reducing Outage Cost, GS-6935
• Manual for Investigation and Correction of Feedwater Heater Failures, GS-7390
• Preventive Maintenance Basis Volume 33: Feedwater Heaters, TR-106857-V33
1.2 Approach
A statement of work was developed and sent to the EPRI-member Nuclear Maintenance
Applications Center (NMAC) and Fossil Maintenance Applications Center (FMAC) plants and
vendors for input. A technical advisory group (TAG), composed of nine nuclear utility
representatives and two vendors, provided input and a detailed review of the guide.
This guide is intended to cover the maintenance of the feedwater heater shell, channel and
manway, pass partitions, tubesheet, tubes, and nozzles. It is not the intent of this guide to cover
inlet, discharge and drain piping, level controls, control valves, insulation, support structure, or
deaerators.
1-1
Introduction
This guide was developed for and funded by the EPRI NMAC members. However, since the
design, operation, and maintenance of nuclear and fossil feedwater heaters are similar, the guide
is intended to cover both nuclear and fossil plant feedwater heaters.
The main guide covers nuclear feedwater heaters. Material related specifically to fossil heaters is
covered in Appendix B. Some specific differences are:
• The majority of the feedwater heaters in the nuclear stations are horizontal heaters, and these
are covered in the main guide. Vertical feedwater heaters are more prevalent in the fossil
plants and are covered in Appendix B.
• The fossil plants have high- and intermediate-pressure feedwater heaters with a
desuperheating section. Nuclear feedwater heaters do not receive any superheated steam;
therefore, the nuclear units do not have a desuperheating section. The desuperheating section
work is not covered in the main guide but is covered in Appendix B.
• The tube materials in fossil feedwater heaters are numerous. This is due to the wide range of
temperatures present in the heat recovery system and the age of the heaters. For the nuclear
feedwater heaters, the tube material is primarily 304 or 316 stainless steel. The main guide
will cover the materials used in the nuclear plants, and Appendix B will cover the materials
used in the fossil feedwater heaters.
A survey was sent to the EPRI-member contacts in both nuclear and fossil plants. The survey
requested information on the design, materials, repairs, and replacement experience for each
plant. The intent of the survey was to provide an information source for plant personnel with
similarly designed plants who have operation/maintenance issues. The survey questionnaire
results are tabulated in Appendix A. An additional survey was sent in April 2002 for results of
upgrades/uprates on feedwater heaters. These survey results are listed in Appendix D.
1.3 Organization
This feedwater heater guide is organized into the following sections:
1. Introduction includes Background, Approach, Guide Organization and Pop Outs.
2. Tutorial includes information on Heater Function, Codes and Standards, Auxiliary Systems,
Heater Types and Layout, Components, and General Operation.
3. Performance includes Cycle Descriptions, Data Monitoring and Trending, Performance

Degradation, and Unit Uprating.
4. Troubleshooting includes Heater Conditions, Section/System Problems and Charts.
5. Failure Modes includes Failure Data, Failure Mechanisms, and a Summary Failure Chart.
6. Condition-Based Maintenance includes General Maintenance Guidelines, Preventive

Maintenance Tasks, Nondestructive Examination Testing, and Destructive Testing and
Analysis.
1-2
Introduction
7. Repairs includes Tube Leak Detection Methods, Tube Repairs, Tube-to-Tubesheet Repairs,
Diaphragm, Pass Partition, Channel and Cover Repairs, Miscellaneous Repairs, and Spare
Parts.
8. Replacements includes Run/Repair/Replace Decision, Remaining Life Assessment,

Retubing, Rebundling, Complete Replacement, and Material Selection.
9. References, Acronyms, and Glossary
10. Appendices include the Nuclear and Fossil Plant Survey Results, Fossil Application, a Pop
Out Summary, and Feedwater Heater Upgrade/Uprate Survey Results.
Because many sources of information were used in the compilation of the guide, it was decided
to use a reference system for the appropriate sections. Reference numbers in brackets [#] are
used in the beginning of sections and after the titles on tables and figures to denote where the
majority of information in that section was obtained. The numbers and corresponding references
are listed in the References section of the guide.
1.4 Pop Outs
Throughout this guide, key information is summarized in “Pop Outs.” Pop Outs are bold lettered
boxes that highlight information covered in the text.
The primary intent of a Pop Out is to emphasize information that will allow individuals to act for
the benefit of their plant. EPRI personnel who reviewed and prepared this guide selected the
information that is included in these Pop Outs.
The Pop Outs are organized in three categories: Human Performance, O&M Costs, and
Technical. Each category has an identifying icon to draw attention to it when quickly reviewing
the guide. The Pop Outs are shown in the following way:
Key Human Performance Point

Denotes information that requires personnel action or consideration in order
to prevent personal injury or equipment damage and/or to improve the
efficiency and effectiveness of the task.
Key O&M Cost Point

Emphasizes information that will result in overall reduced costs and/or an
increase in revenue through additional or restored energy production.
1-3
Introduction
Key Technical Point

Targets information that will lead to improved equipment reliability.
The Pop Out Summary section (Appendix C) of this guide contains a listing of all key points in
each category. The listing restates each key point and provides a reference to its location in the
body of the report. By reviewing this listing, users of this guide can determine if they have taken
advantage of key information that the writers of this guide believe would benefit their plants.
1-4
2
TUTORIAL
This section provides a tutorial on the power generation process [1, 2] and the part that feedwater
heaters play in it.
A feedwater heater is a piece of equipment used in the regenerative cycle of the power
generation process. In this process, steam is extracted from different stages of the steam turbine
and conveyed to the feedwater heaters. Condensed steam (water) from the condenser is pumped
to the feedwater heaters. The steam heat is then transferred to the water, and the water
temperature is increased.
A typical nuclear power plant cycle is shown in Figure 2-1.
Figure 2-1
Typical Nuclear Power Plant Cycle [3]
2-1
Tutorial
In the regenerative cycle, water supplied to the nuclear reactor/steam generator is heated from its
condensing temperature of 80–125ºF (27–52ºC) to a higher temperature in order to:
• Minimize stresses within the pressure-retaining parts of the reactor/steam generator. This aids
in avoiding thermal shock to the reactor/steam generator.
• Minimize the amount of heat required to generate steam in the reactor/steam generator. This
reduces the fuel consumption required to convert the feedwater to steam.
Because the work lost by extracting the steam from the turbine is derived from sensible heat (no
change of phase), the much greater latent heat recovered in the feedwater by changing phase
from steam to water results in a net energy gain. Without a feedwater heater, the latent heat is
wasted or discarded in the main condenser or cooling tower.
This guide covers the performance and reliability of closed feedwater heaters used in a nuclear
power plant and the maintenance practices that are used with them.
2.1 Codes and Standards
There are numerous city and state codes and standards [4] that may apply to feedwater heaters.
Before beginning any testing or repair efforts, it is recommended that the applicable codes be
determined.
The primary codes and standards that govern the design, fabrication, testing, and repair of
nuclear plant feedwater heaters are:
• City and State Pressure Vessel Code (PVC) – Most states and some cities/towns require
design to the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) code. Some states have
requirements more stringent than ASME, and some states have no requirements.
• American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) – This code covers the physical and
mechanical design requirements of the heater as they relate to personnel and public safety.
This includes the shell, channel wall thickness, weld design, fabrication, test requirements,
allowable stress (Section VIII, Div. 1), material standards and properties, material
processing, quality of finish specification (Section II), nondestructive test methods (Section
V), and welding and brazing qualifications (Section IX).
The design and construction of all feedwater heaters must meet the requirements of the
ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII, Division 1, including applicable
addenda and case rulings. All units should be stamped with the ASME Code symbol.
• Heat Exchange Institute (HEI) – This code covers the thermal performance design,
analysis, and specific physical design requirements. This includes the tube velocity, nozzle
locations, temperature limitations on expanded joints, design bases consistent with but not
specifically covered by ASME, allowable nozzle loads, and velocities not specified by the
owner.
2-2
Tutorial
The following are additional codes and standards used in the design, fabrication, testing, and
repair of closed feedwater heaters:
• ASME Power Test Code (PTC) – Section 12.1 of this code covers feedwater heater
performance testing.
• American National Standards Institute (ANSI) – These standards cover dimensional
requirements for materials such as pipe, tubing, flanges, and others.
• American Welding Society (AWS) – These standards include procedures for preparation,
welding, and post-weld heat treatment of joints between non-pressure parts that are not
covered by ASME or HEI.
• Steel Structures Painting Council (SSPC) – These standards include specifications for the
removal of mill scale by blasting, surface preparation, and the application of coatings or
paint.
• Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) – These standards cover
personnel protection such as pipe insulation, noise levels, eye protection, and others.
• Tubular Heat Exchange Manufacturer’s Association (TEMA) – This standard includes
tube sheet drilling tolerances.
• Uniform Building Code (UBC) – This code covers the structural design of the feedwater
heaters to include seismic considerations.
• American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) – These standards cover the physical
and chemical properties of materials, fabrication tolerances, material testing, and others that
are not covered in ASME.
• American Society of Nondestructive Testing (ASNT) – These standards cover the
nondestructive testing on the heaters. The testing program and personnel qualifications are
governed by section ASNT-TC-1A.
2.2 Auxiliary Systems
The system from the turbine extraction nozzles to the feedwater heater steam inlet nozzles is
called the extraction steam system. The system from the heater shell-side condensation drain
nozzles to the point of disposal is called the heater drains system.
2.2.1 Extraction Steam System
An extraction steam system [4] conveys steam from the turbine stage extraction nozzles to the
feedwater heater shell inlet nozzles. The individual stage extraction steam system consists of
multiple pipes between the turbine extractions and heater shells. In a 1200-MW plant with six
stages of feedwater heating, the extraction pipes may be 40 in number and range in size from 12
to 30 inches (305 to 762 mm) in diameter.
2-3
Tutorial
The turbine designer predicts the extraction stage pressure and the pressure loss at the extraction
nozzle. The pressure loss is usually less than 3%. An additional pressure drop occurs between the
extraction nozzle and the inlet heater nozzle, which can be 5% or less.
When the turbine trips, the reheat stop and intercept valves close rapidly. The closing of the
turbine valves causes a momentary vacuum that moves through the turbine stages. This vacuum
tends to pull the extraction steam back into the turbine and decrease the extraction stage pressure.
As a result, the heater shell pressure drops, causing a rapid decrease in the saturation temperature
in the heater shell. With a supply of hot water in the heater shell, the water flashes to steam and
attempts to flow back to the turbine extraction. This influx of energy back into the turbine causes
a rapid overspeed condition.
As a result, a non-return valve is installed in each extraction line that automatically closes the
line to prevent steam from re-entering the turbine. In some cases, two non-return valves are
installed in series. The non-return valve is a check-type valve because a gate valve could not
close fast enough.
When heaters are installed in the upper part of the condenser, there is no room for a non-return
valve. As a result, the quantity of water held in the shell is limited, and an anti-flash baffle may
be installed above the water level to restrict the flow of any flashing steam.
2.2.2 Heater Drain System
The function of the heater drain system [5] is to remove the condensed extraction steam from the
heater at all operating conditions. The condensed extraction steam may go to another feedwater
heater, the condensate/feedwater system, or the condenser. The drain system is divided into the
normal (high efficiency) drain system and the emergency drain system.
In general, the most cost-effective heater drain configuration is to drain to the next lower
extraction pressure heater. The flow is caused by the difference in pressure between heaters. A
flow-regulating valve is controlled by the level of condensate in the shell.
When the load on the turbine is decreased, each extraction pressure decreases. When the pressure
difference between two heaters is not great enough to cause sufficient flow, the level in the
heater will rise. This increased level causes the emergency drain valve to open to prevent further
increase in the heater level.
In some cases, the difference in pressure is not sufficient to drain one heater to a lower heater.
Even when sufficient pressure does exist, the potential for turbine water induction may prohibit
draining in the normal manner. In such cases, a pump can be used to pump the heater drains into
the condensate/feedwater stream. Typically, the drains are pumped to the next higher pressure
heater or pumped forward. A pump is used when there is a substantial recovery of energy. This
energy recovery should be greater than the cost to purchase, install, operate, and maintain a drain
pump.
2-4
Tutorial
A major problem with the normal drain system is that the capacity of the drain valves can be
blocked by choked flow or very high flow rates. High flow rates can be experienced with large
tube leaks. High flow rates can cause damage to the drains cooler. For these reasons, an
emergency drain system is needed.
The normal and emergency drain system is shown in Figures 2-2 and 2-3, respectively.
Figure 2-2
Normal Heater Drain System Arrangement [4]
Figure 2-3
Emergency and Normal Heater Drain System Arrangement [4]
2-5
Tutorial
The minimum requirements for a reliable drain system are:

• The heater should be equipped with two drain systems, each provided with a separate control
valve. The emergency drain line should be routed to the condenser.
• The normal drain should be designed for maximum normal operating conditions. These
conditions include maximum expected load, possible maldistribution of feedwater between
strings and/or bypasses, and operating conditions that are planned as admissible for long-
term operation. Abnormal operating conditions such as a string of heaters being shut down or
a single heater shutdown can be accommodated by the emergency drain system.
• The drain line from the heater should be routed so that no flashing is possible upstream of the
drain valve. The piping to the drain valve must be designed so that the line pressure does not
fall below the condensate saturation pressure. For a heater without a drains cooler, the vessel
to which the condensate is drained must be located on a lower level.
• The drain valve should be installed as close as possible to the heater or tank that the
condensate is flowing into.
• If the condensate is drained to a separate drain tank, an adequately sized pressure
equalization line between the drain tank and steam space of the heater must be provided.
There are some necessary alarms and interlocks for the drain system and between the drain,
extraction, and feedwater systems to provide reliable operation for the heaters and to ensure
turbine safety. The minimum requirements are:
• High heater water level alarm
• High-high heater water level actuation of check valves, closing of extraction line isolation
valve, and actuation of bypass if installed
• Automatic switch to emergency drain system when the heater that the condensate is flowing
into is shut off or is at too low a pressure at low load operation
• Automatic limitation of load when strings or feedwater heaters are shut off and the feedwater
heater is not designed for the corresponding operation
2.3 Heater Types and Layout
2.3.1 Classification
There are two classifications of feedwater heaters [2]:

• Open (direct contact) – Heating steam is in direct contact with the feedwater without a tube
wall interface. The open or direct contact heaters in the feedwater system are called
deaerators. Some information on deaerators can be found in Appendix B.
• Closed (shell and tube) – The closed or shell and tube heaters are designed to heat the
condensate/feedwater passing through the tubes by steam on the shell side. This type of
heater is covered in this guide.
2-6
Tutorial
2.3.2 Types
There are two types of shell and tube feedwater heaters [2]:
• Tubesheet – This design consists of a tubesheet that holds the straight or U-shaped tubes in a
shell. This type of heater is covered in this guide.
• Header type – This design is a header-type construction patterned after the boiler header
applications. The feedwater inlet and outlet headers have tubes and nipples attached to each
header. Between the headers, the tubes are in a W shape in the heater. This design has been
used successfully in Europe for many years. The header-type heaters are much larger, more
expensive, and more difficult to maintain than the tubesheet-type heaters. The main
advantage of the header-type heater is better thermal design for cyclic service. Further
discussion of the header-type heater can be found in Appendix B.
2.3.3 Pressure
The shell-side operating pressure is the pressure that the unit is thermally designed and rated for
[2]. The tube-side operating pressure is the normal discharge pressure of either the reactor/steam
generator feedwater pump or the condensate pump.
The heaters installed in the condensate system (after the condenser) are designated as low-
pressure heaters. The low-pressure heater tube design is typically less than 600 psig (< 4 MPa).
The heaters installed in the feedwater system (after the reactor/steam generator feedwater pump)
are designated as high-pressure heaters. The high-pressure heater tube design pressure is
typically greater than 600 psig (> 4 MPa).
2.3.4 Orientation
Feedwater heaters can be classified based on orientation: horizontal, vertical channel up, or
vertical channel down [2]. The majority of nuclear heaters are horizontal heaters, whereas the
majority of fossil heaters are vertical. More discussion on the vertically oriented heaters can be
found in Appendix B.
A horizontal heater:
• Provides more drains storage capacity
• Is easier to maintain
• Uses more floor space
A vertical channel-up heater:

• Uses less floor space
• Has problems with the drains cooler zone design
2-7
Tutorial
• Is difficult to maintain
• Is unable to drain water from tubes
A vertical channel-down heater:

• Uses less floor space
• Has problems with the drains cooler zone design
• Is the most difficult to maintain
2.3.5 Numbering of Heaters
Nuclear units require very large feedwater flows. There are generally five or six low-pressure
and one high-pressure heater (no open heaters) in each string of heaters. There may be two or
three complete or partial strings of heaters. For example, there may be three low-pressures
strings and two high-pressure heater strings for a unit.
The numbering of each feedwater heater varies according to the plant nomenclature. Some plants
use the turbine extraction stage that the steam comes from, for example, the 14th stage, etc. Some
plants number the heaters numerically for each string, for example, 1, 2, 3, etc., going from the
high-pressure to the low-pressure heaters, while others number in the opposite manner, with the
lowest pressure heater designated as number 1.
A unit number can be included in the numbering of the heater. For example, a typical number
assigned to a heater might be 2A3. This would mean: the heater for unit 2, the A string, the third
heater in the string. Another example would be 25B. This would be the twenty-fifth turbine stage
(low-pressure) heater in the B string.
2.3.6 Zones
Additional feedwater heater classifications are based on the internal design:

• Condensing zone only
• Condensing and drains cooling zones
• Desuperheating, condensing, and drains cooling zones
• Drains cooling zone only
• Desuperheating and condensing zones
• Desuperheating zone only
2-8
Tutorial
The nuclear plant feedwater heaters do not have a desuperheating zone design; consequently, the
nuclear plant feedwater heaters are:
• Condensing zone only
• Drains cooling zone only
• Condensing and drains cooling zone
See Appendix B for more information on the desuperheating zone.
2.3.6.1 Condensing Zone
A typical horizontal, low-pressure, single-zone feedwater heater is shown in Figure 2-4.
Figure 2-4
Low-Pressure, Single-Zone Horizontal Feedwater Heater [4]
A condensing zone, vertical channel-down feedwater heater and a condensing zone, vertical
channel-up heater are shown in Appendix B (Figures B-4 and B-7, respectively).
The condensing zone is the major internal section in most of the feedwater heaters [2, 6]. A large
amount of tube surface area condenses all of the incoming steam and additional steam produced
by flashing of any incoming drains. About 90% of the overall heat transfer is accomplished in
this zone.
The condensing zone consists of the following:

• Shell
• Steam inlet
• Drains inlet
2-9
Tutorial
• Safety relief valve connection

• Drains outlet
• Vent connections
• Instrument and control connections
• Shell supports
In the condensing zone, steam that is near saturation conditions enters a baffled area of the shell
and is condensed. It is important for the steam to be properly distributed over the tubes across the
entire length of the condensing section to ensure complete condensation.
In the process of condensing the steam, entrained non-condensable gases must be continuously
removed. If gases are present, they can blanket the tubes and interfere with the heat-transfer
process; therefore, the condensing zone must be properly vented at all times.
2.3.6.2 Drains Cooling Zone
Some of the functions of the drains cooling or subcooling zone [2, 6] are to:
• Recover residual energy from the drains
• Reduce flashing in the drains outlet pipe
• Reduce liquid level control valve wear
• Prevent water hammer in the drains outlet pipe
• Provide smooth cascading into the next lower pressure heater
The drains cooling zone is a counter-flow, separate heat exchanger. The purpose of the drains
cooling zone is to heat the feedwater before it enters the condensing zone of the next heater. This
zone is sometimes called the pre-heater.
The drains cooling zone consists of the following:

• Shroud
• Enclosure
• Drains inlet
• Drains outlet
• End plate (drains cooler zone inlet plate)
• Close-off plate (separates the drains cooler from the shell)
The heat transfer occurs when the heat from the drains, formed from the condensed steam and
the incoming drains on the shell side, is transferred to the inlet feedwater/condensate on the tube
2-10
Tutorial
side. The drains outlet temperature is subcooled below the saturation temperature of the
condensate, thus reducing the potential for flashing and erosion in the piping and valves.
The mechanism of heat transfer is one of sensible heat (no phase change). Because the heat
transfer is between water and water, it is important to ensure that this zone has the tubes
submerged at all times with the water level set as high as possible.
2.3.6.3 Two-Zone Heater
A horizontal, high-pressure, two-zone feedwater heater is shown in Figure 2-5.
Figure 2-5
High-Pressure, Two-Zone Horizontal Feedwater Heater [4]
A condensing and subcooling zone, vertical channel-down feedwater heater and a condensing
and subcooling zone, vertical channel-up feedwater heater are shown in Appendix B (Figures B-
5 and B-8, respectively).
Key O&M Cost Point

A combined condensing and drains cooling zone in one heater improves the
thermal efficiency of the heater and the cycle.
It is important to keep steam from the condensing section out of the drains cooling section in this
two-zone heater [2, 6, 7]. The drains cooling zone consists of a shroud to contain the condensed
water, an outlet nozzle, and baffles to support the tubes and direct the flow for heat transfer
efficiency.
2-11
Tutorial
When the shroud is exposed to the steam within the shell, a certain amount of heat is transferred
from the hotter steam through the shroud to the colder condensate within the zone. This is
referred to as reheat because it is adding heat back into the condensate. Shrouds that are covered
with saturated condensate in the shell, referred to as flooded zones, have much less reheat
because the transfer of heat is lower for liquid than for condensing vapor. The only way to obtain
no reheat is by using an external drains cooler.
The control of the liquid level is important to the proper operation of the heater. In horizontal
heaters with a drains subcooling zone, the loss of the water seal can eliminate all of the
subcooling.
The liquid level is used to provide a water seal between the condensing zone and the entrance to
the integral drains cooling zone. The primary purpose of this seal is to promote single-phase
condensate flow through the drains subcooling zone. Improper liquid levels can result in the loss
of the water seal, allowing steam to flow directly into the drains piping or through the entrance to
the drains subcooling zone.
In the horizontal feedwater heater with condensing and drains cooling zones, there are basically
two types of drains cooler designs: short (or partial length) and long (or full length) drains
coolers. The difference between the designs is the way the shrouding relates to the tubes and
baffling as shown in Figures 2-6 and 2-7.
Figure 2-6
Short Drains Cooler Design [8]
2-12
Tutorial
Figure 2-7
Long Drains Cooler Design [8]
The most common is the short drains cooler design. In this design, the shrouding encompasses
all of the tubes in the first feedwater pass for an arc of 180° on the tubesheet. The shrouding is
leak tight so that the condensate enters an opening at the bottom of the drains cooler away from
the tubesheet and completely floods the outside surface of the tubes. The condensate flows past
the baffling to the outlet end that is located close to the back of the tubesheet.
In the long drains cooler design, the shrouding runs the full length of the tubing but encompasses
only a portion of the tubes in the first pass. The flat plate portion of the shrouding passes
between the tube rows. The arc depth varies, depending on the amount of tube surface required
for subcooling. The condensate enters a long drains cooler at the end farthest from the tubesheet.
The condensate flows the full length past the baffling to the outlet end that is located close to the
back of the tubesheet.
Key Technical Point

In the long drains cooler, the minimum operating liquid level should be
maintained above the flat plate of the shrouding. In the short drains cooler,
the minimum operating liquid level should be maintained at a point where
the entrance into the shrouding (the snorkel area) is always covered, even
during plant transients.
A horizontal heater has the capability of storing relatively large quantities of water. Because of
the heater’s orientation, the level can be maintained in the vertical direction within a few inches.
2.3.7 Condenser Neck Heaters
Low-pressure feedwater heaters located in the top or neck of the condenser are called condenser
neck heaters [4]. For water induction and/or entrained energy reasons, condenser neck heaters
are generally of the single-zone, condensing type. The lowest extraction pressure heater should
2-13
Tutorial
drain to the condenser through a loop seal. The next highest extraction pressure heaters use a
normal drains system (normal/emergency), where the point of disposal of the normal and
emergency drains is the condenser. For many of the more recently designed units, a separate
external drains cooler is generally installed in the condensate system upstream of the lowest
extraction pressure heater.
2.4 Heater Components
The components of the feedwater heater [1, 2] include:

• Shell
• Channel and manways
• Pass partitions, plate and cover
• Tubesheet
• Tubes
• Tube supports and baffles
• Shell relief valves
• Vents
• Nozzles
2.4.1 Shell
The shell side of a nuclear feedwater heater has the following functions [4]:
• Distributes steam from the extraction steam system over the tubes with negligible pressure
loss
• Condenses steam, releasing the latent heat of vaporization for feedwater heating
• Supports the tubes and prevents tube vibration
• Distributes steam at low velocities to minimize erosion/corrosion
• Acts as a cooler of the condensed steam
• Acts as a level control reservoir for the heater drains systems
• Acts as a pressure vessel
The integral flash chamber section of a feedwater heater is an extension of the shell beyond the
tube bundle U-bends. The chamber receives all incoming liquid or liquid/steam drains and
permits the separation of the steam and water streams. The chamber is separated from the bundle
and condensing zone by an appropriate stainless steel impingement plate to protect the bundle
from impingement and erosion.
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In vertical heaters, the heater shell is generally removed to gain access to the tube bundle, the
bundle supports, etc. To accomplish this, the shell skirt is cut near the tubesheet (head) end.
Many manufacturers mark the cut line on either side. In addition, to protect the tube bundle, a
nominal ¼-inch (6-mm) thick stainless steel band approximately 6 inches (15 cm) wide is
installed around the bundle under the cut line.
Heater supports address the dead weight of the heater, the operating weight of the steam and
water, the thermal expansion of the heater, nozzle forces and moments, and restraint during any
seismic activity. On horizontal heaters, one support is fixed to hold that point on the heater at a
constant position with respect to the building. The second support permits the heater to grow
away from the fixed point. This is done with both guided and unguided wheels, rollers, or a
lubricated sliding support. Vertical heaters are usually supported at only one horizontal plane.
2.4.2 Channel and Manways
The channel serves the function of the feedwater/condensate inlet plenum for the feedwater
heater [1, 2, 4]. It also acts to redirect the flow from one tube pass to the next. The shape of the
channel is primarily dictated by the feedwater pressure and by tube end accessibility
considerations.
Key O&M Cost Point

For maintenance purposes, full access channels are more desirable than
manway access channels. The full access channels generally cost more than
the manway access channels and can require more maintenance time to open.
The following is a discussion of the full access and manway access channels for low- and high-
pressure heaters.
2.4.2.1 Full Access, Low Pressure
The low-pressure heater, full access channel design is used in heaters that are less than 48 inches
(1.2 meters) in diameter. This type of channel design includes:
• Feedwater inlet/outlet nozzles
• Vent and drain connections
• Instrument connections
• Pass partition plate
• Bolting bar
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• Studs and nuts

• Pass partition gasket and cover
• Flange for cover
• Studs and nuts
• Gasket
• Cover
Two examples of the full-diameter bolted and gasketed channel designs, with different pass
partition arrangements, are shown in Figures 2-8 and 2-9.
Figure 2-8
Full Access, Low-Pressure Pass Partition Cover Design [1]
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Tutorial
Figure 2-9
Full Access, Low-Pressure Pass Partition Design [1]
2.4.2.2 Full Access, High Pressure
In the design of fossil units up to 150 MW power output, the high-pressure heaters are often
equipped with full access bolted covers. This high-pressure channel design includes:
• Bolted cover
• Channel barrel with tapped bolt holes
• Feedwater inlet/outlet
• Bolting bar
• Studs and nuts
• Large studs
• Gasket or seal weld diaphragm
• Cover
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Tutorial
A typical full access, high-pressure channel design, where the full hydraulic load is not taken by
bolts in tension, is shown in Figure 2-10.
Figure 2-10
Full Access, High-Pressure Channel Design [1]
In the breech block design, some of the pressure is taken up in shear/compression instead of in
bolt tension. As a result, the bolt size is reduced to smaller, more manageable levels.
The final closing joint may be welded or mechanically sealed. The availability of forgings limit
this design in larger diameters and higher pressures. The need for special cover handling
equipment should be included when using this type of channel. This type of channel is generally
more expensive than the limited access channel designs.
2.4.2.3 Manway Access, Low Pressure
As power plant size increased, the full access head was abandoned due to cost, and the manway
was introduced to provide maintenance/inspection access. However, because of the limited size
of the manway access, it is more difficult to perform maintenance using the manway design.
The minimum acceptable manway sizes are 12 inches (30.5 cm) by 16 inches (41 cm) elliptical
and 16 inches (41 cm) circular. In addition, the pass partition cover plate should be removable
through the manway to maximize the available working room.
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When the low-pressure heater diameters are more than 50–54 inches (1.3–1.4 m), a manway-
designed channel is used. This design includes the following:
• Feedwater inlet/outlet nozzles
• Bolting bar
• Studs and nuts
• Elliptical cover
• Manway flange for cover
• Studs and nuts
• Gasket
• Cover
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Tutorial
The two types of channel heads used are the hemispherical and the elliptical designs, which are
shown in Figure 2-11A and B, respectively.
Figure 2-11
Manway Access, Low-Pressure Feedwater Heater Designs [1]
Figure 2-11A shows a channel design using a hemispherical head. This design usually has less
tube end access, and there may be difficulties fitting nozzles and the manway around the
periphery. Because the nozzle centerlines are 30º off the vertical plane, 30º elbows are generally
required in the piping if vertical runs are required.
Figure 2-11B shows an elliptical design that provides greater access and does not have the nozzle
configuration complications of the hemispherical head.
Figures 2-11C, D, and E show a sealing joint configuration that can be used on either the
hemispherical or elliptical head design. Figure 2-11C has a seal-welded diaphragm that provides
all welded construction. Figure 2-11D is a gasketed joint design with an external gasket. Figure
2-11E is a gasketed joint design with an internal gasket that is called a pressure sealing-type
design.
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2.4.2.4 Manway Access, High Pressure
The high-pressure channel has also evolved from a fabricated to a solid forging part. The design
changed to a hemispherical forging welded to the lip of the tubesheet forging. The next
progression was a hemi-head forging (a hemispherical forging with about 27° removed).
In the late 1950s, the spherical head was introduced. This design was an improvement in the
working area for personnel. However, the hemi-head designs were less expensive and were
judged to have adequate working room. Currently, hemi-head designs with radial nozzles have
achieved the most common use.
Manway access channels used for high-pressure feedwater heater designs can be one of the three
designs shown in Figure 2-12.
Figure 2-12
Manway Access, High-Pressure Feedwater Heater Designs [1]
Figure 2-12 part A shows a channel design using a hemispherical head. This design usually has
less tube end access, and there may be difficulties fitting nozzles and the manway around the
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periphery. Because the nozzle centerlines are 30º off the vertical plane, 30º elbows are generally
required in the piping if vertical runs are required.
The manway closure design includes the following:

• Hemispherical head
• Feedwater inlet/outlet
• Bolting bar
• Pass partition cover
• Manway flange for cover
• Gasket or seal-weld diaphragm
• Cover
Figure 2-12 parts B and C show different head and pass partition designs and do not have the
nozzle configuration complications of the design in Figure 2-12A.
Figures 2-12 parts D, E, and F show a sealing joint configuration that can be used on the designs
shown in Figure 2-12 parts A, B, and C. Figure 2-12 part D has a seal-welded diaphragm that
provides all welded construction. Figure 2-12 part E is a gasketed joint design with an external
gasket. Figure 2-12 part F is a gasketed joint design with an internal gasket that is called a
pressure sealing-type design. The pressure sealing type is used when bolting may be too large for
the externally gasketed joint.
2.4.3 Pass Partitions, Plate and Cover
The pass partition divides the channel into feedwater inlet and outlet passes [9]. The pass
partition cover can be welded or bolted for maintenance access purposes.
There are basically three types of pass partition designs:

• Welded
• Bolted
• Floating
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2.4.3.1 Welded Pass Partition Design
Key O&M Cost Point

The welded pass partition design is the most common and the least
expensive. This design is adequate for low-pressure, base loaded heaters but
not for cyclic duty heaters.
See Figures 2-13 and 2-14 for the welded pass partition design.
Figure 2-13
Welded Pass Partition Design [9]
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Figure 2-14
Welded Partition Plate [7]
The welded pass partition design restricts the channel wall from growing radially as it would
under pressure. This design also produces a thermal gradient in the channel and channel-to-
tubesheet connection, adding more stress to this area. During operation, one half of the channel is
hotter than the other half. The radial growth of the hotter side is greater than the colder side due
to thermal expansion. This results in bending stresses at the pass partition weld junction. Over
time, cyclic pressure and thermal stresses lead to cracking around the periphery of the pass
partition plate.
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2.4.3.2 Bolted Pass Partition Design
A common alternative to the rigidly welded pass partition is the bolted pass partition. This design
is shown in Figures 2-15 and 2-16.
Figure 2-15
Bolted Pass Partition Design [9]
Figure 2-16
Bolted Partition Plate [7]
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Tutorial
The bolted pass partition design is not as restrictive to channel wall growth as is the rigidly
welded design. However, it is still restrictive because of the welding of the bolting bars to the
channel wall and tubesheet face. This design still results in a thermal gradient in the tubesheet
connection area. The tubesheet connection radius is used to lower the stress concentrations by
providing greater flexibility at the tubesheet-to-channel connection. When a plate or bar is
welded along this radius, the provided flexibility of the radius is lost, a notch is created, and
stress concentrations are intensified.
Problems can also occur with the welded, circumferential bolting bar used to support the bolted
pass partition cover. The channel wall is stiffened locally, which restricts radial growth.
Additional stress is also added to the nozzle-to-channel connections because this bar is located
very close to the nozzle inside diameter.
The bolted pass partition design is more prone to interpass leakage because of deflection of the
channel covers.
2.3.4.3 Floating Pass Partition Design
The third design is the floating pass partition as shown in Figure 2-17.
Figure 2-17
Floating Pass Partition Design [9]
The floating pass partition is welded only to the tubesheet face and to the feedwater outlet
nozzle. This is the most flexible of all three designs. This design is used to reduce stresses in the
channel and the channel-to-tubesheet connection. The best feature is that nothing is welded into
the channel-to-tubesheet connection area. There are no restraints welded to the channel wall to
complicate the simple membrane stresses due to pressure.
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Because there is a clearance between the pass partition and the channel inside diameter, the
feedwater can circulate completely around the floating pass partition and the transition radius,
producing a uniform channel temperature. The effect is a reduction in the temperature gradients
and stresses.
The floating pass partition design uses a sleeve connecting the pass partition to the feedwater
outlet nozzle. This design allows small differential thermal growth because the parts for the
floating design are generally thinner and more flexible than those of the other designs. The
sleeve attachment weld to the feedwater outlet nozzle needs to be of high quality because this is
a high-stress connection. However, any possible problem with the sleeve attachment has been
reduced to a very small area. The area is located in a position that will not adversely affect the
operation of the heater. The use of a floating pass partition design minimizes problems
associated with high stressed areas in the tubesheet and channel.
2.4.4 Tubesheets
The tubesheet [2, 4] is a plate with holes drilled for tubes. Some tubesheet holes have tube hole
grooves that increase the holding force of the expanded tubes. Low-pressure heater tubesheets
are generally composed of carbon steel plate. High-pressure heater tubesheets are generally
composed of forged carbon steel.
The tubesheets of nuclear high-pressure heaters are generally 10–15 inches (25–38 cm) thick.
Low-pressure feedwater tubesheets are 6–10 inches (15–25 cm) thick. Tubesheet material is
specified with low nil-ductility (zero-ductility) characteristics so that post-maintenance hydro
testing can be applied without requiring heated test water. The manufacturer’s manual should
always be checked before performing hydro testing to ensure that a temperature restriction does
not apply.
All high-pressure heater tubesheets with welded tube joints have an overlay to permit a highly
reliable tube-to-tubesheet joint to be made. This overlay should be checked in the shop after the
tube holes are drilled to ensure that no separation of the overlay from the tubesheet has occurred.
This could result in serious operating tubesheet problems. It should also be noted that a tubesheet
overlay is useful in minimizing tubesheet erosion caused by high inlet nozzle velocities.
Nuclear plant high-pressure heater tubes are always seal welded and roller expanded to the
tubesheet. After the weld integrity has been verified, the inside tube-to-tube hole crevice is
eliminated by expanding the tube into the tubesheet. After the post-weld expanding, the welds
should be checked again to verify that they were not damaged during the expansion process.
Tubes in pressurized water reactor (PWR) low-pressure heaters are usually roller expanded to a
depth sufficient to develop a high pullout load as defined in ASME, Section VIII, Div. 1. The
remaining tube-to-tube hole crevice is eliminated by a suitable expansion process.
In boiling water reactor (BWR) plants, low-pressure heaters are generally specified with welded
tube joints due to the access limits associated with the high heater radioactivity levels.
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Information on tube-to-tubesheet joints can be found in Section 7.3 of this guide.
2.4.5 Tubes
Tube design pressure [1, 4] is required by ASME and other governing codes to be equal to or
greater than the maximum normal pressure that will be experienced in operation. The maximum
normal pressure is affected by the location of the feedwater control valve and by the type of
feedwater pump drive. When the feedwater control valve is located between the feedwater pump
discharge and the first high-pressure heater, a tube design pressure can be lower than if the
control valve is located between the last high-pressure heater and the reactor/steam generator.
In addition, if the reactor/steam generator feedwater pump is turbine-driven, the turbine speed
can increase 10% over normal operating speed before the overspeed trip occurs. Consequently,
the pressure developed by the pump can be increased by 21%.
Heater tubes can be specified to either an average or minimum wall thickness. The following
Heat Exchange Institute (HEI) equation [1] is used to determine the required thickness of the
tube wall before bending:
PxD
T= x (1+ D / 4R )
2S+ 0.8P
Where:
T = Tube wall thickness before bending, in. (mm)

D = Outside diameter of tube, in. (mm)
P = Design pressure, psig (MPa)
R = Radius of bend at centerline of tube, in. (mm)
S = Allowable design stress at the saturated steam temperature corresponding to
the shell side design pressure, psi (MPa)
Key Technical Point

The design minimum tube wall thickness for U-tube stainless steel is 0.035
inches (0.89 mm) and 0.028 inches (0.71 mm) for straight stainless steel
tubes. The minimum radius of U-bends should be one and one-half times the
tube diameter.
Feedwater heater tubes are attached to the tubesheet by either expanding alone or seal welding
and expanding. Low-pressure heater tubes are generally expanded only. Nuclear high-pressure
heaters are usually welded and then expanded.
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Feedwater heater tubes are generally expanded using a roller expander, hydraulic expander, or
explosive expansion device. Expanded-only joints are usually roller expanded. Hydraulic and
explosion expanding are often used in combination with seal welding. Seal welding of tubes is
generally done with the edge welding method.
For information on tube material selection and tube-to-tubesheet joints, see Sections 7.3 and
8.6.2, respectively, in this guide.
2.4.6 Tube Supports and Baffles
Baffles and tube support plates [10] are pinned supports for the tube. When properly designed,
the support plates can prevent damage of the tube from excessive vibration. The baffles direct the
flow through the bundle. Baffles are used in the drains cooler zone (and in the desuperheater
zone in fossil heaters) to increase the rate of single-phase heat transfer. Some vapor or liquid will
take the shortest path through the tube holes rather than through the bundles and around the
baffle. If the tube holes are made with a loose fit, the leakage can be sufficient to alter the
temperature profile and the rate of heat transfer. Also, a loose fit in the tube holes can create tube
and baffle plate damage through erosion and tube vibration wear.
The endplate of the drains cooler zone serves as a barrier between the condensing steam and the
liquid drains. If steam is allowed to leak into the drains cooling zone through the tube holes, the
tubes wear very quickly. For this reason, the end plate is made much thicker than the baffles and
with a tighter clearance between the tube and the tube hole. Dimensions for these clearances are
shown in Sections 8.6.2.5 and 8.6.2.6 in this guide.
2.4.7 Shell Relief Valves
When the shell design pressure is less than the tube design pressure, a connection for a relief
valve [1, 4] is provided to protect the shell from overpressure in case of tube or tubesheet failure.
The fluid coming from the tube will be primarily liquid and some steam flashing will be
experienced.
The design temperature and pressure of the valve should be equal to the design temperature and
pressure of the shell. It is suggested that the shell relief valve be sized to pass the larger of the
following flows at 10% accumulation:
• Minimum of 10% of the maximum overload feedwater flow specified through the heater
• Flow based on the clean rupture of one heater tube, resulting in two open ends discharging as
orifices

Because of the radiological consequences of a relief valve discharge in a
BWR facility, the relief valve is piped into a tee to permit liquid/vapor
separation. Where an up-turned or down-turned elbow is used, personnel
protection must be considered in the event of a relief valve discharge.
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2.4.8 Vents
The function of the vent system [7, 11] is to remove non-condensable gases from the shell and
tube side of the heaters during startup and normal operation. In heaters with 300 series stainless
steel tube materials, inadequate venting can contribute to chloride stress corrosion cracking.
General corrosion of shell and internal components, such as baffles and supports, is generally not
as critical as general corrosion of tubing because of the thin walls of the tubes. The non-
condensable buildup resulting from inadequate venting reduces the effective heat transfer rate
and affects performance.
The tube side startup vents can be piped to the atmosphere except in BWR units that have a
potential for releasing radioactive gases. For these units, the tube side startup vents are routed to
the condenser or other designated off-gas systems.
There are two types of shell-side vents: startup and continuous. Sometimes, vents serve a dual
purpose and are called startup and continuous vents.
Startup vents purge the shell of all air and non-condensable gases during unit startup. Venting to
the atmosphere during startup is satisfactory when the heaters are operated above atmospheric
pressures and the flow conditions do not damage any orifices in the vent lines. If the heaters are
not operated above atmospheric pressure, the startup vents should be connected to condensers or
deaerators that can remove non-condensable gases.
Shell-side continuous vents are provided to withdraw non-condensable gases from the shell
during operation. It is suggested that continuous vent lines be open at startup along with the
startup vents so that venting of the shell space can take place quickly.
Shell-side continuous vent lines should be provided with orifices to limit and control the amount
of steam vented together with the non-condensable gases to the condenser. These orifices should
be located external to the heater.
No accurate method is available for determining the amount of non-condensable gases entering
the feedwater heater.
Key Technical Point

The 1998 Sixth Edition of the Heat Exchange Institute (HEI) Standards for
Closed Feedwater Heaters recommends that venting systems be sized to
accommodate a minimum of 0.5% of the incoming steam flow. One critical
flow orifice should be installed in each shell-side continuous vent pipe
external to the heater.
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Internal orifices should be used only to properly proportion the flow from various sections of the
heater. They should not serve to provide an absolute limit on the flow like the critical flow
orifice located external to the heater. The internal orifices can become plugged or damaged, and
these problems are difficult to detect and repair.
Each feedwater heater should be considered separately in the system. Cascading of vents should
not be attempted. Cascading always results in a higher concentration of non-condensable gases in
the lower pressure heaters. Combining the vents from various heaters is also objectionable
because it often results in non-uniform venting of some heaters. The manifolding of vents from a
single heater is acceptable if a proportionately sized critical flow orifice is placed in each vent
line connection from the heater.
For proper operation of the equipment, it is important that all vent lines be as free of bends and
restrictions as possible. Sharp bends and low spots without traps add to the possibility of foreign
materials getting lodged in the line and restricting flow.
Horizontal feedwater heaters are usually vented continuously along the length of the bundle. This
is accomplished by one of the following methods:
• Two vent pipes are installed in the shell on opposite sides of the bundle. These pipes contain
a series of orifices sized to properly proportion the removal of non-condensables and
associated vapors along the length of the bundle.
• A single vent pipe running down the center of the bundle between passes is used. This pipe
contains orifices on both sides.
• Single vent pipes with holes and a shroud directed into the cold pass are used. Forcing the
steam and non-condensables around the cold pass provides for a more appropriate pressure
gradient to minimize bypassing of steam into the vent pipe.
• Non-condensables can be removed from a shroud directed into the cold pass.
The drain cooler in a horizontal heater has to be provided with a special startup vent system to
ensure the filling of the drain cooler with condensate.
Adequate venting designs should have one or more critical flow orifices located external to the
feedwater heater, and the ability to bypass the orifice should be built into the venting system. The
piping should be arranged in a manner that provides self-draining. Therefore, the bypass should
be located vertically below the orifice, similar to Figure 2-18.
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Tutorial
Figure 2-18
Continuous Vent Orifice Assembly [11]
This arrangement allows the bypass valve to be opened at startup, which lets the full capacity of
the line be used for fast evacuation of the shell. When the bypass valve is closed during normal
operation, the orifice controls the amount of steam being vented.
Note that this arrangement shows isolation valves on each side of the orifice to permit inspection
and cleaning of the orifice while the heater is operational.
Key Technical Point

Threaded and flanged joints are convenient for such maintenance. However,
they also become ingress points for non-condensable gases in lines operating
under vacuum conditions. Some utilities that have welded joints in the orifice
piping have found it necessary to cut these lines as a routine preventive
maintenance action to inspect and clean the vent orifices.
Locating the orifice as shown is preferable to having its position switched with that of the bypass
valve. Experience has shown that, if the orifice is located in the straight-line path of the venting
vapor, it may become clogged by scale or other particles during startup. The particles will tend to
follow a straight-line path even with the bypass valve open.

Operational restraints should be placed on the vent valves, particularly if the
venting system can be isolated. This means that the isolation valves should
be locked open with the locks under administrative control.
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2.4.9 Nozzles
An impingement baffle must be provided on all shell inlet connections to protect the tube bundle
from impingement/erosion. These plates should be large enough to protect the tubes from either
direct or secondary (wall bounce) impingement. The purpose of impingement plates is to prevent
direct impingement of high-velocity moisture-laden steam issuing from the inlet nozzle directly
on the tubes [4]. By redirecting the steam at a 90º angle from the tube axis, the impact force
required to redirect the stream is absorbed by the plate rather than the tubes. The component of
velocity in the direction of the tubes must then redevelop as a result of the bundle steam demand.
In a properly designed heater, it is only a fraction of the nozzle velocity. The liquid component
velocity is very low.
Impingement baffle support attachment design requires careful design and good quality control.
Repeated occurrences of the baffle becoming detached have been experienced from failure of the
baffle-support-to-shell-wall attachment. Some of these failures may be attributed to a failure to
identify maximum off-standard flow conditions.
All shell nozzles should be no smaller than recommended by the HEI code. The miscellaneous
nozzle sizes shown in Table 2-1 are generally used in the power plants:
Table 2-1
Miscellaneous Shell Nozzle Sizes [4]
Nozzle Function Size in inches (mm)
Pressure Connections 3/4 (19)
Temperature Connections 3/4–1 ¼ (19–32)
Level Gauge 3/4 (19)
Level Switch 1 (25)
Level Controller 1 1/2– 2 (38–51)
Maintenance Vents and Drains 3/4 (19)
2.5 General Operation
This section covers general operational conditions [4] associated with feedwater heaters:
• Startup
• Return to service
• Station shutdown
• Removal from service
• Layup
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2.5.1 Startup
Before admitting steam to the turbine, all channel vents should be opened and the drain valves
closed. The water flow to the tube side of the heater should be established first. Water flow is
generally established through the condensate and feedwater pumps, using a pump minimum flow
recirculation system. Care should be exercised in starting the pumps to prevent water hammer.
This can be accomplished by slowly opening the condensate pump discharge or by using a low-
head fill pump to fill the condensate/feedwater piping and heaters.
Operation of the shell side of the heater also covers operation of the extraction steam and heater
drains system. Extraction steam isolation valves should be opened. All line drains should be
opened. This permits warming of the extraction steam piping while steam is admitted to the
turbine and while stage temperatures and pressures increase.
With the normal and emergency drain control loops in service, the normal control valves are,
until adequate differential pressure between the heaters exists, wide open but pass little or no
flow. As a result, heater liquid level is maintained by the emergency heater drains control valve
until the differential pressure between the heaters permits flow through the normal drains control
valve. In installations equipped with heater drain pumps, the heater drain pump should not be
placed in service until the drain flow exceeds the minimum recirculation flow of the drain pump.
After steam is admitted to the turbine during startup, utility operator actions regarding the heater
include:
• Closing the extraction line drains
• Opening the shell startup vent
• Closing the shell startup vent
• Placing any drain pumps in operation
The extraction line drains should be closed at about 20–30% station load. The startup vent
should be closed when the heater pressure exceeds 50 psig (345 kPa) or when the station load is
30–40%, whichever occurs first.
As the station load is increased, the utility operator uses the control room instrumentation to
verify the transfer from the emergency drains control valve to the normal drains control valve.
Further operator attention to heaters is minimal until the unit reaches normal full-load operation.
With the station at full load, utility operator attention to heater operations should include:
• Periodic drains cooler level verification during each shift
• Periodic drains cooler level stability verification during each shift
• Periodic verification of normal and emergency control valve position during each shift
• Monitoring of the condensate, feedwater, and heater drain flow indicators if available
• Periodic inspection of drain pump operation during each shift
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2.5.2 Return to Service
With the station on-line, placing a heater back into operation requires special procedures. The
extraction line drains and shell startup vent should be opened. The shell startup vent is left open
for 10–20 minutes. During the initial startup, the vent is left open as a function of shell pressure
or station load.
Channel vent operation and channel side pressurization should be undertaken with caution
because the water being introduced can be at an elevated temperature. In addition, because of the
normal operating temperatures of the extraction steam and feedwater/condensate, care must be
exercised to minimize tube and tubesheet thermal stresses when the cold feedwater heater is
placed into service.
On low-pressure heaters, the channel/tube side is usually placed in service first and then the
extraction steam is introduced to the heater. On high-pressure heaters, it is advisable to preheat
the shell side with extraction steam to warm the tubesheet and both legs of the U-tubes before
admitting the hot (300°F (149°C)) feedwater. For all heaters, appropriate extraction line draining
valves should be open.
Key Technical Point

The heater manufacturer should set the preheat times appropriate for the
equipment. The generally accepted limit of 150°F/hr (65°C/hr) for 5-inch
(13-cm) thick tubesheet walls is used.
The preheat time based on either of the following formulas should be adequate:
Preheat Time (minutes) = 0.08 x Tubesheet Thickness (in.) x ∆T

Where:
∆T is the difference in the drains outlet to feedwater outlet temperature in °F
Preheat Time (minutes) = 0.072 x Tubesheet Thickness (cm) x ∆T

Where:
∆T is the difference in the drains outlet to feedwater outlet temperature in °C
2.5.3 Station Shutdown
As the unit is shut down, little attention to heater operation is required by the utility operator
except to verify transfer from the normal drains system control to emergency drains system
control.
Where drain pumps are installed, control should be manually transferred to the emergency drains
system and the pump shut down at 30–35% station load. In addition, the extraction line drains
should be opened below approximately 20% station load. After the station is shut down, layup
procedures should be implemented.
2-35
Tutorial
2.5.4 Removal from Service
When a heater is removed from service in an operating station, the tube side or the shell side can
be isolated first. With the heater out of service, the heater drains systems should be isolated, the
startup vent closed, and the maintenance vents and drains opened.
When draining the channel side, exercise caution in operating the maintenance vents and drains
to avoid personnel injury from the water and/or steam flashing. Continued shell- and tube-side
drainage can be expected as a result of steam and condensate/feedwater valve leakage. Care must
be taken by all personnel when working on or around the heater. Depending on the reason and
planned duration of the heater being out of service, specific layup procedures may be
appropriate.
2.5.5 Layup
When a heater is removed from service to plug a leaking tube and returned to service upon
completion, the heater does not require any layup procedures. When the heater will be out of
service for an extended time, then specific layup procedures should be implemented. The
definition of an extended time is being out of service for more than one week. This definition is
from the EPRI Cycling, Startup, Shutdown and Layup Fossil Plant Cycle Chemistry Guidelines
for Operators and Chemists, TR-107754.

For heaters expected to be out-of-service for an extended period (more than
one week), both the shell and tube sides should be drained and air dried, and
a nitrogen blanket at 5 psig (34.5 kPa) should be maintained. This applies to
heaters with all types of tube materials.
The nitrogen should be admitted from the drain with the vent open to permit the displaced air to
flow out of the heater. After the air has been displaced, the vent should be closed, and the heater
should be pressurized to 5 psig (34.5 kPa).
Periodically, the heater nitrogen pressure should be monitored to ensure that at least 5 psig (34.5
kPa) is maintained. It is likely that with the station on-line, the nitrogen blanket pressure will
increase as a result of the leakage through the large steam and water isolation valves.
As an alternative to the nitrogen blanketing, an inhibited water solution can be used to fill the
shell and channel side. An inhibiting agent, such as hydrazine, must be compatible with the water
treatment requirements of the specific reactor/steam generator equipment.
2-36
3
PERFORMANCE
3.1 Cycle Descriptions
Three cycles are discussed in this section to explain how the feedwater heater regenerative
process works. The cycles are:
• Rankine cycle
• Nuclear turbine cycle
• Feedwater heater arrangement
3.1.1 Rankine Cycle
The nuclear power Rankine cycle [12] with moisture separation and reheat is shown in
Figure 3-1.
Figure 3-1
Nuclear Power Plant Rankine Cycle with Moisture Separation and Reheat [12]
3-1
Performance
Feedwater heaters increase the thermal efficiency of the power plant cycle. This is accomplished
by heating the feedwater with steam extracted from the turbine. The cycle efficiency is improved
by producing a steam cycle that approaches the Carnot cycle. (The Carnot cycle is a theoretical
maximum thermal efficiency cycle composed entirely of reversible processes.)
Nuclear power plant cycles are usually provided with five to seven stages of feedwater heaters
that heat the feedwater to a final temperature of 350–440ºF (177–227ºC). Most plants use closed
shell and tube feedwater heaters that condense the extraction steam and subcool the condensate.
The subcooling is accomplished with an integral or a separate drains cooling zone that transfers
additional heat to the feedwater. Some plants use one stage of an open deaerator and a separate
drains cooler as a low-pressure heater section. The deaerator is an open surface heat exchanger
that removes non-condensable gases from the feedwater.
Steam is extracted at stages where the steam temperature and the feedwater temperature
differences are relatively small. The heat transfer process approaches being reversible if the
temperature difference is small. However, the transfer of heat with a small temperature
difference requires a large transfer surface.
Key O&M Cost Point

The number of feedwater heaters in a plant is a design tradeoff between cost
and cycle efficiency.
3-2
Performance
3.1.2 Nuclear Turbine Cycle
The basic nuclear steam turbine cycle [12] is shown in Figure 3-2.
Figure 3-2
Basic Nuclear Steam Turbine Cycle [12]
The cycle consists of:

• Nuclear steam supply system (NSSS) from the steam generator of a pressurized water reactor
(PWR) or the reactor vessel of a boiling water reactor (BWR).
• A high-pressure (HP) turbine and one, two, or three low-pressure (LP) turbines.
• A moisture separator to remove moisture from the exhaust of the HP turbine.
• A reheater that provides one or two stages of reheated steam before the LP turbine. Some
plants do not use reheaters. For plants that do use reheaters, the moisture separators and
reheaters are combined into moisture separator reheaters (MSRs).
• The LP turbine may be a two, four, or six flow design. The flow number indicates the
number of exhaust annuli.
• The condenser may be single or multiple pressure.
• A feedwater heating system returning heated feedwater from the condenser to the steam
generators (PWRs) or the reactor vessel (BWRs).
3-3
Performance
3.1.3 Feedwater Heater Arrangement
Figure 3-3 shows the basic arrangement of a train of feedwater heaters [3] used to heat feedwater
from its temperature leaving the condenser to the final feedwater temperature (FFT), using steam
extracted from various stages of the turbines.
Figure 3-3
Basic Feedwater Heater Arrangement [3]
Some plants extract steam from the high- and low-pressure turbines, while others extract steam
only from the low-pressure turbine. Most plants have more than one train of heaters, usually one
for each low-pressure turbine. For example, there would be three trains of feedwater heaters for
three low-pressure turbines. Most BWRs are arranged to cascade all heater drains back to the
condenser. This allows all the condensate to go through the demineralizer before being returned
to the reactor vessel as condensate. Most PWRs pump part of the higher stage heater drains
forward to the next higher stage heater.
Nearly all light water reactor plant feedwater heaters are of the shell and U-tube, horizontal, two-
zone configuration. A typical configuration is shown in Figure 3-4.
3-4
Performance
Figure 3-4
Typical Feedwater Heater Configuration [4]
Feedwater flows on the inside of the U-tubes that traverse both the condensing and drains
cooling zones. The drains cooling zone consists of the inlet of the U-tubes and is located in the
bottom of the heater. The feedwater flows into the drains cooling zone of the heater, where it is
heated by subcooling the condensate formed in the condensing section of the heater.
The feedwater then flows into the condensing zone, which contains the remainder of the U-tubes.
Feedwater is heated in the condensing section by condensing turbine extraction steam. Steam is
formed by the flashing of condensate flowing in from the drains cooler of the upstream heaters.
Most of the feedwater heating and heat transfer in a heater occurs in the condensing zone.
Most feedwater heaters use U-tubes and are arranged to both condense extraction steam and to
subcool the condensate. Some plants use separate drains coolers in the first stage of feedwater
heating. In either case, it is necessary to maintain an adequate water level to submerge all the
tubing in the drains cooling section. This is done by providing instrumentation to measure the
water level in the drains cooling section and control valves to control the condensate flow rate
out of the heater.
Temperature, pressure, and level instrumentation is commonly used with each heater. However,
very few plants have instrumentation to routinely measure feedwater and drain flows of the
individual heaters. Instead, the flow is estimated from measured feedwater flow and the design
split between parallel feedwater heater trains.
3-5
Performance
Feedwater heaters are usually designed to heat feedwater to within a specified temperature below
the temperature of the extraction heating steam. Measures of feedwater heater effectiveness are:
• Terminal temperature difference (TTD) = inlet steam saturation temperature – feedwater
outlet temperature
• Drains cooler approach (DCA) = shell drains outlet temperature – feedwater inlet
temperature
• Feedwater temperature rise (TR) = feedwater outlet temperature – feedwater inlet
temperature
3.2 Data Monitoring and Trending
On-line monitoring of the thermal performance of feedwater heaters [12, 13] is one of the easiest
and most important ways to detect adverse conditions before damage occurs. The same thermal
data also provide a current efficiency of the heater.

The vital measures of an operating heater are the TTD, DCA, and TR.
The DCA temperature is a critical factor in the assurance of a long service life for a closed
feedwater heater. If the actual drains approach is at or slightly better (lower) than the designated
value, the drains cooling zone should be in good physical condition.

If the DCA temperature is too high for the existing power level, a serious
operating condition exists. This condition threatens to do severe damage to
the tubes and other internals, such as the drains cooling zone end plate and
baffles. Rapid heater destruction may follow, especially in a horizontal
heater. Corrective action usually consists of restoring the water level to the
proper range from a level that is too low. Failure to do so can allow flashing
to develop destructive velocities and rapid erosion in the drains cooling zone.
3-6
Performance
The TTD is a measure of the heat transfer capability of the feedwater heater. The higher the TTD
is above design, the poorer the performance of the heater. Actual measurements should be
compared with controlled performance tests at various power levels to determine if serious
changes are occurring. If the TTD is substantially higher than normal for the existing conditions,
the heater has problems.
Changes in either the DCA or the TTD also change the overall feedwater temperature rise. This
is used as a general indication of thermal performance.

The TTD and DCA for each heater should be determined and trended on a
monthly basis.
The following are suggested tasks for the monitoring of feedwater heaters:
1. Check to see that all feedwater heaters, MSR drain collection tanks, and MSR shell drain
tanks are in service with the water levels properly controlled. Drainage should be checked to
verify that minimum leakage to the condenser is occurring.
2. Check to see that all heater drain pumps are in service and are being adequately controlled.
3. Verify that the steam bypass valves are closed.
4. Verify that the feedwater pump recirculation flow paths to the condenser are isolated.
5. Verify that the feedwater heater operating vents are open and the startup vents are closed.
6. Check each heater sight glass for leakage and gasket deterioration.
3.2.1 Performance Monitor
Conventional performance methods compare feedwater heater performance to an arbitrary

standard at a single load. EPRI and Potomac Electric Power Co. worked with Power
Technologies, Inc., to develop an improved feedwater heater performance monitor [14] for
demonstration at the Morgantown plant.
The monitor includes a first principles calculation model that determines the achievable
operating parameters for each heater in the feedwater train and compares the actual performance
parameters with these values. The model incorporates the results of a flow and energy balance
around the steam cycle and has access to accurate information about the steam and water flows
into and out of each heater. The availability of the flow information greatly improves the
monitor’s diagnostic capability.
3-7
Performance
By evaluating deviations between the actual and achievable values of the DCA temperatures and
the TTDs, the operators can optimize the water level in the feedwater heater. Indications of poor
performance can initiate heater train diagnostics, leading to corrective operations or maintenance
actions.
The software model used in the feedwater heater monitor is included in the Plant Monitoring
Workstation that Power Technologies, Inc., markets under an EPRI license.
Redundant instrumentation checks, whether temporary or permanent, can be used to validate

data. If a feedwater heater outlet temperature decreases by 3°F (1.67°C), the heater drain
temperature from the next higher pressure heater should also decrease. This assumes that the
next higher pressure heater has an integral drains cooler section. If there is no drains cooler
section, the colder water entering the next higher pressure heater affects the performance of the
existing heater’s drains cooler section. This reduces the drain outlet temperature.
If the heater drain temperature of the higher pressure heater decreases about 2°F (1.11°C), the
heater outlet temperature should decrease by 3°F (1.67°C). If this does not happen, the decrease
in heater temperature could be a false indication.
3.2.2 Data Analysis
This section covers the effect of final feedwater temperature (FFT) and power changes. Also
covered are an EPRI heater database and an EPRI performance modeling tool.
3.2.2.1 Final Feedwater Temperature
Final feedwater temperature (FFT) is an important parameter because a temperature reduction is

an indication of degradation in the regenerative feedwater heating process. Degradation can
occur from a single cause or a combination of causes involving the feedwater heaters or
extraction heating steam flow. Some of the causes are:
• Degraded heat transfer surface in the feedwater heater due to plugging or fouling
• Accumulation of non-condensable gases in the condensing region of one or more feedwater
heaters
• Reduction in extraction heating steam flow to one or more feedwater heaters because of
restrictions in the extraction piping or non-return valves
• Internal damage to heater baffles, supports, end plates, etc.
• Level control problems and changes
3-8
Performance
The effect of degradation depends on the extent of degradation and heater location. The effect is
greatest for the final heater (highest temperature). Degradation in other heater stages can also
adversely affect the heat rate. Figure 3-5 shows the increase in heat rate for a decrease in FFT.
Figure 3-5
Final Feedwater Temperature Change [12]
3.2.2.2 Power Changes
The typical operating parameters that are monitored for a feedwater heater are:
• Inlet feedwater temperature
• Outlet feedwater temperature
• Drain temperature
• Shell-side steam pressure
3-9
Performance
Table 3-1 shows typical responses of the opening parameters that are used to calculate ∆T, TTD,
and DCA to changes in power and to mechanical problems.
Table 3-1
Feedwater Heater Responses [12]
Typical Responses to Power Change
Power Change ∆T TTD DCA
Power Increase Increase Increase Increase
Power Decrease Decrease Decrease Decrease
Typical Responses to Feedwater Heater Problems
Problem ∆T TTD DCA
Inadequate vent Decrease Increase Decrease
Level increase Decrease Increase Decrease
Level decrease Increase Decrease Increase
Tube fouling Decrease Increase Increase
Tube leak Decrease Increase Decrease
High FW flow Decrease Increase Increase
Plugged tubes Decrease Increase Increase
3.2.2.3 Heat Exchanger Workstation
EPRI’s Heat Exchanger Workstation (HEW) [16] is a software package designed to assist in the
operation and maintenance of plant heat exchangers. HEW-Feedwater Heater (FWH) is the
feedwater heater component of HEW and will be available by the end of 2002.
3-10
Performance
The HEW-FWH can:

• Maintain a database on the configuration, performance, and maintenance history of feedwater
heaters.
• Record and display results of nondestructive evaluations.
• Monitor and analyze the performance of feedwater heaters.
• Review advice on methods of improving feedwater heater performance and increasing
reliability.
• Diagnose tube failures, determine failure mechanisms, determine root causes of these
mechanisms, and consider recommended corrective actions.
• The software package provides a complete workstation for record keeping, performance
analysis, and troubleshooting. A graphical database of feedwater heaters can be configured.
Then problems in feedwater heaters that are performing inefficiently can be diagnosed by
conducting what-if analyses to predict the effects of plugging tubes, modifying operating
conditions, and changing tube materials. HEW-FWH also contains critical information on the
heater operation and maintenance procedures.
There are six principal software applications included in HEW-FWH:

• The Diagrammer – for creation of plant feedwater heater schematics, data entry, and display
• Database Manager – for storing and retrieving heater data
• Performance Analyst – for analyzing and predicting heater performance
• Performance Advisor – for providing advice on improving heater performance
• Failure Advisor – for diagnosing tube failures
• O&M Reference – for heater maintenance and operation procedures
This software package is available to EPRI member utilities and can be requested by contacting
the EPRI Customer Assistance Center at 800-313-3774 or askepri@epri.com.
3.3 Performance Degradation
Because the purpose of feedwater heaters is to increase cycle efficiency by heating the
feedwater, any reduction in heat transfer capability of a heater reduces cycle efficiency and
increases heat rate [3]. In a nuclear power plant that usually operates at or near licensed thermal
power, an increase in heat rate results in a reduction in electrical output.
Heat transfer deficiencies are usually manifested by high TTDs and DCAs. Most plants have
been designed with TTDs of 5°F (2.78°C) and DCAs of 15°F (8.33°C). Increasing TTDs and
DCAs cause increased heat rate and reduced electrical output.
3-11
Performance
Key O&M Cost Point

Usually, the TTD of the top heater stage has the largest impact on thermal
performance, while the lower pressure heaters have correspondingly less
impact. The impact of a 1°F (0.56°C) increase in the TTD of the top heater is
approximately a 0.016% increase in heat rate. For the other feedwater heaters,
a 1°F (0.56°C) increase in TTD increases the heat rate by approximately
0.013%.
Key O&M Cost Point

Changes in heater DCAs have significantly less impact than changes in
TTDs. If there is a 1°F (0.56°C) increase in DCA, the corresponding increase
in heat rate is 0.005%. The impact can be less at part load.
Table 3-2 lists typical impacts of increases in TTDs and DCAs on heat rate.
Table 3-2
Feedwater Heater Impact on Thermal Performance [3]
Feedwater Heater Change Impact
1°F (0.56°C) increase in top heater TTD 0.016% increase in heat rate
1°F (0.56°C) increase in other stage heater TTD 0.013% increase in heat rate
1°F (0.56°C) increase in DCA 0.005% increase in heat rate
Feedwater heaters are subject to numerous problems. Of primary interest are the problems that
result in high TTD, high DCA, increased heat rate, and reduced power generation. The following
are the more significant of these problems and some of the applicable diagnostic and corrective
actions.
3.3.1 Plugged Tubes
Plugged heater tubes remove heat transfer surface from both the condensing and drains cooling
zone of the heater. The effect can be to increase the heater TTD, DCA, or both.
Usually, the degradation will increase both TTD and DCA in heaters with integral drains cooling
zones. This is because some tubes go through both the condensing and drains cooling sections of
the heater. Increased TTD and DCA will increase the heat rate because less heat is transferred to
the feedwater and more heat is rejected to the condenser through the cascading drains or dumped
3-12
Performance
to other heaters, increasing their load. Excessive tube plugging in the drains cooler section
reduces the subcooling margin and can lead to flashing of the drains in the drain line.
In addition, plugged tubes can increase the tube-side pressure drop. If the tube-side pressure drop
gets too high, the heater pass partition plate can buckle. This can lead to leakage across the pass
partition plate instead of through the tubes and further deterioration of heater performance.
Key O&M Cost Point

Tubes are plugged because of through-wall leakage or nondestructive
evaluation (NDE) results indicating less than minimum wall thickness. Tube
plugging based on conservative NDE data analysis can lead to premature loss
of thermal performance and high pressure drop.
Section 6.3.4.1.1.3 of this guide covers some criteria used to plug tubes.
3.3.2 Heater Water Level
High water level in the heater can cause submergence of some condensing zone tube surfaces.
This condition reduces the heat transfer capability. If a high water level occurs, there should be a
corresponding increase in drains cooling heat transfer surface and a decrease in DCA.
One cause can be a malfunctioning level control system. If the level is high, a portion of the
condensing zone heat transfer surface may be submerged in condensate and not capable of
condensing the extraction steam. At the same time, there could be additional drains cooling zone
capacity because of the high condensate level, resulting in a small DCA.
A low water level in the heater can have the opposite effect from a high water level. The low
water level produces a low TTD and a high DCA. In some cases, this can improve thermal
performance. However, low drains cooling level should be avoided because it can subject the
baffles and tubes supports in the drains cooling zone to two-phase flow.
3.3.3 Shell Corrosion
Most heaters use carbon steel tube support plates and flow baffles. Carbon steel is susceptible to
flow-accelerated corrosion (FAC). This is especially true if the flow is a two-phase mixture of
steam and condensate. Some long-term erosion in the condensing zone is unavoidable.
The heat transfer mode in the condensing zone is by condensation, and the plates in the
condensing zone are primarily for tube support. The plates are not designed to enhance heat
transfer. As a result, FAC does not necessarily have a direct impact on condensing zone thermal
3-13
Performance
performance and TTD. It can cause erosion of the tube supports that can increase susceptibility
to tube vibration damage. FAC in the condensing zone is primarily a life cycle problem.
The drains cooling zone is normally subjected to single-phase condensate flow where FAC is not
of major concern. However, if the drains cooling zone is continually operated with a low water
level, the transverse flow baffle/tube supports can be subject to two-phase FAC. Also, a thin end
plate can erode, resulting in larger tube-to-end-plate hole clearances. This can allow more steam
flow to the drains cooling zone. The result can be increased tube vibration, a reduction in flow
across the tubes, a reduction in drains cooling thermal performance, and an increase in DCA.
If FAC is suspected in either the condensing or drains cooling zones, a shell-side visual
inspection might be necessary to evaluate the extent of the problem. More information on
erosion can be found in Section 5.2.2 in this report.
3.3.4 Dump Valve Leakage
The impact of valve leakage depends on the stage of feedwater heating where the leakage is
occurring. The higher the feedwater heater pressure and temperature, the greater the impact.
If the dump valves are leaking, the drains are continuously flowing to the next lowest heater. The
level control system cannot operate correctly with the dump valves leaking. In addition, the
condensate drains will not have time to exchange their heat in the drains cooling zone.
3.3.5 Vents
Feedwater heaters have vent lines to the condenser that are used to remove non-condensable
gases. These vent lines are usually small and should be continuously open during operation to
vent non-condensable gases to the condenser. These losses are essentially unavoidable. However,
restricting orifices in the lines can be oversized or worn from erosion, resulting in excess vent
flow. Approximately 0.5% of the design shell side flow should be vented to the condenser.
Feedwater heaters are provided with larger vent lines and valves to remove non-condensable
gases during startup. Leakage through the vent line shutoff valves or leakage when the valves are
left open during operation can have an effect on heat rate similar to dump valve leakage.
3.4 Unit Uprating
In the past several years, turbine upgrades and thermal power uprates [17] have been
implemented in both nuclear and fossil plants. A majority of turbine section replacements are
being implemented based on benefits related to the elimination of stress corrosion in the disk
bore, keyways, and blade attachment areas of the low-pressure turbine rotors. Design features of
the original rotors were combined with materials that were inadequate for resisting stress
corrosion in the wet low-pressure stages. The instances of stress corrosion cracking (SCC) have
led to extensive repair or replacement of low-pressure turbine components.
3-14
Performance
The newly designed low-pressure turbine components can achieve between 1–5% efficiency
improvement. This is because of the design changes to:
• Reduce profile losses
• Reduce secondary losses
• Reduce leakage through seals
• Add stages in the low-pressure section
• Lengthen the last stage blades and increase the annulus area
The reason for high-pressure turbine section replacement is cost justification due to efficiency
increases. Output improvements of 2% to 3% are associated with the high-pressure turbine
replacements. Again, the high-pressure turbine components have been redesigned for improved
sectional efficiency.
In the low- and high-pressure turbine retrofits, efficiency gains were translated into generation
increases. The temperatures, pressures, and flows did not change for the rest of the power
generation cycle. The redesign of the turbine components eliminated losses and enabled a higher
transfer of energy to the turbine. For these reasons, the feedwater heaters were acceptable for
continued service with the turbine upgraded components.
An uprate of the turbine is an increase in the turbine output by changing the original conditions.
This can include increasing the mass flow rate and/or operating at higher inlet temperatures and
pressures. For the uprate possibility, an anticipated heat balance is given. The turbine cold reheat
and extraction line pressures and temperatures would have to be evaluated for continued use of
the existing heaters.
Key Technical Point

A complete evaluation for an uprate would have to be performed to
determine if the existing heaters can still be used. Heater bypasses, additional
heaters, material upgrades, etc., can be options to accommodate any
increased temperature, pressure, and/or flow.
Refer to Section 8.0 in this guide for information on replacement heaters.
In April 2002 NMAC distributed a survey to NMAC and FMAC utility members concerning
feedwater heater experience. The purpose of the survey was to discover problems with feedwater
heaters resulting from turbine upgrades or thermal power uprates.
3-15
Performance
The survey did not indicate any major problems with feedwater heaters as a result of these
changes; however, the utilities did perform a heater evaluation as part of the thermal power
uprate changes. The results are shown in Appendix D.
3-16
4
TROUBLESHOOTING
This section covers the major problems encountered in the operation of feedwater heaters. The
first section includes feedwater heater conditions and a discussion of causes. The next section
discusses specific problems with the systems or areas of the heater. The last section contains
charts of problem symptoms, causes, and suggested solutions.
4.1 Heater Conditions
The following are heater conditions and a description of problems associated with the condition:
• Startup and shutdown
• Load rejection
• Turbine water induction
• Water chemistry
• Excessive flow
• Bypasses
• Condensate flashing
• Tube leaks
• Plugged tubes
• Pass partition leaks
4.1.1 Startup and Shutdown
For normal start-ups, the entire string of heaters is subjected to increasing feedwater flow rates
[11]. This is standard and is usually acceptable if the flow rates are changed gradually and within
the temperature ramp rates provided in the manufacturer’s instruction manual.
4-1
Troubleshooting

One startup condition that requires special precautions is when one heater of
the string has been out of service for maintenance. When this heater is ready
to be put back into service, a different startup procedure may be required.
The owner should follow the manufacturer’s instruction manual.
The same precautionary measures used at startup are also recommended for shutdown in order to
prevent thermal shock by rapid or forced cooling.
4.1.2 Load Loss
Shell liquid levels are affected by the loss of unit load [11]. A sharp rise in shell liquid level
occurs when this happens. Vapor is generated in the condensate in the shell as the saturation
temperature drops below the actual condensate temperature. A small amount of vapor, due to its
much greater specific volume, sharply increases the overall volume of the condensate/vapor mix
in the shell. This transient is sometimes called a swell. The swell occurs until the turbine
extraction pressure stabilizes and the vapor is released from the condensate.
There should be an adequate margin between the normal and alarm liquid levels in the heater.
Typically, the normal and alarm levels are set too close, which does not permit reasonable load
swings without alarm or allow an adequate range of level adjustment to obtain the specified
drains approach temperature. An example of how to set up the normal and alarm liquid levels is
shown in Figure 4-1 for horizontal heaters.
4-2
Troubleshooting
Figure 4-1
Example Liquid Level Settings for a Horizontal Heater [1]
4.1.3 Turbine Water Induction
Water introduced into a rotating turbine can cause severe damage to the turbine shells, stationary
blading, rotor, and bearings [4]. General Electric’s six-year study on turbine water induction
showed that the probability of a unit outage from water induction in a 30-year plant life was
85%, with 1.6 expected incidents.
Of the data obtained, 70% of the water induction was attributed to water entering from the
extraction system. Water introduced through the extraction lines can occur from a rupture of one
or more tubes within a heater or a malfunction of the heater drains system. A malfunction could
occur from a controller, transmitter, control valve, isolation valve, or other component of the
level control system.
4-3
Troubleshooting
Design features to minimize turbine water induction are contained in the ASME Turbine Water
Damage Prevention Standard (TWDPS). The following brief synopsis of these design features is
given:
• Close the extraction gate valve on high-high heater level, and release the non-return valve to
close.
• If no extraction non-return valves are installed (such as heaters installed in the condenser
neck), open the tube/water-side bypass and close the tube/water-side heater inlet and outlet
valves on high-high level.
• Install an emergency drain to the condenser from the heater condensing zone, outside the
drains cooler section, to open on high heater level.
• Use redundant instrumentation on separate standpipes.
• Interrupt and redirect all incoming liquid streams to the heater shell.
4.1.4 Water Chemistry
The water chemistry factors [8] that influence feedwater heater tube corrosion are steam
contaminants, that is, chloride ion, halide salts, and dissolved oxygen. Other critical factors are
fluid temperature and pH achieved by adjustment with ammonia.
Key Technical Point

Systems with all steel and stainless steel components generally operate with
a pH between 9.2 and 9.8 to minimize carbon steel corrosion. This limits the
entrainment of corrosion products in the condensate. Problems are
encountered with mixed metal systems containing both copper and carbon
steel alloys. These systems are generally operated at a pH of 8.8–9.2. This is
not an optimum range for the control of corrosion of either material;
however, it is a useful compromise.
Oxygen contributes to uniform corrosion, stress corrosion cracking, intergranular corrosion

(particularly exfoliation), and inlet-end erosion in PWR units. Steam surface condensers reduce
oxygen levels to 7 ppb or less. However, steam surface condensers are designed only to maintain
this oxygen removal at full load and with minimal air in-leakage. High concentrations of oxygen
can occur at low loads and during outages. Air leakage through relief valve/gaskets in feedwater
heaters operating below atmospheric pressure is another small, but continuous, source of oxygen.
Temperatures are critical to various tube materials because of their inherent properties. Materials
should be selected for all possible operation temperatures.
4-4
Troubleshooting
4.1.5 Excessive Flow
Operation with excessive flow [5] can occur when strings of heaters or downstream heaters are
shut down or are bypassed at increased load operation. The excessive flow rate can be on the
feedwater or the steam side. Excessive feedwater flow automatically increases the flow on the
steam side. The steam-side flow can be increased at normal feedwater flow if the inlet
temperature of the feedwater is dropped.
Increased feedwater flow can directly create erosion-corrosion at the tube inlets. Increased steam
and subsequent drain flow can result in the following damage:
• Vibration in the drains cooler zone due to excessive flow velocities
• Flashing in the drains cooler due to excessive pressure drop with subsequent erosion-
corrosion
• Increase in erosion-corrosion of the shell internal components (baffles, shrouds, etc.)
The heater should be designed for feedwater flow at the maximum expected load. For units with
one or more strings of heaters, an additional 10–20% flow maldistribution should be considered.
With this design, normal operation on the feedwater side is covered sufficiently. In units with
two or more strings of heaters and without bypasses, the feedwater flow rate can increase by
100%. With erosion-corrosion sensitive tube material, this can lead to wear at the tube inlets.
Normally, it is not economical to design the heater for 100% increased flow. When the flow
exceeds the design values, the load of the unit must be limited to a level that maintains
permissible flow velocities.
4.1.6 Bypasses
The installation of bypasses [5] around individual heaters or strings of heaters increases the
operational flexibility of a unit. The best flexibility is provided with one individual bypass for
each heater; however, this is very costly.
With individual bypasses around heaters, the heater downstream of the out-of-service heater
must be designed for this operation on the steam side. The shutdown of a heater drops the
feedwater inlet temperature to the downstream heater, which then pulls more extraction steam.
As a rule of thumb, the increase in extraction steam flow of the downstream heater is
approximately twice the amount at normal operation. The tube support has to be designed for
these high flow rates to prevent harmful vibration. When an emergency drain is installed that is
connected to the condensing zone, the problem in the drains cooler section is not as significant.
With the increasing condensate flow, the normal drain regulating valve capacity is exceeded, and
the level in the heater increases. This opens the alternate drain. The bypass should be designed
with the same flow resistance as the bypassed heaters. This ensures that the feedwater flow rate
in the other feedwater heaters does not change.
4-5
Troubleshooting
4.1.7 Condensate Flashing
The suppression of subcooling due to low shell liquid levels causes the heater drains to approach
the saturation temperature. Any subsequent line pressure loss through valves or piping causes
condensate flashing [18]. This increases the tendencies toward vapor binding, slug flow, and
resultant problems such as pipe movement and/or banging and choking associated with two-
phase flow in a piping system. If the system uses a heater drain pump, the loss of subcooling can
have a significant adverse effect on the necessary net positive suction head requirement and
cavitation.
Heater liquid levels should be controlled by displacement sensors or by any type of sensors that
are responsive to rapid changes in the shell liquid level. The sensors should consistently reflect
changes in extraction, cascaded drains, or possible internal leakage flows. Although heater levels
are initially set by temperature, the levels should not be controlled by temperature. Time delays
in sensing temperature changes can result in unacceptable, erratic level swings.
A horizontal, low-pressure heater at the Unit 1 Grand Gulf Nuclear Station experienced tube
failures in the subcooling zone. These failures occurred in the uppermost corner of the
subcooling zone tube layout. The probable cause of failure was determined to be condensate
flashing in the subcooling zone. It was established that operating the heater at an elevated liquid
level to partially submerge the tube bundle would eliminate flashing in the subcooling zone;
however, heater performance was slightly reduced. The liquid level set points were adjusted, and
no new failures occurred.
It was concluded that the margin against flashing at the inlet of an integral subcooling zone in a
low-pressure feedwater heater is particularly sensitive to the tube support baffle configuration.
Flashing in the subcooling zone has been identified as a probable cause of tube failure in some
heaters. A simple operational modification, that is, raising the normal operating level in the
heater, has been demonstrated to eliminate the potential for flashing.
4.1.8 Tube Leaks
The shell liquid level is significantly affected by continued operation with failed tubes. The
drains control system is required to pass the added flow from the two broken ends of each
ruptured tube and tube impingement failures.
Key Technical Point

It is noted that the flow from only a few ruptured tubes will exceed 10% of
rated feedwater flow in a short time, particularly in high-pressure heaters.
Continued operation with damaged tubes can rapidly escalate leakage
because of secondary failures resulting from feedwater impingement on
adjacent tubes. Oversized valves in low-pressure heater drains systems often
mask any increasing leakage by maintaining a normal liquid level until
additional tubes fail.
4-6
Troubleshooting
To keep this condition from occurring, any incoming drains should be diverted to the condenser
when the level rises above the normal high operating level. Additionally, the station operators
should mark the valve stem position of the drain control valve in its normal 100% drain flow
position. The valve stem position should be checked on each shift, and if the valve opening is
greater than the marking, a broken tube is probably introducing feedwater into the heater shell.

The shell safety valve is designed to release a given amount of water (not
steam) at a shell pressure that is 10% above the design pressure of the shell.
If tubes continue to fail, it must be recognized that the safety valve capacity
will be exceeded. The shell pressure will continue to rise and can cause the
shell to rupture. A safety valve provides a limited time to get the heater off-
line to avoid an accident.
4.1.9 Plugged Tubes
When a tube is plugged and becomes inactive in a horizontal heater that has a short drains cooler,
another liquid level test should be performed to reestablish the normal level. Two conditions may
exist:
• If the plugged tube is in a bottom row, it contributes to pressure loss of the entering saturated
condensate without subcooling. Several such tubes can aggravate the failure problem, and a
liquid level test is necessary to establish a new adequate shell liquid level.
• The steam barrier is lost between the inactive tube outside diameter and the drilled hole in the
subcooling end plate. This permits the bypass of wet vapor from the condensing zone into the
subcooling zone, which can cause increased steam in-leakage, tube vibration, steam flashing
in drains, and end plate erosion.
Key Technical Point

As a recommended practice when tubes are plugged in the bottom rows of
the drains cooler zone, the control level should be raised to submerge these
plugged tubes when the row is 50% or more plugged.
4.1.10 Pass Partition Leaks
If the terminal temperature difference (TTD) is increasing, the drains cooler approach (DCA) is
relatively constant, and the temperature rise (TR) across the heater is decreasing, these symptoms
are indicative of a partition plate leak [19]. This occurs when inlet feedwater leaks into the outlet
feedwater and lowers the outlet temperature with the saturation temperature in the heater staying
relatively constant. The inlet feedwater temperature and drain temperatures also remain constant.
4-7
Troubleshooting
4.2 Section/System Problems
This section covers problems in the condensing and drains cooling zone and the vent and level
control systems. For problems in the desuperheater zone, see Appendix B.
4.2.1 Condensing Zone
The condensing zones [11] of most feedwater heaters have had few problems. However, the
following are some relevant problem areas:
• Nuclear feedwater heaters admit steam in one or more pipe connections directly to the
condensing zone. These feedwater heaters are equipped with impingement plates because of
the erosive nature of entering high-velocity, potentially wet steam. Impingement plates have
often been inadequately designed. Inadequate designs result in tube erosion, vibration
problems, and shell erosion.
Design and fabrication deficiencies include improper geometry, inadequate sizing, and
restrictive spacing between the bundle and the shell. This causes an excessive velocity that
can damage the outer perimeter tubes of the bundle, cause level control problems, and erode
the outer shell and tube supports.
Some impingement plate failures may have been caused by large forces from high steam
flows that result from the operation of automatic turbine induction prevention systems. Other
failures have been caused by inadequate welding and the use of intermittent skip welds.
• Cascaded drains from higher pressure feedwater heaters are often introduced directly into the
condensing zones. The drains enter over the top of the bundle instead of in extensions of the
condensing zone (flash chambers beyond the U-tubes). This practice has caused erosion of
components and tubes.
In vertical channel-down heaters, the steam condensate and drains must flow to the tubesheet end
of the heater. With steam rising through the annular space between the shell and bundle, steam
condensate may be refluxed as it comes into contact with rapidly flowing steam. Refluxing can
also cause water holdup. The difficulty in draining can cause large volumes of steam condensate
to be held on the tube support plates. When a sufficient quantity of water has accumulated, it
suddenly drains, accompanied by severe water hammer, swaying of the shell, loss of external
insulation, and large changes in the water level. Water holdup is often accompanied by changes
in the shell pressure of 4–5 psig (28–34 kPa).
4.2.2 Drains Cooler Zone
Key Technical Point

Tube failures in the horizontal, partial-length, full-pass, integral drains cooler
zone are a frequent and major cause of feedwater heater unreliability.
4-8
Troubleshooting
Figure 4-2 shows a sketch of the drains cooler zone [11].
Figure 4-2
Drains Cooler Zone [11]
The partial-length, full-pass, integral drains cooler zones in horizontal feedwater heaters have
been involved in many of the material problems in both low- and high-pressure feedwater
heaters. In general, the basic design of an integral drains cooler and the associated drains cooler
system is not significantly affected by the choice of materials. The design criteria are generally
governed by pressure drop and flow velocities. However, some materials are more tolerant of
deviations from normal conditions than others.
Integral drains coolers are separate heat exchangers combined in the heater shell. As a separate
heat exchanger, the integral drains cooler must be isolated from the other zones. Because of the
pressure loss associated with the flow through the drains cooler zone, the pressure within the
zone is less than the pressure outside the zone. The differential pressure that exists requires that
shroud plates forming the exterior boundary of the zone be free from leaks and that the entrance
into the zone be sealed against the entrance of steam from the condensing zone.
Nearly all of the problems associated with integral drains coolers are the result of steam leakage
or generation of steam by flashing into the drains cooler zone. Entrainment of steam in the
flowing condensate results in two-phase flow that causes damage to the tubes at the zone
entrance, baffles, and other components.
4-9
Troubleshooting
Entrance points of the steam are through the inlet of the drains cooler zone, through the clearance
between the tube and tube holes in the end plate, and through defects (such as weld failures) in
the shroud.
Most of the steam entrainment is the result of the following phenomena:

• Inadequate water levels maintained in the heater – False water level indications can be
caused by locating the top and bottom level control connections in different pressure zones.
One of the connections could be plugged. Failure to monitor the actual drains cooler
operation on a regular basis can allow inadequate heater levels to occur. A heater that is not
horizontally level could also result in incorrect water levels in the heater.
• Inadequate antivortexing devices at the entrance to the drains cooler zone – Without adequate
protection at the entrance to the drains cooler zone, steam can become entrained with the
water and enter the zone.
• High-level drains connections are often taken from piping downstream of the shell
condensate drains outlet – These drains are routed to the condenser. During startup, there is
inadequate pressure differential between feedwater heaters to cascade drains, and the flow
should go to the condenser. This practice reduces the piping costs but is inappropriate.
Under these conditions, submergence of the drains cooler entrance may be inadequate, and
steam entrainment can occur. The high-level drains connections should be located on the
shell in the condensing zone.
• Inadequate end plate thickness in horizontal feedwater heaters with partial-length, full-pass
drains coolers – This can result in steam erosion of the drains cooler zone end plate and tubes
due to steam leakage through the clearance between the tube and the tube hole. A minimum
thickness should be used that is adequate to ensure sealing in the clearance between the end
plate tube hole and the tubes. The damage to the end plate can be severe. Erosion of the end
plate can contribute to tube vibration, and failure of stainless steel tubes has occurred.
• Shroud plate leakage can occur – This is infrequent and occurs primarily because of poor
welding. When the drains cooler zone is surrounded by steam, leakage in the shroud plate
can result in steam blowing into the drains cooler. The result often leads to instability of the
water level and erosion problems.
• Excessive drains velocities can cause tube vibration – In normal operating conditions, tube
vibration in the drains cooler zone is rare. The excessive velocity generally results from
abnormal operating conditions such as the bypassing of other feedwater heaters or operating
with large tube leaks. Excessive drains velocities can also occur when the gap between the
baffles and the shroud is too small. Oversized cascading drains systems and high-level drain
dumps connected to the drains cooler zone outlet permit excessive velocities.
• Flashing at the drains cooler zone entrance causes erosion – Flashing occurs as a result of
excessive pressure drop between the condensing zone water level and the bottom row of
tubes in the drains cooler zone. This pressure drop can be caused by poor zone entrance
designs or excessive flow from abnormal operating conditions. The result is erosion of the
tubes. This is more likely to occur in the lower pressure heaters where the saturation
temperature change with pressure is much greater.
4-10
Troubleshooting
4.2.3 Vent System
Most horizontal feedwater heater condensing zones are similarly designed; however, internal
venting designs vary greatly [11].
Key Technical Point

Inadequate venting can cause severe problems. At subatmospheric pressure,
the problems from inadequate venting show up as thermal performance
deficiencies and long-term corrosion in the feedwater heater. If the lack of
venting is not severe, the problem does not appear until a long-term
corrosion failure occurs.
No internal venting system works well if the external system is inadequate. Vents should not be
cascaded from one heater to another at lower pressure but should always discharge either to a
deaerator or condenser. Multiple vent connections from any heater should not be manifolded
upstream of the control orifices.
Inadequate venting of feedwater heaters has resulted in thermal performance deficiencies and
long-term corrosion problems. Most of the venting problems are a result of the following:
• Neglect to fully vent the feedwater heater during startup.
• Normal vents have been manifolded to common connections. This manifolding often results
in inadequate venting of some of the feedwater heaters unless pressure drops and vent orifice
sizing are adequately addressed.
• Separate vents from a heater must be provided with separate orifices. They must not be
manifolded upstream of a control orifice. Inadequate venting has occurred because it is
difficult to size orifices in manifolded piping from multiple vent connection feedwater
heaters.
• Isolation valves are often provided in venting systems. Isolation valves are needed only for
maintenance purposes and should be locked open in operation. It is not unusual for the
isolation valves to be closed during maintenance outages and accidentally be left closed
during startup. The locks should be under administrative control.
• In an attempt to improve thermal performance, the vent valves are throttled to prevent the
loss of steam from the feedwater heater. This is a poor operating practice. It often results in
inadequate venting that causes thermal performance deficiencies and can result in long-term
corrosion of the feedwater heater.
The vent flow should be controlled by a properly designed critical flow orifice and not by
valve control. If it is determined no orifice control was provided internally or externally, an
orifice should be added.
4-11
Troubleshooting
• Orifices used to regulate vent flow in older feedwater heater designs are sometimes internal
to the feedwater heater shell. This does not permit orifice resizing to correct a design
deficiency. Also, the internal orifices can become plugged and are difficult to find and
maintain.
• Startup and normal vents have not been positively identified to plant operations personnel to
ensure good operating practices. Startup vents should be closed during normal operation.
4.2.4 Level Control System
Failure to maintain appropriate condensate levels in feedwater heaters leads to the admission of
steam into a zone intended to pass only liquid. The presence of two-phase flow in the drains
cooler zone leads to many problems.
Key Technical Point

Maintaining the appropriate condensate levels in heaters with integral drains
cooler zones is critical to the reliability of the heaters.
A number of deficiencies have existed in level control design systems that have resulted in poor
level control [11]. These deficiencies include the following:
• Feedwater heaters are not set horizontally level. The controls may be set correctly, but the
water level is not uniform in the heater.
• Level control and alarm instruments are improperly set or placed in relation to the shell
during original installation. The accuracy of the level controller set point can be off as much
as 8–12 inches (203–305 mm) from the intended design level.
• Top and bottom standpipe connections to heaters have been located in different pressure
zones. This results in a standpipe level that is not representative of the feedwater level.
• Standpipe connections have been located adjacent to steam inlets. The velocity head flowing
by the connection has resulted in standpipe levels that are not representative of feedwater
levels.
• Standpipe connections have been placed too far from the drain connection in condensing-
only heaters and too far from drains cooler inlets in integral drains cooler heaters. Liquid
level throughout the length of horizontal heaters varies because of different pressure zones
and open channel flow losses.
4-12
Troubleshooting
• Standpipe connections have become plugged from debris that came from one of the
following sources:
– Inadequate fabrication and cleaning procedures during heater manufacture. This includes
failure to properly remove all mill scale by grit blasting the carbon steel parts before
installing them in the heater.
– Fitting and welding extraction lines and other connections to the heater in the field.
– Failure to ensure proper cleanliness of interconnected piping components, and
prefabricated subassemblies before installing them in interconnecting heater piping
systems.
– Corrosion products generated in the heater shell or brought there from the steam and/or
drains inlets.
• Control valve characteristics and drains system design that have not been properly integrated
lead to flashing ahead of the control valve.
• Drain piping conveying saturated condensate has not been properly integrated, leading to
flashing ahead of the control valve.
• Adequate provisions have not been made for operation with integral drains cooler
performance when the performance is poorer than design.
• The connection for “emergency” (high-level) and/or startup drain discharges from feedwater
heaters has sometimes been taken from the integral drains cooler outlet, rather than from the
condensing zone area of the heater shell. Such connections should always bypass the drains
cooler.
• Drain lines have not always been designed to be self-draining. Appropriate drains should be
installed to prevent water traps that can cause severe water hammer during startup.
• The location of control valves has not always allowed for dissipation of any jet effect at its
outlet before entering the receiving heater. Problems can also result from a location being too
far from the inlet to the receiving heater.
4-13
Troubleshooting
4.3 Charts
There are numerous troubleshooting charts available from many sources. This section shows
some of these charts with the corresponding reference number in brackets for further
information.
Table 4-1
Degraded Heater Performance Symptoms and Causes [20]
Symptoms Possible Causes
• Redundant instrument indication does not Instrument error

agree
Failed instrument
• Negative/abnormally high reading
• Increase in heater level Tube leak(s)
• Normal drains valve opened up and

emergency valve cycles
• Increase in terminal temperature difference
• Increase in tube bundle pressure drop Tube fouling/plugging
• Increase in shell pressure
• Decrease in heater temperature rise Tube-side pass partition leak
• Normal drain valve closes
• Decrease in shell pressure
• Level controller set wrong Low level in heater
• Decrease in terminal temperature difference
• Level controller set wrong High level in heater
• Insufficient temperature rise across heater Heater is air bound. Check the operating vents.
• Increase in drains cooler approach Damaged drains cooler
• Terminal temperature difference and drains

cooler approach less than design
4-14
Troubleshooting
Table 4-2
Troubleshooting Feedwater Heater Problems [8]
Problem Experienced Areas to Investigate Possible Solutions
• Temperature rise of Fouled heat transfer surfaces. Clean the tubes. Prevent oil or
feedwater gradually Deposits of scale or corrosion other contamination from getting
decreases. on the interior surfaces of the into the system. Check the water
tubes. chemistry for possible plating on
• Pressure drop across the inside of the tubes.
heater gradually
increases.
• Temperature rise of Air binding non-condensable Check for proper venting of the
feedwater is less than gases is accumulating in the heater. On heaters operating at
specified. steam space of the heater. vacuum, check for air leaks at the
Gland seals at the low- heater and pipe joints. Check the
• Temperature in shell-side pressure end of the turbine turbine gland seals.
condensate is lower than may be operating incorrectly.
specified.
• Vent lines are cold.
• Temperature rise of By-passing. Leak at partition Check gaskets and gasket

feedwater is less than plate in water channel allows contact surfaces for eroded
specified. water to bypass from one areas. Repair surfaces and
pass to the next without replace gasket. Check pass
• Pressure drop across the passing through the tubes. partition welds and repair.
heater decreases.
• Shell is flooding with Ruptured tube or leak Shut down the heater as quickly
condensate when the between the feedwater side as possible to prevent damage to
outlet control valve is fully and the steam space. other tubes or finished surfaces.
open. Repair the leak.
• Unstable condensate Control devices are not Repair the control devices, or
level. working properly or reduce the backpressure in the
backpressure in the drain line drain line.
• Erratic surging of level. is too high.
• Water hammer. Overloading, above-normal Check the flow rates,

temperatures, or flow rates temperatures, and pressure
• Vibration. are causing pulsations in conditions of entering steam and
connecting pipes. drains against the design
operating specifications. Check
the tube-side flow rate.
4-15
Troubleshooting
Table 4-3
Troubleshooting Guide [21]
Symptom Possible Cause Suggested Action
High-level excursion or Valving problem Inspect the heater drain valves for
significantly increased proper position and operation.
drain flow at a given unit
load Level controller malfunction Check/calibrate the level controls.
Inadequate pressure Confirm that there is an adequate

differential pressure differential between the
vessel being drained and the vessel
receiving the drains.
Two-phase flow in drain line Adjust the level in the heater to ensure
adequate subcooling of condensate.
Tube leaks Take the heater out of service. Isolate

the heater and perform an initial leak
check.
Deteriorated Extraction steam blockage Inspect the extraction valving to ensure

performance check valves, motor operated valves,
isolation valves, etc., are fully open.
Pass partition problem Measure the tube-side differential

pressure. If it is significantly lower than
expected at the current feedwater flow,
feedwater is bypassing the tube
bundle, and the heater should be
removed from service for pass partition
repairs.
Excessive condensate level Determine the level via a sightglass or

other suitable means. Excessive level
means the heat transfer surface is
ineffective. Adjust the level in the
heater to achieve optimum thermal
performance.
Excessive number of tubes Document the number of tubes that

plugged have been plugged during heater
repairs. Adjust the thermal
performance expectations based on
the percentage of tubes that are no
longer available for heat transfer.
Improper venting Inspect the vent piping and valves to

ensure that all vents are properly
connected and in service.
4-16
Troubleshooting
Table 4-4
Feedwater and Condensate Water System Diagnostics Guide [12]
Problem Timing Characteristics Causes Follow-up Action
High water Varies Indicated level on Broken heater Plug the tubes or repair
level gauge glass is high, tubes or drain the drain valves.
out of sight. valve problems
High TTD or Gradual TTD is above normal. Improper heater Adjust the heater level
DCA DCA is below normal. level controllers to bring the
level into the operating
band.
Following TTD is above normal. Improper venting Ensure that the startup
startup DCA is below normal. vents are closed and
the normal vents are
open.
Lost MWe Varies Increase in piping Valve seat Repair the valve.
temperature leakage past
downstream of alternate drain or
alternate drain or feedwater pump
feedwater pump recirculation valve
recirculation valve.
Table 4-5
Feedwater Heater Failure Mechanisms, Evidence and Causes [22]
Evidence Failure Mechanism Causes
• Thinning of the tube Erosion and corrosion • Excessive flow velocity

ends and longitudinal at the tube inlets
rounded grooves in the • Poor placement of feedwater inlet
tubes
• Washing away of tube-
to-tubesheet welds
• Elongated, smooth Impingement on the • Inlet nozzles too small
walled pits in the flow tube outside diameter
direction • Inadequate impingement protection
• Broken tubes • Insufficient escape area for the

incoming steam
• Hole in the impingement plate
• Broken impingement plate or broken
attachment
4-17
Troubleshooting
Table 4-5 (cont.)

• Erosion grooves Tubesheet erosion • Excessive inlet nozzle velocity

oriented in the direction
of flow • Poor inlet nozzle placement
• Wormholing at tube • Tube-to-tubesheet joint leaks

ends
• Drop in terminal Leakage through • Poor gasket performance
temperature difference pass partitions (embrittlement, etc.) in the bolted cover
joint
• Decline in tube side ∆P
• Damaged gasket seating surfaces
• Hole in the partition
• System transient (water hammer) bows
• Crack in the weld of the the cover plate and unseats the gasket
partition
• Poor heater fabrication resulting in
weld distortion of partition flange
straightness
• Irregular holes and Wormholing • Continuous leakage of feedwater
grooves in inside and through the tube-to-tubesheet joints
outside diameter of
tubes
• Irregular ligament Ligament cracking • Thermal shock
cracking
• Stress corrosion cracking from vent
• Tubes cracked or problems
corroded just behind the
tubesheets • Corrosion from areas of little or no flow
near the tubesheet
• Excessive pressure
• Cyclic fatigue from loading and
unloading.
• Harmonic tube vibration
• Cracks in tubes behind Tube end fatigue • Tube vibration
the tubesheet
• Tears from the weld root
into tubesheet welds,
tubes, and tubesheet
• Pitting, cracks, and Crevice corrosion • Crevices between tubes and holes
penetration of tubes
4-18
Troubleshooting
Table 4-5 (cont.)

• Cracking between Stress corrosion • Insufficient compressive stress in the

expanded and cracking expanded tube end
unexpanded parts of the
tube • Sensitivity of the tube material to
cracking in the chemical environment
• Cracking in the tube past
the shell-side face of the
tubesheet
• Tube ends below the Tube pullout • Excessive pressure
outer tubesheet face
• Control valve failure
• Leakage around
expanded tubes • Relieve valve failure
• Cracks in the welds of • Inadequate tubesheet joints

tubesheet joints • Opening inlet valves too quickly
• Cracking in tubesheet Tubesheet weld • Faulty joint design
welds cracking
• Poor welding technique
• Harmonic tube vibration
• Opening the inlet valves too quickly
• Twisting of ligaments Ligament distortion • Excessive driving force during tube
plugging
• Bowing and distortion of
the tubesheet
• Tube ends appear out of
round
• Pitting on the tube Erosion at the shell • Inadequate impingement protection
outside diameter near inlet
the inlet nozzle • Excessive flow conditions
• Tube failures near the • Insufficient escape area around the

inlet nozzle impingement plates
• Insufficient length from the inlet piping
to the inlet nozzle
• Tube leaks at baffle or Vibration • Excessive steam inlet velocity
support penetrations
• Excessive length between tube
• Leaks at U-bends supports
• Weld failures in welded • Inadequate support at the U-bend
only tubesheet joints
• Tube material change without a
support spacing change
• External vibration source
4-19
5
FAILURE MODES
This section contains information on failure data and failure mechanisms for nuclear feedwater
heaters.
5.1 Failure Data
A search was made for feedwater heater failure data in nuclear plants. Data were obtained from
the Institute of Nuclear Power Operations (INPO), the Operating Plant Experience Code
(OPEC), and the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). The following sections show the
data obtained from these sources.
5.1.1 Institute of Nuclear Power Operations
The Institute of Nuclear Power Operations (INPO) identifies and communicates lessons from
plant events so that utilities can take action to prevent similar events at their plants. Events are
screened and analyzed for significance, and those with generic applicability are disseminated to
the industry as Significant Event Evaluation Information Network (SEE-IN) documents. The
following are some applications that provide access to INPO and industry operating experience
information:
• The Plant Events Database contains industry event summaries prepared by INPO personnel
as part of the INPO event screening process. This information is used for focused searches on
event characteristics. INPO has recorded event summaries since January 1, 1991. Events that
are significant are further described as SEE-IN documents.
• Significant Event Evaluation Information Network (SEE-IN) documents consist of several
reports that communicate lessons learned from industry events. The reports include
Significant Operating Experience Reports (SOERs), Significant Event Reports (SERs),
Significant Event Notifications (SENs), and Operations and Maintenance Reminders
(O&MRs).
• The Nuclear Network Operating Experience Entries contains all operating experience (OE)
entries from the Plant Events Database.
• The Nuclear Plant Reliability Data System (NPRDS) contains information about the design
characteristics and performance of selected systems and components at nuclear plants. The
Edison Electric Institute (EEI) began development of the NPRDS in the early 1970s at the
request of the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Steering Committee. It was
intended to be a nuclear plant data collection system with the objective of providing
reliability data for safety-related and other important plant systems and components. NPRDS
5-1
Failure Modes
contains component failure data through 1996. Starting in 1997, the component failures were
reported through the Equipment Performance and Information Exchange (EPIX) database
managed by INPO.
5.1.1.1 Plant Events
From the Plant Events database, there were 29 incidents pertaining to the component feedwater
heater. Of these events:
• Seventeen events (59%) are about inspection and discovery of thinning in the shell near the
inlet nozzle area.
• Nine events (31%) involve tube leakage.
• Two events (7%) deal with manways and gaskets.
• One event (3%) is about partition plate repairs.
Table 5-1
Plant Events Database Information on Feedwater Heaters
Date Plant Type Event
04/08/01 PWR During a refueling outage, inspection of the 6A and 6B heater shells
revealed wall thinning in the inlet nozzle area.
03/27/01 BWR During a maintenance outage, extensive damage to the 6th point
feedwater heater was found, and damaged tubes were plugged.
09/29/00 BWR A manual shutdown occurred from tube leaks in the 5th stage feedwater
heater that exceeded the heater drain valve capacity.
09/27/00 PWR During a refueling outage, inspections revealed significant erosion on
the 6A and 6B feedwater heaters near the steam inlet nozzles.
09/09/00 PWR Ultrasonic testing revealed shell wall thinning in the 5th low-pressure
and 6th high-pressure feedwater heaters, and the thinning was repaired.
05/14/00 BWR The unit was removed from service four days later because of 18 tube
leaks in the B2 feedwater heater.
04/25/00 PWR During a refueling outage, shell thinning was found on the 1st and 2nd
point feedwater heaters in the area of the inlet nozzles.
04/11/00 BWR During a refueling outage, 10 tube plugs and a tube plugging device
from the 4A heater were found in the steam jet air ejector (SJAE) base.
The wrong size plugs were used.
04/01/00 BWR During a refueling outage, thinning of shells was found on the 3A, 3B,
and 3C feedwater heaters, and the shells were repaired. Also, tube
support and tie rod spacer tubes were found damaged, and several
outer rows of unsupported tubes were plugged.
03/16/00 BWR During a refueling outage, 17 tubes in the upper tubesheet of the first
point heater were missing plugs, and five tubes were incorrectly
plugged.
5-2
Failure Modes
Table 5-1 (cont.)

Date Plant Type Event
03/13/00 BWR Examinations of feedwater heaters revealed significant shell wall

thinning in large areas of each 3rd point heater and in the inlet nozzles
for all 5th point heaters.
03/09/00 BWR During ultrasonic inspections of the A-4 and B-4 heater shells, thinning
was found from flow-accelerated corrosion.
02/02/00 BWR A manway on the 4A feedwater heater was leaking from a fatigued seal
weld at the diaphragm.
01/27/00 BWR Ultrasonic inspections on the three high-pressure feedwater heater

shells showed wall thinning in the area of the inlet nozzles. Two shells
were repaired.
01/11/00 BWR During a refueling outage, ultrasonic testing showed thinning in areas
adjacent to and below the extraction steam inlet nozzles in two high-
intermediate-pressure feedwater heater shells.
12/18/99 PWR A high liquid level in the 1C feedwater heater necessitated a load
reduction on 12/27/99, and 13 tubes were plugged.
11/15/99 PWR During a refueling outage, the 5-1 and 5-2 high-pressure feedwater
heaters were tested and found to have shell thinning.
11/11/99 PWR During a refueling outage, the #4 and 5 feedwater heater shells were
found with severe degradation near the impingement plate for the
steam inlet nozzle.
11/04/99 BWR During a refueling outage, damaged gaskets for the manway covers on
three of the high-pressure feedwater heaters were found, with missing
pieces in the heater.
09/24/99 PWR During a refueling outage, all three of the #5 stage feedwater heaters
had significant wall thinning near the steam inlet nozzles.
07/23/99 PWR During a refueling outage, nine feedwater heater shells were inspected.
The #2-2A shell had thinning and bands of degradation.
05/20/99 PWR During a refueling outage, the 14B feedwater heater shell thickness
was found to be less than minimum wall thickness near the
impingement plate.
05/14/99 PWR Manual reactor scram occurred due to rupture of the 4B feedwater
heater from shell thinning.
01/18/99 BWR Power reduction from steam leak in the 3C feedwater heater shell at
the inlet nozzle area. Four other feedwater heaters were inspected
during the refueling outage in March 1999, and areas were patched in
the 3A and 3B heaters.
01/15/99 PWR Load reduction occurred because of high water level in 2A feedwater
heater. Eleven tubes were plugged.
5-3
Failure Modes
Table 5-1 (cont.)

07/22/97 BWR Three pin-hole leaks were found in the vent line for the E-13A
feedwater heater caused by flow-accelerated corrosion and water drop
impingement from a leaking tube.
03/24/97 PWR Between 3/24/97 and 10/27/97, there were six events (five load
reductions) for tube leak plugging on the #2 low-pressure heaters.
11/05/96 BWR During inspection of the 5A low-pressure feedwater heater, 35 of 40

nuts were missing from the partition plates inside the heater. The brass
nuts were replaced with stainless steel nuts.
12/13/95 PWR Unit shutdown occurred because of a leak in the inlet nozzle to the
#26A feedwater heater. Examination of other heaters showed one other
nozzle with thinning.
5.1.1.1.1 Personnel Safety Events
There were three events that dealt with safety incidents associated with feedwater heaters. A
brief summary of these events is as follows:
• From Plant Event #443-980611-2 on 06/11/98, a PWR unit was in hot standby and cooling
down for a maintenance outage. A maintenance crew removed the 18-inch (457-mm)
diameter, pressure-retaining manway cover from a feedwater heater. The heater had not yet
been isolated, and condensate was still flowing through the tubes. The condensate system
pressure and temperature were approximately 500 psig (3.5 MPa) and 90°F (32°C).
Beneath the manway cover, the opening was sealed by a ¼ inch (6 mm) thick, steel plate
diaphragm welded onto the manway flange. This diaphragm remained intact when the
manway cover was removed; however, it deformed outward from the system pressure. The
abnormal condition was immediately identified by the maintenance crew, and all personnel
immediately left the vicinity. Danger tape and a safety watch were put in place until the
heater could be isolated and depressurized. Maintenance department personnel were briefed
on this event and its significance.
Several causes contributed to this event, including the following:

– There was a general lack of knowledge of the design function of the feedwater heater
diaphragm. Neither the work control supervisor nor the maintenance supervisor realized
that the diaphragm was a seal, not a pressure-retaining part.
– A pre-job briefing was not performed because the work crew had conducted a pre-job
briefing and performed an identical job on an adjacent heater the previous day with the
plant at 90% power. However, that heater had been tagged out and isolated before the
manway cover was removed.
– The procedure for installation and removal of the manway did not contain adequate
precautions on expected heater conditions, such as the heater being pressurized or under a
vacuum. The procedure did not define the function of the diaphragm nor caution against
5-4
Failure Modes
removal of the manway cover unless proper system conditions for removal had been
established.
• From Plant Event #389-000629-1 on 6/29/00 at a PWR unit, an instrument & control
technician was enveloped in a cloud of ammonia, hydrazine, and dimethylamine while
attempting to calibrate a pressure gauge on a feedwater heater. The worker later experienced
nausea and breathing difficulties and was taken to a hospital for treatment.
The technician was performing an 18-month calibration on 10 pressure gauges. This

calibration was normally performed during outages but was changed to on-line calibration
several years ago. The pressure gauges were isolated under a single clearance by closing and
tagging the root valves. When the technician loosened a fitting on the pressure gauge for the
4B feedwater heater to vent off any trapped gases, the liquid trapped in the loop seal came
out and splashed onto the hot shell of the feedwater heater. The liquid flashed to vapor, and
the technician inhaled the fumes. The technician was on a ladder in a confined area and was
not able to quickly reach the ground.
After completing the job, the technician returned to the shop where he began experiencing
nausea and shortness of breath. The ammonia and hydrazine he inhaled had scavenged the
oxygen from his lungs. The technician was administered oxygen at the site medical facility
and returned to work; however, he complained of headaches and was transported to the
hospital. The station attributed this event to a leaking root valve. The undetected leakage
forced out the liquid in the loop seal when the technician loosened the swagelok fitting.
A contributing cause was the technician’s lack of respiratory protection. The work order
contained a caution statement regarding the possible presence of ammonia and hydrazine.
Since the technicians calibrated 5 of 10 gauges without respirators, they evidently did not
understand the risk involved. As a corrective action, the station deleted the calibration task
from the preventive maintenance list and will only calibrate the pressure gauges on an as-
needed basis. A safety bulletin was issued to all employees, and the chemistry department
developed a training briefing for all site work groups on secondary plant chemicals
• From Plant Event #482-000926-1 on 09/26/00 at a PWR unit, the unit was at approximately
90% load and coasting down for a refueling outage. A mechanic received first and second
degree burns to his shoulders, arms, neck, portions of the rib cage, and back from hot water.
This occurred while removing tapered carbon steel plugs and staking material from tubes in
the 1B low-pressure feedwater heater. Work was being performed to allow for tube sleeving.
After the unit entered the refueling outage, additional plug removal was performed on the 2B
low-pressure feedwater heater on 10/3/00. A number of plugs with substantial pressure
behind them shot out while being removed, creating a potential personnel hazard. One of
these plugs shot out with enough energy to bend a 3/4-inch (19-mm) diameter carbon steel
staking rod, which was attached to it, around the curvature of the heater’s hemi-head.
An engineering evaluation determined that pressure from the condensate system

(approximately 500 psi) (3.5 MPa) had seeped past the tapered carbon steel tube plugs that
had been installed in the 304 stainless steel tubes. If the plugged tube was still intact (that is,
5-5
Failure Modes
it did not have a through-wall breach), the 500 psi (3.5 MPa) pressure could become trapped
within the tube, creating a serious safety hazard to maintenance workers. During shutdown in
the low-pressure heaters, approximately 200 psia (1.4 MPa) could remain trapped in the
tubes.
To prevent similar safety concerns, protection plates were fabricated and anchored into the
tubesheet to absorb the impact of ejecting plugs. The protection plates are shown in
Figure 5-1.
Figure 5-1
Plug Removal Protection Plates [23]

There are three documented safety incidents with feedwater heaters. The
incidents involved removing a manway cover before the heater was isolated,
liquid flashing to a vapor when the pressure gauge fitting was loosened, and
tube plugs shooting out from condensate pressure that seeped behind the
plugs.
5.1.1.2 Significant Event Evaluation Information Network
There were two Significant Event Evaluation Information Network (SEE-IN) documents given
for the feedwater heaters. The first was a Significant Event Notification (SEN) and the second
was an Operations and Maintenance Reminder (O&MR).
From SEN 199 – Rev. 1, Feedwater Heater Shell Rupture dated 7/14/99:
On 5/14/99, with a PWR unit operating at 100% reactor power, the shell of feedwater heater 4B
ruptured, blowing insulation and debris into the turbine building. Control room operators, alerted
by the noise and a 5-megawatt decrease in main generator load, manually scrammed the reactor.
There were no personnel injuries.
5-6
Failure Modes
The rupture was a fish-mouth opening, 27 inches (69 cm) long, with a maximum width of
7/8 inch (22 mm). Station personnel inspected the heater and determined that the vessel wall
thickness had decreased from 0.500 to 0.050 inches (13 to 1.3 mm) because of erosion.
A subsequent inspection of the 4A feedwater heater exhibited the same wear pattern; with as
little as 0.050 inches (1.3 mm) wall thickness in some areas. The 4A and 4B heaters on Unit 2
were also inspected but did not show the same signs of erosion as the Unit 1 heaters. The 4A and
4B heaters on Unit 1 had been in service for approximately 15 years. See Figures 5-2 and 5-3 for
pictures of the ruptured heater.
Figure 5-2
Damage to the 4B Feedwater Heater Lagging and Adjacent Piping
Figure 5-3
Detailed View of Rupture of 4B Feedwater Heater
5-7
Failure Modes
From O&MR 431 – Secondary Plant Pressure Vessel Wall Thinning, dated March 14,2000:
In 1999, INPO received nine reports of wall thinning in feedwater heater shells. Two leaks and a
rupture were reported in addition to different degrees of wear in the other six reports. Several of
the reports indicated areas of wall thickness less than the minimum allowed by code with some
areas up to 10 times less than the original shell thickness. Other reports of feedwater heater shell
thinning extend back to the 1980s.
5.1.1.2.1 CHECWORKSTM Users Group Position Paper
In O&MR 431, reference is made to a position paper, Recommendations for Inspecting

Feedwater Heater Shells for Possible Flow-Accelerated Corrosion Damage [24], issued by the
industry CHECWORKSTM Users Group (CHUG) in a collaborative effort with EPRI. This is
position paper #4 dated February 2000.
The recommendations from this paper on prioritizing heaters for inspection are as follows:
• Boiling water reactor (BWR) plants
Key Technical Point

For BWR plants, experience has found that the most damaged heaters from
flow-accelerated corrosion operate around 300°F (149°C). They are typically
the #3 or #2 heaters in the plant. (The #1 heater would be the highest
pressure feedwater heater, the #2 the second highest pressure heater, and so
on.)
The entering extraction steam is most likely wet. For initial inspections, this experience can
be used to select two or three heaters out of the #1 through the #3 or #4 heaters, depending on
the plant design. If all trains have a similar steam quality, then only one in each set of parallel
heaters needs to be inspected initially. To further rank heaters considering plant operating
data, the following high risk factors should be considered:
– Years in service
– Operating temperature near 300°F (149°C)
– Wet extraction steam (for example, steam quality < 96%)
– Low oxygen level (especially < 7 ppb in the water phase)
– High extraction steam velocity
– Shell material of carbon steel (for example, SA-285C, SA-515-70, SA-516-70, etc.)
CHECWORKS flow-accelerated corrosion analysis results of the associated extraction

lines provide most of this data. However, steam velocity and quality in a heater may be
5-8
Failure Modes
different from entering extraction steam. Design details of heater internals are also important
and are discussed below. At this time, the limited plant data available do not allow
development of an empirical correlation that would include all the operating and design
factors and quantitatively rank flow-accelerated corrosion susceptibility of the feedwater
heaters.
Another method that can be used to help prioritize the heaters for inspection would be to
consider the relative wear of the inlet piping. However, this method can be used only if the
piping and heaters being compared have the same material content (that is, chromium,
copper, and molybdenum).
• Pressurized water reactor (PWR) plants
Key Technical Point

For PWR plants, the most damaged heaters from flow-accelerated corrosion
seem to have entering extraction steam that is wet (steam quality < 96%) and
above 300°F (149°C). They are most likely the #2 heaters. (The #1 heater
would be the highest pressure feedwater heater, the #2 the second highest
pressure heater, and so on.)
Historically, extraction steam piping upstream of these heaters also has high flow-accelerated
corrosion wear rates. For initial inspections, one can pick two or three heaters out of the #1
through the #3 or the #4 heaters, depending on plant design. If all trains have a similar steam
quality, then only one in each set of parallel heaters needs to be inspected initially. For PWR
plants, high risk factors are:
– Years in service
– Operating temperature above 300°F (149°C)
– Wet extraction steam (for example, steam quality < 96%)
– Low hot pH (for example, a hot pH < 6.3)
– Hydrazine level (especially from 50 to 200 ppb in the water phase)
– High steam velocity
– Shell material of carbon steel (for example, SA-285C, SA-515-70, SA-516-70, etc.)
Another method that can be used to help prioritize the heaters for inspection would be to
consider the relative wear of the inlet piping. However, this method can be used only if the
piping and heaters being compared have the same material content (that is, chromium,
copper, and molybdenum).
5-9
Failure Modes
• Heater design considerations
Design details of the heater internals also affect the rate of shell thinning. Typically, there
is an impingement plate near the steam inlet for protecting the tube bundles from direct
impact of the entering steam. The steam impingement plate is normally placed at least a D/4
(D = diameter of inlet nozzle) distance away from the inside of the shell. A reduced clearance
increases the steam flow velocity, turbulence, and flow-accelerated corrosion rate.
Heaters with a flat impingement plate tend to be more susceptible than heaters with a curved
impingement plate. Sometimes, there is a stainless steel liner inside the shell adjacent to the
steam inlet to provide flow-accelerated corrosion protection. Shell thinning often occurs
beyond a stainless steel liner that is too small as compared to the impingement plate or steam
nozzle geometry. Tube support baffles or tube support plate ears, if located very close to the
shell, can cause bypass flows and localized wear inside the shell near the baffles or ears.
Also, some heater designs may have runners and stay bars running along the length of the
heater. If these are located very close to the shell, they can create high turbulence near the
shell, creating a localized wear area.
Improper maintenance and operations can also cause shell thinning. Tube bundles that are not
well maintained can leak and cause impingement damage and secondary failures of the shell.
Improper operations of heaters, such as flashing at the inlet from a cascading drain or
inadequate venting or liquid level in the heater shell, can also cause unexpected thinning of
the shell near the drain inlet or outlet nozzle.
• Additional high risk factors
Additional high risk factors are summarized below. These factors can be used as a reference
for inspection selection considerations.
– Flat (versus curved) impingement plate
– Impingement plate-to-shell inside diameter clearance < D/4 (where D = extraction steam
inlet/outlet diameter)
– Heater internals in close proximity to inside heater shell
– Previous flow-accelerated corrosion wear on heater nozzles
– Components in upstream piping replaced due to flow-accelerated corrosion wear
– Inlet piping design directs moisture flow toward one side preferentially
– Flow-accelerated corrosion degradation on feedwater heaters in sister trains and/or in the
same train
– Improper maintenance and operations in the past
5-10
Failure Modes
5.1.1.3 Operating Experience
On 04/14/00 Operating Experience (OE) 10957, Additional Erosion Identified During

Replacement of Feedwater Heater Shell Section at a PWR Unit, was issued with the following
information:
With the unit shut down for maintenance, additional high-pressure feedwater heater shell
erosion not identified during initial testing was discovered during heater repair work. When
the shell section was removed, additional inspection revealed erosion in the vicinity of the
runners that was not identified during the original pulsed eddy current testing. Stay bars and
runners attached to the tube bundle are used to assist in moving the tube bundle in and out of
the shell. These runners project outward at various locations along the bundle to prevent
damage to the tube bundle during movement. Available drawings of the feedwater heater
internals did not clearly identify carbon steel runners in the heater.
Once the shell section was removed from the heater, the ends of the four runners were visible
inside the heater shell. Two runners were near the extraction steam inlet line and the other
two runners are near the heater drain inlet line. This was located 36 inches from the
extraction line. A visual inspection of the inside of the removed shell section revealed
erosion present in the vicinity of the ends of the runners nearest the extraction steam inlet.
This additional erosion was not identified through the original testing because the presence of
the carbon steel runner affected the signal being processed by the pulsed eddy current
equipment. The potential for false signals in the presence of nearby heavy metal objects had
been previously discussed with testing personnel. Available drawings of the feedwater heater
internals did not clearly indicate the presence of these runners.
5.1.1.4 Nuclear Plant Reliability Data System/Equipment Performance and

Information Exchange
A search was made in the Nuclear Plant Reliability Data System (NPRDS) and Equipment
Performance and Information Exchange (EPIX) databases for failure records of the feedwater
heater shells and internal components. A total of 166 records were found in the NPRDS database
covering the time period of November 1976 to October 1996. These records were divided into
repairs for:
• Tube leakage – 144 records (87%)
• Manway cover – 11 records (6%)
• Partition plate – 4 records (2%)
• Diaphragm – 3 records (2%)
• Outlet nozzle – 2 records (1%)
• Inspection port – 1 record (<1%)
• Impingement baffle – 1 record (<1%)
5-11
Failure Modes
A graph of the results is shown in Figure 5-4.
Figure 5-4
Nuclear Plant Reliability Data System Failure Records
The EPIX database contains failure records from 1997 to the present. These records include
more information on the device failure causes and the corresponding lost energy. For the records
reported for the feedwater heater shell and internal components, there were five incidents of tube
leaks. The total power lost for these five incidents is 102,743 megawatt-hours (MWH). A listing
of these records is shown in Table 5-2.
Table 5-2
Equipment Performance and Information Exchange Failure Records
Date Plant Type Description MWH Lost
01/25/01 PWR Tube leak in high pressure 1-1B feedwater heater. 12,341
10/10/00 BWR Tube leak in 12A low pressure feedwater heater. 55,923
07/10/99 BWR Tube leak in 5A feedwater heater. 14,552
12/27/98 PWR Tube leak in 25B feedwater heater. 0
10/06/98 BWR Tube leak in 4B feedwater heater. 19,927
5-12
Failure Modes
5.1.2 Operating Plant Experience Code
Failure event data were obtained from the Operating Plant Experience Code (OPEC). Table 5-3
lists the events from January 1999 through December 2000. For the two years, there were a total
of 34 events associated with maintenance of the feedwater heater shell or internal components.
Of these 34 events, 14 events (41%) were specifically listed as tube leaks.
Table 5-3
Operating Plant Experience Code Data
Date Plant Description

Type
11/20/00 BWR Load reduction to 90% for feedwater heater maintenance
10/16/00 BWR Load reduction to 50% for low-pressure heater repairs
10/09/00 BWR Load reduction to 70% for feedwater heater isolation
09/30/00 BWR Forced outage from tube leak in the 5th stage feedwater heater
09/28/00 PWR Load reduction to 90% for 13C feedwater heater repairs
09/07/00 BWR Load reduction to 19% to troubleshoot water hammer and pressurization events
in the B feedwater heater string
08/23/00 BWR Load reduction to 68% for tube leak repairs in 2B feedwater heater
06/22/00 PWR Load reduction to 90% for 13C feedwater heater repairs
06/16/00 PWR Load reduction for 3A and 3B feedwater heater maintenance
06/04/00 BWR Load reduction for feedwater heater work
05/19/00 BWR Load reduction for tube leak repairs in 2B feedwater heater
05/16/00 BWR Load reduction for tube leak repairs in 2B feedwater heater
05/12/00 PWR Load reduction to 98% for #26B feedwater heater repairs
04/29/00 BWR Load reduction to 15% to repair steam leaks on the 4th stage feedwater heaters
04/17/00 BWR Load reduction for 125 feedwater heater repairs
04/14/00 PWR Load reduction to 50% for #25 feedwater heater repairs
04/01/00 BWR Load reduction to 86% for A feedwater heater string maintenance
03/10/00 BWR Load reduction for C feedwater heater maintenance
12/27/99 PWR Scheduled shutdown to repair 1C feedwater tube leakage
12/20/99 PWR Load reduction to 95% to repair 1C feedwater tube leak
07/09/99 PWR Load reduction to 87% to repair 25B feedwater tube leaks
06/23/99 PWR Load reduction to 90% for feedwater heater maintenance
06/16/99 BWR Load reduction to 75% to repair 3A feedwater heater tube leaks
05/29/99 PWR Load reduction to 86% to repair 25C feedwater tube leaks
05/28/99 PWR Load reduction to 92% to repair 1A low-pressure heater tube leaks
05/14/99 BWR Load reduction to 75% to repair a tube leak on C feedwater heater
05/14/99 PWR Forced outage from rupture of #4B feedwater heater
04/16/99 BWR Load reduction to 30% for C high-pressure feedwater maintenance
04/21/99 PWR Load reduction to 92% to plug tubes in 32A low-pressure feedwater heater
01/30/99 BWR Load reduction to 70% to repair a tube leak on C feedwater heater
01/22/99 BWR Load reduction to 37% to repair a shell leak on 3C feedwater heater
01/15/99 PWR Load reduction to 65% to repair 2A low-pressure feedwater heater tube leaks
5-13
Failure Modes
5.1.3 Nuclear Regulatory Commission
The Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) has the following information:

• Licensee Event Reports (LERs) database contains event information from the NRC reporting
system. This database can be searched for plant events that have occurred since 1984.
• Bulletins, Generic Letters, and Information Notices are documents issued to the nuclear
plants.
5.1.3.1 Licensee Event Reports
Of the seven events found for the feedwater heater and internal components, five events were
caused by tube leaks, one event by relief valve failure, and one event by shell rupture. Table 5-4
contains a listing of these reports.
Table 5-4
Licensee Event Reports for Feedwater Heaters
Date Plant Type Description
05/25/99 PWR Manual reactor trip from a steam leak in the turbine building caused by
the 1A feedwater heater shell relief valve lifting from improper torquing of
the relief valve flange studs.
05/14/99 PWR Manual reactor trip due to a steam leak from the rupture of the shell side
of the 4B feedwater heater. Thinning of the inlet nozzle deflector plates
from steam impingement and flow-accelerated corrosion caused the
heater rupture.
01/05/95 BWR Manual scram due to high water levels from improper removal of the 5B
LP heater from service to plug tube leaks.
05/30/89 PWR Manual actuation of emergency feedwater pump caused by E1A

feedwater heater tube leaks and a leaking startup control valve.
11/28/84 PWR Reactor was tripped to protect the turbine from water intrusion from 5A
feedwater heater due to a tube leak.
05/05/84 PWR Automatic turbine trip from loss of normal feedwater from a high water
level in 5B feedwater heater caused by leaking tubes.
04/18/84 PWR Reactor trip as a result of a turbine trip on high feedwater heater level in
6A feedwater heater caused by one leaking tube and 31 leaking tube
plugs.
5-14
Failure Modes
5.1.3.2 Bulletins and Information Notices
NRC Information Notice 99-19, Rupture of the Shell Side of a Feedwater Heater at a PWR unit,
was issued on 06/23/99 to alert all nuclear plant operators. A description of the event is as
follows:
On May 14, 1999, a PWR unit was manually tripped from full load because of a steam leak
from the 4B feedwater heater. The steam leak resulted when the shell side of the feedwater
heater ruptured. No one was injured during this event because no personnel were in the
vicinity of the ruptured heater. The fish-mouth rupture was approximately 27 inches (69 cm)
long and three quarters of an inch (19 mm) wide at the widest point. The rupture was located
adjacent to the extraction steam pipe inlet. (See Figures 5-2 and 5-3 in this section for a
picture of the rupture.)
This feedwater heater was a high-pressure, horizontal, shell and U-tube heat exchanger. The
heater consists of a hemispherical channel head welded to the tubesheet. The tubesheet is
then welded to the shell. The heater that failed was manufactured by Struthers Wells, Inc. and
installed in 1984. The heater had operated for 97,000 hours. The channel head of the heater
contains feedwater inlet and outlet nozzles. Extraction steam enters through the side of the
shell, where it is deflected by a stainless steel diffuser plate directly under the extraction
steam inlet nozzle. The purpose of the diffuser plate is to protect the heater tube bundle from
the direct impact of the extraction steam. The source of the extraction steam is the discharge
of the high pressure turbine. The moisture/steam mixture from the high-pressure turbine
passes through a pre-separator tank and then into the feedwater heater. The plant’s
experience has been that the pre-separator tank has not been entirely effective in removing all
moisture from the extraction steam.
When the extraction steam enters the feedwater heater, the steam is deflected by the
diffuser plate. The deflected steam impinges on the carbon steel shell of the feedwater heater
adjacent to the extraction steam inlet nozzle. The area of steam impingement is the area
where the rupture occurred. The thickness of the heater wall in the area of the rupture was
determined to be as little as 0.05 inches (1.3 mm) where the nominal wall thickness should be
0.50 inches (13 mm). The degraded area extended approximately 4 feet (1.22 m) along the
length of the feedwater heater.
The plant cut out the degraded section of the feedwater heater and replaced the sections with
a 0.625-inch (16-mm) thick carbon steel plate. The plant also removed the six tube bundle
guide bars in an attempt to reduce the turbulent flow that may have contributed to the wall
thinning.
Similar incidents have occurred at three plants. On 03/07/83, a steam leak from the shell of
the 3C3 low-pressure feedwater heater near the extraction inlet nozzle was found on a BWR
unit. The cause of the leak was attributed to erosion of the heater shell by deflected extraction
steam.
5-15
Failure Modes
Two holes were found in one of the low-pressure feedwater heaters at a BWR unit. The size
of the holes was 0.50 (13 mm) by 1 inch (25 mm) and 1 inch (25 mm) in diameter. The holes
were in the heater wall opposite the extraction steam inlet.
A steam leak was found on the Unit 2 3C feedwater heater of a BWR unit. The rupture was
approximately 0.50 inch (13 mm) by 1.5 inches (38 mm) and was located 90 degrees from
the extraction steam inlet pipe.
The plants in these three events did not have an inspection program in place for examining
the thickness of the walls of the feedwater heaters. No specific action or written response was
required from this notice.
5.2 Failure Mechanisms
This section covers the common failure mechanisms for nuclear feedwater heaters:
• Corrosion
• Erosion
• Vibration
5.2.1 General Corrosion
General corrosion [7] is the uniform loss of the metal surface caused by a chemical or
electrochemical reaction. An average corrosion rate can be established by measurement in
thousandths of an inch (0.001 inch = 25 µm) per year, and the metal life expectancy can be
predicted.
This form of corrosion is responsible for the greatest destruction of metal by weight, but it is not
as insidious as other types that lack uniformity and predictability. General corrosion attacks are
the most evident in carbon steel, but they also occur to a lesser degree in non-ferrous metals and
stainless steels.
Other forms of corrosion discussed in this section are:

• Galvanic corrosion
• Crevice corrosion
• Pitting corrosion
• Intergranular corrosion
• Stress corrosion
• Flow-accelerated corrosion
5-16
Failure Modes
5.2.1.1 Galvanic Corrosion
This form of corrosion occurs from a potential difference between two dissimilar metals. The
farther apart the metals are in the galvanic series, the greater the potential generated and the
greater the corrosion effect. A graph showing the corrosion potential for heater materials is
shown in Figure 5-5.
Figure 5-5
Potential Corrosion for Heater Materials [25]
5-17
Failure Modes
5.2.1.2 Crevice Corrosion
A localized corrosion attack begins in crevices, fissures, or other confined mechanical interfaces
where there exist differences in oxygen concentration in the stagnant zone. The overall
electrochemical reaction involves the dissolution of metal and the reduction of oxygen to
hydroxyl.
Crevice corrosion attack occurs in many media, although it is most intense in halogen
environments. It does require a long incubation period to develop. When the corrosion starts, it
proceeds at a rapid rate.
Key Technical Point

Stainless steels are particularly susceptible to crevice corrosion. Crevice
corrosion often starts at the back of a tube joint weld where the manufacturer
did not expand the tube into the tubesheet after welding.
5.2.1.3 Pitting Corrosion
Pitting corrosion is a unique type of anodic reaction. It is one of the most destructive forms of
corrosion attack. It is extremely localized and produces destruction of metal by piercing. Most
pits develop and grow downward from horizontal surfaces in the direction of gravity. Fewer pits
develop on vertical surfaces. Rarely do the pits grow upward, opposing gravity.
Similar to crevice corrosion, pitting requires a long incubation period to develop. Once started,
the pit penetrates the metal at a very rapid rate. Low fluid velocities and/or stagnation are
conditions associated with pits. Stainless steel alloys are more susceptible to pitting corrosion
than are other metals.
Typically, pitting of austenitic stainless steel tubes occurs by a concentration of chloride ions
under deposits or within crevices. Chloride ion-induced pitting of austenitic stainless steels is an
infrequent event. When pitting does occur, it is generally caused by feedwater contamination
produced by condenser tube leaks.
Key Technical Point

Since seawater contains substantial chlorides (approximately 19,000 ppm),
seawater-cooled plants are more prone than freshwater-cooled plants to
experience pitting in austenitic stainless steel tube materials.
5-18
Failure Modes
5.2.1.4 Intergranular Corrosion
Localized attack at and adjacent to the grain boundaries in a metal with relatively little corrosion
of the grains is known as intergranular corrosion. The result is disintegration of the alloy and/or
loss of strength. Common forms of intergranular corrosion attacks are sensitization of stainless
steels and exfoliation of copper nickel alloys.
Sensitization of stainless steel occurs when the alloy is heated or cooled slowly through the
temperature range of 900–1500º F (482–816ºC). The chromium rich carbide in this temperature
range precipitates to a degree directly related to the temperature and the duration of exposure.
The precipitation results in the depletion of chromium near the grain boundary. The chromium-
depleted zone deteriorates because it does not contain sufficient corrosion resistance to attacks in
many environments. This sensitization creates miniature galvanic cells that further enhance
attack.
Key Technical Point

Exfoliation is a special form of intergranular corrosion attack that is
characterized by the elongated grain attack on a plane parallel to the rolled or
extruded surface. This results in a characteristic delamination or peeling of
the metal strata. Susceptible alloys other than aluminum and magnesium are
the 70/30 and the 80/20 copper nickel alloys. The 90/10 copper-nickel alloy
is immune.
Another form of intergranular corrosion attack is known as weld decay. This corrosion failure
takes place in or near the heat-affected zone where sensitization occurred.
5.2.1.5 Stress Corrosion
Stress corrosion can be defined as a catastrophic metal failure promoted by the interaction of
tensile stresses, time, and the environment. Chloride stress corrosion is of particular concern in
units with austenitic stainless steels. These steels are susceptible to cracking when under stress in
the presence of high temperature, oxygen, and chlorides.
The chloride ion is the most prevalent corrodent capable of producing stress corrosion in
stainless steels. Other environmentally critical stress corrosion factors are feedwater temperature,
conductivity, pH, and dissolved oxygen concentration. Typically, the feedwater temperature is
higher than the temperature required to induce stress corrosion of stainless steels. All other
corrosively significant factors are generally controlled below the stress corrosion threshold
limits.
5-19
Failure Modes
Key Technical Point

Stress corrosion failures of Monel 400 heater tubing have occurred in a few
applications, primarily at the U-bend locations. The susceptibility to stress
corrosion can be eliminated by properly heat treating the U-bends to
sufficiently relieve the residual stress produced by tube bending.
5.2.1.6 Flow-Accelerated Corrosion
Flow-accelerated corrosion (FAC) is a process that dissolves the normally protective oxide layer
on carbon or low-alloy steel into a stream of flowing water or a water-steam mixture. The oxide
layer becomes thinner and less protective, and the corrosion rate increases. Eventually, a steady
state is reached where the corrosion and dissolution rates are equal, and stable corrosion rates are
maintained.
Damage caused by flow-accelerated corrosion can be characterized as a general reduction of wall

thickness rather than a local attack, such as pitting or cracking. A thinned component will
typically fail because of overstress from operating pressure or abrupt changes in conditions such
as water hammer, start-up loading, etc.
Key Technical Point

For feedwater heaters, thinning from FAC has been detected on the shells.
See Section 5.1 for more information on the discovery of shell thinning for
the feedwater heaters. The recommended inspections for shell thinning
detection are given in Section 5.2.1.6.1.
5.2.1.6.1 Recommended Inspections for Shell Thinning
As a result of the May 1999 heater shell failure from FAC on a PWR unit [24], the following are
given as inspection recommendations:
• Extraction Steam Inlet Nozzle
The entire extraction steam inlet nozzle should be inspected if it is not included in the
secondary piping inspection program. Each side of the weld between the steam inlet nozzle
and the heater shell should also be inspected. These locations are important, although it is
usually difficult to estimate the amount of measured wear at and near the weld and in the
nozzle.
5-20
Failure Modes
• Heater Shell
The amount of the heater shell that should be inspected depends on the size of the steam
impingement plate and, if it exists, the stainless steel shell liner. In the longitudinal direction
of the heater, the inspection should cover at least one nozzle diameter distance beyond the
impingement plate on both sides of the steam inlet. See Figure 5-6 for a picture of the
recommended coverage.
Figure 5-6
Recommended Heater Coverage, Longitudinal Direction [24]
Typically, the impingement plate is from one and one-half to two nozzle diameters long. In
this case, the total length of the inspection coverage would be four nozzle diameters centered
around the steam inlet. If there is no impingement plate, which is rare, a value of three nozzle
diameters can be used.
For circumferential coverage, consider an imaginary cross section of the heater shell that
contains the centerline of the steam inlet. The inspection should cover at least 30° beyond the
impingement plate on both sides of the steam inlet. For a small impingement plate, the angle
will be close to 60°. The coverage should be at least 60° but not greater than 90°. The typical
“blanket” size of an inspection is about four times the nozzle diameter long with a 120–180°
arc centered at the steam inlet. This is about one to one and one-half times the shell diameter
width. See Figure 5-7 for a picture of the recommended coverage.
5-21
Failure Modes
Figure 5-7
Recommended Heater Coverage, Circumferential Direction [24]
If there is a stainless steel shell liner, the circumferential coverage may need to be extended,
depending on the liner size. It should be at least 30° beyond the edge of the liner on both sides of
the steam inlet. Additionally, at least one pipe diameter of the shell should be inspected beyond
the end of the liner in the longitudinal direction on both sides of the steam inlet. However, the
shell area protected by the stainless steel liner can be excluded from inspection. If the heater has
a reinforcing pad, it should be recognized that ultrasonic testing will not read the wall thickness
of the heater shell under the pad.
If flow-accelerated corrosion damage is found, the inspection coverage should be extended as

necessary to fully map the wear. The above inspection coverage should be sufficient to cover the
area near the extraction steam inlet. Wear can also occur away from this inspection area. It is
recommended that heater internal drawings be reviewed to identify and include areas where the
internals come in close proximity to the shell wall.
5.2.2 Erosion
Three types of erosion discussed in this section are:

• Tube inlet erosion
• Tubesheet erosion
• Impingement erosion
5-22
Failure Modes
5.2.2.1 Tube Inlet Erosion
Tube inlet erosion [8, 26, 27] is a form of FAC. FAC is sometimes referred to as flow-assisted
corrosion or erosion-corrosion. This failure mechanism primarily affects carbon steel and copper
alloy materials.
A visual inspection of the tubesheet will indicate if tube inlet erosion is present. A picture of tube
inlet erosion is shown in Figure 5-8. While the indications should be most prominent on the inlet
pass, it is advisable to look also at the condition of the outlet pass. In order to look at both passes,
it is necessary to remove the pass partition cover. This will require additional time and labor, but
this action could be worthwhile.
Figure 5-8
Tube Inlet Erosion [7]
Key Technical Point

Tube inlet erosion is particularly intense within the first inch (25 mm) of the
tube. A borescope inspection of the first 6 inches (15 cm) of a random
number of inlet end tubes should be made. This allows for early detection of
erosion symptoms such as excessive metal polishing or wear. If erosion is
detected, it is recommended to inspect farther down the tube (10 inches (25
cm)) to the end of the damage.
5-23
Failure Modes
Common root causes of problems related to feedwater heater erosion-corrosion are:

• Heater design
• Abnormal operation
• Water chemistry
5.2.2.1.1 Heater Design
Material selection is the most significant design consideration in erosion-corrosion problems.

The relative erosion-corrosion resistances of feedwater heater tube materials are shown in
Table 5-5.
Table 5-5
Relative Erosion-Corrosion Resistance of Feedwater Heater Tube Materials [27]
Tube Material Relative Resistance to Erosion-Corrosion
Arsenical Admiralty Brass Susceptible
Arsenical Copper Susceptible
Carbon Steel Highly susceptible
90-10 Copper-Nickel Resistant
Monel Highly resistant
Stainless Steel Types 304 and 316 Immune
Other significant design considerations are the location, orientation, and geometry of the inlet
piping. A short distance between the inlet pipe connection and the inlet tubesheet (<5–6 inches
(13–15 cm)) promotes susceptibility to tube inlet end erosion-corrosion. The orientation of the
inlet connection has a large impact on inlet end erosion. If the orientation directs the flow toward
the face of the tubesheet at close range, erosion corrosion attack on the tubes can be severe. If the
inlet piping makes a sharp turn before coming into the channel barrel, as in the case of a 90º
elbow, the turbulence of this incoming water will cause tube inlet erosion. The deterioration of
the metal can be severe. The face of the tubesheet should be overlaid with erosion-resistant
material, and the tube material selected should be erosion resistant. Inlet nozzle flow diffusers
can reduce turbulence in this area.
For welded tubesheet joints, the weld rollover at the tube entrance should not create an orifice
effect that could worsen the inlet erosion problem. Tubes that protrude from the face of the
tubesheet can generate local eddy effects that could create abnormal erosion-corrosion problems.
5-24
Failure Modes
Where tube protrusion does exist, consider filling in all ligament spaces with weld material and
grinding the weld-repaired tubesheet to a smooth, flat surface condition.
5.2.2.1.2 Abnormal Operation
Abnormal operating conditions include out-of-service feedwater heaters and piping systems that
permit bypassing of individual feedwater heaters or strings of feedwater heaters. When a plant
operates with three strings of feedwater heaters and one string is bypassed for maintenance, the
remaining strings can experience increased flow rates. This results in excessive velocities that are
high enough to deteriorate the tube inlets.
High water velocity is a significant cause of inlet end erosion. Susceptibility to inlet end
erosion-corrosion can be reduced by following the HEI tube velocity limits, which are shown
in Table 5-6, at average temperatures for normal, full-load operation conditions.
Table 5-6
Maximum Tube Side Velocity [27]
Tube Material Feedwater Velocity in ft/sec (m/sec)
Stainless Steel, Monel, Inconel 10.0 (3.0)
Copper Nickel (70-30, 80-20, 90-10) 9.0 (2.7)
Admiralty Brass and Copper 8.5 (2.6)
Carbon Steel 8.0 (2.4)
When a feedwater heater or string of feedwater heaters is removed from service for maintenance,
provide bypassing or reduce the load so that excessive velocities through the tubes are not
maintained for more than several hours.
Key Technical Point

Every time a tube is plugged, the velocity through the remaining tubes
increases. As more tubes need to be plugged, a check should be made to be
sure that excessive velocities do not cause rapid destruction.
5.2.2.1.3 Water Chemistry
The controlling water chemistry factors that influence tube corrosion are pH, dissolved oxygen
concentration, temperature, and the presence of contaminants. Inlet end erosion-corrosion of
carbon steel tubes predominantly occurs in the temperature range of 270–390ºF (132–199ºC).
Attacks do not occur above an inlet temperature of about 450ºF (232ºC).
5-25
Failure Modes
Damage is most severe when the pH is less than 9.0. The damage gradually decreases as the pH
rises from 9.0 to 9.5. Tube inlet erosion is essentially eliminated when the pH is above 9.6.
Water chemists should be careful to maintain proper pH at all times as related to the tube
material involved. Batch type control or continuous feed at various loads is undesirable because
they cause extreme variations in pH levels in the localized areas in the feedwater system.
Automatic closed-loop type control systems that maintain a constant setpoint provide the
preferred alternative. A pH level in the range of 9.3–9.6 is usually appropriate for minimizing
tube inlet erosion on carbon steel tubing with proper oxygen scavenging.
Feedwater oxygen levels should be reduced to reasonable levels before flowing through the
condensate/feedwater system. Depending on the tube materials, considerable damage can be
done to tubes if no effort is made to remove oxygen and correct the pH levels early in the startup
stage. Dissolved oxygen levels below 7 ppb are generally safe for most systems.
5.2.2.1.4 Preventive Practices
The following preventive maintenance practices may stop or slow the erosion corrosion process:
• Thin wall tubular sleeves (see Section 7.2.5) made of an erosion-corrosion resistant material
can be used to mitigate inlet end erosion-corrosion. The sleeves are cut to a length that will
cover all eroded portions of the affected tubes. The sleeves are inserted into the tube inlet
ends and rolled or explosively expanded along their full length. All sleeves should be tapered
at the downstream end to prevent the formation of a turbulence-inducing step that could
promote erosion-corrosion at the downstream sleeve-tube interface. Figure 5-9 shows an
incorrectly installed insert.
Figure 5-9
Tubesheet Damage from Incorrect Tube Insert Installation [28]
More information on sleeves can be found in Section 7.2.5 in this guide.
5-26
Failure Modes
Tube erosion around an insert is shown in Figure 5-10.
Figure 5-10
Tube Erosion Around a Tube Insert [28]
• Add flow diffusers on the inlet pass to minimize turbulence in the tube entrance area.
• Modify the geometry of the incoming feedwater piping to relocate elbows and increase the
flow cross section to provide smoother water flow at lower velocities.
• Tube velocity increases in the remaining tubes each time a tube is plugged. Maintain good
plugging records and evaluate affected heaters at appropriate intervals to determine if
plugging will cause excessive velocity.
• Do not use insurance plugs adjacent to the failed tube without checking for actual need. If an
adjacent tube has been severely damaged due to secondary impingement from the failed tube,
this can be detected by hydrostatic tube or eddy current testing. It may be necessary to install
a stabilizer rod or cable in the failed tube to prevent it from damaging the adjacent tubes.
• When plugging a tube, use extra care to ensure that adjacent tubes are not damaged in the
process.
• When a heater or a string of heaters is removed from service for more than several hours,
provide means for feedwater bypassing or reduce the load in order to prevent excessive
feedwater tube velocity.
• Determine a compatible water chemistry, especially pH and oxygen control, related to
feedwater heater tubes and the rest of the feedwater systems. If a change is made to a water
treatment system, a check of the tubing should be made to ensure compatibility.
5-27
Failure Modes
5.2.2.2 Tubesheet Erosion
A special form of erosion termed wormholing or rat-holing [7] is a very serious threat to the life
of the tubesheet. The wormholing starts when a leak path between the tube and tubesheet hole is
allowed to progress over time. Eventually, this flow erodes a large area in the tubesheet and
weakens the tube hole ligaments. This leak path might originate with a poor weld joint, a cracked
ligament, a poor weld repair, and/or tube plugging. This is a slower form of erosion that can
progress to a very serious problem.
Key Technical Point

Check the quality of tube-joint weldments at each annual inspection. If the
shell can be pressurized for a soap solution check, this is desirable. If not, a
dye penetrant check of tube weldments should be performed.
Tubesheet erosion is shown in Figure 5-11.
Figure 5-11
Tubesheet Erosion [29]
5.2.2.3 Impingement Erosion
Steam impingement erosion [7, 26, 30] is the wastage of metal by impact with moisture droplets
entrained in high-velocity steam. In feedwater heaters, the steam impingement erosion refers to
the shell and tube damage caused by the impact of the inlet extraction steam. The presence of
water droplets in the high-velocity inlet steam results in severe erosion.
5-28
Failure Modes
Impingement erosion causes pits similar to pitting corrosion that move the metal material to the
edges of the pits. The metal eventually breaks off and the material is lost. Tube damage has been
the primary concern in heaters, but in the last several years, shell erosion damage has become a
major concern.
The rate of erosion is a function of:

• The momentum of the moisture droplets – Since momentum is a function of mass and
velocity, the moisture content and the velocity of the steam influence the rate of erosion.
Generally, the mass of the droplets increases with moisture content. Therefore, the greater the
mass or steam moisture content, the lower the velocity required to cause steam impingement
erosion. In feedwater heaters, the steam velocity is a function of the specific volume of the
steam, the mass flow rate, and the cross-sectional area of the piping that the steam flows
through.
• Shell and tube material susceptibility – Stainless steel tube materials are highly resistant, if
not immune, to impingement erosion. However, susceptibility of the carbon steel materials
for shell, spacers, tie rods, and support plates is very high.
For two-zone horizontal feedwater heaters, the steam entrance is usually at the bundle thermal
centerline. Impingement erosion typically occurs in:
• The vicinity of the extraction steam entrances
• Tubes and other components just beyond the impingement plate
• Cascading and other drain entrances
Figure 5-12 shows these locations for a two zone, horizontal feedwater heater.
Figure 5-12
Predominant Steam Impingement Erosion Locations [30]
5-29
Failure Modes
Factors that influence impingement erosion are:

• Feedwater heater design
• System design - bypasses
• System design - drains
• Abnormal operation
Feedwater heater design – The steam velocity can be controlled by feedwater heater design if
the full range of steam flow rates, temperatures, and pressures is known and specified by the
plant designer. This may be as simple as determining the piping sizes. Turbulence often results in
localized velocity extremes. A reduction in the heater diameter results in higher average steam
velocities.
System design - bypasses – Feedwater systems containing bypasses around individual feedwater
heaters or strings of feedwater heaters can affect steam conditions and minimize impingement
erosion. In the absence of bypasses, isolation of strings of feedwater heaters can cause steam
impingement erosion problems.
System design - drains – Lack of main steam low-point drains and/or failure to drain piping
above extraction steam isolation valves can cause very high moisture content during startup. This
can cause rapid impingement erosion of susceptible materials. Failure to properly drain a heater
during outages can cause rapid impingement erosion of susceptible components.
Abnormal operation –Feedwater heater performance is predominantly governed by the

condensing zone. The following conditions can change steam flow through the different zones.
These conditions offset the steam pressure, temperature, and steam quality:
• Isolation of parallel feedwater heaters or strings of feedwater heaters without a bypass
increases tube velocity and the heat transfer rate of all zones. Partial bypass capability has the
same effect but to a lesser degree.
• Feedwater bypasses or steam-side isolation of a feedwater heater can result in colder
feedwater entering the downstream feedwater heaters. This increases the steam flow rate and
changes the temperature differences.
• Feedwater heaters with leakage at the pass partition plates result in colder feedwater going to
the downstream heaters.
• Other performance deficiencies, such as inadequate venting, can cause downstream
feedwater heaters to receive colder than design feedwater.
• Where low-pressure feedwater drains are pumped forward or where high-pressure feedwater
heater drains are cascaded to the deaerator storage tank, tube leaks can cause higher tube
velocities. The higher tube velocities depend on the flow control design.
An increase in noise levels in the heater can provide warning of possible impingement attack.
The first discovery might occur from visual inspections during maintenance repairs. Experience
5-30
Failure Modes
has shown that most impingement problems are discovered only after a tube or tubes have failed
and water level control becomes very difficult or impossible. Visual inspection for location of
the tube failure can verify that it is in an area where the impingement plate should be or in an
area of high steam velocity.
5.2.2.3.1 Impingement Plate Inspection
The impingement plate is a design feature in feedwater heaters intended to mitigate the effects of
wet extraction steam. The moisture droplets enter the shell and lose velocity as they collide with
the erosion resistance impingement plate. The impingement plate should be large enough and
have sufficient space between the shell inside diameter and the outer tube line to achieve
adequate low velocities.
The impingement plates protecting the bundle from the flashing drains cascading into the
feedwater heater should have similar design attributes. The primary difference is that the
cascading drain entrances are very high in moisture content and their volume is increasing as
they flash. For this reason, accepting these drains in a flash chamber at the end of a feedwater
heater is preferable to accepting drains opposite the bundle.
A stainless steel impingement plate is normally installed over the tubes across from the inlet
nozzles. The plate is intended to protect the tubes from steam impingement damage.
Some of the common causes of steam impingement damage are:

• Inadequate design of the impingement plate
• The breaking loose of an impingement plate
• Impingement of solid particles entrained in the extraction steam.

Basic maintenance inspection procedures should be developed to inspect the
impingement plate on a regular basis.
Various designs of impingement plates exist. The most rugged design includes a strength weld to
at least one and sometimes two support plates or support bars. Tack welding or minimal fillet
weld designs should be avoided.
A loose impingement plate can cause damage by impacting the tubes directly or by allowing
steam impingement damage where the tubes are unprotected. Damage will occur soon after a
plate is dislodged, and significant amounts of surface can be lost from this failure in a short time.
5-31
Failure Modes
5.2.3 Vibration
Vibration in shell and tube heat exchangers [7, 26, 27] is a natural phenomenon caused by the
interaction of elastic tubes with the fluctuating forces imposed by the shell-side flowing fluid.
Tube vibration becomes a problem when its intensity reaches a point that damage to the tubes or
tube joints occurs by fretting, fatigue, etc.
Tubes can vibrate only at discrete frequencies that depend on the tube geometry, tube material,
and fluid densities. The lowest frequency is called the natural frequency. The forces imposed on
the tube by the shell-side fluid flow fluctuate at certain frequencies that are dependent on the
flow rate. The fluctuating forces often cause the tube to vibrate.
Key Technical Point

A rule of thumb is that the tubes should not vibrate more than 2% of the tube
diameter.
Damage results only if the amplitude of the tube vibration is sufficient to cause:
• Stresses in the tube or tube joint that exceed the endurance limit for fatigue failure
• Collision between adjacent tubes
• Fretting wear between the tube and the tube support plate
One item that may alert personnel to tube vibration problems is an unusual noise that sounds like
a rattle. This is actually the collision of tubes within a feedwater heater. If a group of tubes fails
simultaneously, vibration-related fretting or mid-span collisions might be damaging the tubes. A
complete analysis of failure location and elevation can determine the cause of failure.
5.2.3.1 Excitation Mechanisms
There are numerous excitation mechanisms imposed on tubes by flowing fluids. Two of the
mechanisms that affect feedwater heater performance are:
• Vortex shedding
• Fluidelastic whirling
Vortex shedding has been observed during cross-flow, that is, the fluid flows perpendicular to
the tube axis. The effect of the tube motion is considered a problem for tubes on the periphery of
the bundle but may not be the dominating influence inside the bundle.
Fluidelastic whirling is a momentary displacement of one tube in an array from its normal
equilibrium position. This alters the flow field and upsets the force balance on neighboring tubes,
5-32
Failure Modes
which causes the tubes to change positions in a vibratory manner. If during vibration, the energy
extracted from the flowing fluid by the tubes exceeds the energy dissipated by damping,
fluidelastic vibration will occur. The vibration is self-excited and once initiated grows in
amplitude until adjacent tubes make contact and damage results. The tubes exhibit a whirling,
orbital motion during fluidelastic whirling.
Prediction of these vibration problems can be only as good as the prediction of cross-flow
velocity. The magnitude of the cross-flow velocity is difficult to determine because of the
complex flow pattern in the drains cooling zones. This is true especially near the inlet nozzles,
impingement plates, and tube supports.
Prediction of the cross-flow velocity also depends on the total mass flow that is used. Often, the
heater is designed for normal operation only. During abnormal operation, considerable higher
shell-side flows can exist, which leads to higher velocities and damaging tube vibration.
5.2.3.2 Common Tube Damage from Vibration
There are three forms of vibration-related tube damage that are considered common. They are:
• Fretting
• Collision
• Cracking
Fretting, also called chatter, is the most common form of vibration tube damage found in
feedwater heaters. It occurs at the support plates or baffles. The tube may wear either 180º or
360º around the circumference. The most common occurrence is the 180º wear, especially in the
bundle periphery and windows.
The support plate or baffle may also wear, causing increased tube hole size. The tube hole wear
and the tube wear increase the clearance between the tube and support plate/baffle, which
reduces damping and increases the tube vibration. The rate of fretting degradation increases
exponentially.
In collision, if the tubes deflect enough, they collide with each other. This collision usually
occurs at the mid-span between support plates or baffles. The mid-span is the point of greatest
deflection. It is uncommon to find collision at points other than the mid-span.
The tubes wear at the points of collision. Collision-induced tube wear can create a through-wall
failure. A fatigue crack induced by the stress riser from the tube wear is the more typical form of
tube failure.
Cracking failures from high-cycle fatigue are not common in feedwater heaters. This failure
mechanism occurs mostly at rigid attachments such as tubesheets and supports and at stress
risers.
5-33
Failure Modes
5.2.3.3 Failure Locations from Vibration
The predominant failure locations are those that have long, unsupported tube spans and high
cross-flow velocities and/or turbulence. Typical failure locations in the condensing and drains
cooling zones are:
• Condensing zone – There are two areas in the condensing zone that can be affected by
destructive tube vibration. One is the U-tube area as shown in Figure 5-13.
Figure 5-13
Tube Vibration Damage at the U-Bend [7]
The unsupported tube length in the U-tube area might be greater than it should be.
Manufacturers commonly follow the Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association (TEMA)
standards that specify an unsupported tube length on the U-tube rear support. Experience has
shown that this may not be satisfactory.
Key Technical Point

As a general rule for U-tube bundles, it is recommended that special
supporting spacers or strapping be used to support and separate U-tubes
where the outer tube limits are greater than 24 inches (61 mm) in diameter.
Every tube bend that is in the 24–48 inch (0.61–1.2 m) diameter range should
be supported at the U-bend.
5-34
Failure Modes
Figure 5-14 shows replaced bundles from Figure 5-13 above where baffles were provided at
the U bends for proper tube separation and support.
Figure 5-14
Tube Support Baffles at the U-Bend [7]
Special attention should be given to the area where drains inlets, steam inlets, or bypasses are
admitted at the U-bend end. Impact plates at these locations should be anchored securely.
The plates are subject to vibration from any liquid phase change that occurs.
The best method of introducing drains beyond the U-tubes in horizontal feedwater heaters is
to provide an extended chamber of the shell. The extended chamber should have a baffle
plate or dam that separates the drains inlet from the U-bend tubes. This baffle plate/dam
should be designed for separation of the flashing steam at the top and flow drains at the
bottom.
Another area of concern for tube vibration is within the bundle itself in the condensing zone.
In addition to improper tube support length, the major cause of tube vibration on a
condensing zone straight portion is the velocity of the condensing steam within the shell
around the bundle. Two major design mistakes are made in this area. The first mistake is
providing a shell that is too small in diameter. This causes high steam velocity. The second
mistake is providing supports that extend to the inside diameter of the shell. This creates an
area of high velocity on the periphery of the bundle.
• Drains cooling zone – This zone has high cross-flow velocities by design and can experience
vibration damage. This is usually associated with turbulence from steam entrained in the
drains or steam entering through the end plate, or with higher than design condensate flow.
5-35
Failure Modes
Key Technical Point

The drains cooling zone is recognized as a turbulent zone within the
feedwater heater. An explosive condition can exist in the drains cooling zone
because of steam flashing. Proper preparation of baffles at the cut line where
the tube is positioned is critical for the elimination of sharp corners within
the tube hole. Proper areas should be provided at the entrance and exit of the
drains cooling zone and at baffle cuts.
5.2.3.4 Root Causes of Vibration
The following sections discuss common root causes of feedwater heater damages due to
vibration:
• Old age
• Feedwater heater design
• Quality of fabrication
• Abnormal operations
• Retubing
Age – The extent of fretting damage is controlled by the degree of tube deflection and the
number of thermal cycles experienced. Fretting is a function of age.
Feedwater heater design – Premature vibration damage is often caused by poor designs for the
specified design conditions (that is, steam flow) or incorrectly specified design conditions. Shell
and shroud designs that minimize velocity and support plate/baffle spacing are necessary to
prevent tube vibration damage.
Quality of fabrication – Support plates and baffles dampen vibration. If the support plate/baffle
holes are drilled with a larger hole than the allowable tolerance, they will offer less damping.
Support plate/baffle tube hole size can be a root cause of vibration damage to tubes.
Abnormal operation – Operating modes that increase shell-side flow or cause steam
entrainment in the drains cooling zone can cause tube vibration damage. Consideration should be
given to isolation of upstream (lower-pressure) feedwater heaters. This results in colder
condensate/feedwater being introduced into higher-pressure heaters. Colder than normal
feedwater increases steam flow to the heater and promotes higher velocities in all of the heater
zones.
Another example of abnormal operation is the bypassing of one string in a two-string heater
arrangement and doubling the feedwater flow through the remaining string. In this case, the
extraction steam flows double. One approach in designing against tube vibration during
abnormal operation is to incorporate drains cooling zone bypasses into the piping system.
5-36
Failure Modes
Retubing – Feedwater heater support plates and baffle tube holes invariably wear with age.
Reuse of aged support plates and baffles can produce excessive tolerances between new tubes
and the existing holes. Premature tube vibration can occur with a retubed heater because of a
cost-saving decision not to replace the support plates. The change of tube material and wall
thickness can create further vibration.
5.2.3.5 Prevention Practices for Vibration
There are three approaches the manufacturer can use to combat tube vibration problems:
• Increase the natural frequency of the tubes
• Reduce the flow velocity
• Increase damping
The natural frequency of the tube depends on the method by which the ends are fixed, the type of
intermediate supports, the tube cross-sectional geometry, the number of spans, the materials, and
the length of the spans. All tubes in the heater do not have the same number of supports, and
their span lengths differ. Therefore, many different tube natural frequencies can exist. The length
of the unsupported span is the most influential factor in determining natural frequency.
Tube natural frequency can be increased by adding extra baffles and reducing the span length. A
disadvantage of this approach is that extra baffles can increase velocities.
Velocities can be reduced by increasing the shell-side diameter, increasing tube pitch, creating
bypass lanes in the direction of the flow, enlarging inlet/outlet nozzle diameters, or changing the
tube field layout angle. Condensate velocities in the drains cooling zone can be controlled by
installing bypasses around these zones.
Staking is used to prevent tubes from moving at mid-span. In the staking procedure, a flat bar
sized to fit snugly between the tubes is driven into the tube bundle and is fixed to prevent future
stake movement. An alternative method is to insert a rod fabricated like a corkscrew. Because
the shell shrouds must be removed and reinstalled, staking is not widely used in feedwater
heaters. The presence of stakes can also increase steam velocities.
Another modification is to expand the tube ends to full contact with the tubesheet or tube support
plates. Hydraulic and kinetic expansion methods can be used. More information on tube
expanding is given in Section 7.3 of this guide.
5-37
Failure Modes
5.3 Summary Chart of Feedwater Heater Failures
Figure 5-15 is a summary chart of feedwater heater problems and possible causes.
Figure 5-15
Failure Summary Chart [4]
5-38
6
CONDITION-BASED MAINTENANCE
This section covers general maintenance guidelines, preventive maintenance tasks,

nondestructive examination testing, and destructive testing and analysis.
6.1 General Maintenance Guidelines
Before performing maintenance in a nuclear power plant, several items need to be addressed.
These items are general safety precautions and practical planning for maintenance [1, 13].
The first item is to become thoroughly familiar with the feedwater heater instruction manuals.
These documents provide important safety instructions. Some precautions to observe before and
during operation are:
• Before performing any work on a unit, ensure that all valves are tagged and all pressures on
the unit are relieved. If maintenance is performed with energy in the system, personnel
should be protected from incoming fluids by double valves if available.
• Any temporary gaskets should be replaced before operation with the required permanent
gaskets.
• Safety valves should not be obstructed during operation.
• All closures should be secured before pressurizing the unit.
• The maximum allowable working pressures noted on the heater nameplate should not be
exceeded. The manufacturer’s instructions on test water temperature should be observed to
avoid any material problems.
• All external leaks should be repaired immediately.
• If the heater has non-welded, tapered tube plugs installed, a pneumatic test should be
performed to detect any leaking plugs. See Section 7.1.3 for details on shell pressurization.
• All gauge glasses should be inspected for damage. This can be a source of dangerous
leakage.
6-1
Condition-Based Maintenance
The following precautions should be observed when personnel plan to enter or are working near
a heater:
• Personal protection equipment should be worn, including hard hat, safety glasses, and ear
plugs.
• The heater should be tagged out of service, including electrical, hydraulic, mechanical, and
pneumatic blockage of anything into the heater.
• When personnel are working in a heater through a manway, a confined space permit should
be obtained to include testing for breathable air.
• Proper ventilation must be supplied when personnel are working inside a heater.
• Radioactivity levels should be verified to be within acceptable levels.
• If any insulation is removed, precautions should be observed to avoid contact with hot
surfaces.
• Do not use any chlorinated solvents, such as carbon tetrachloride, inside the heater for weld
repair processes.
• Pools of water must be dried before using electrical devices, including electric arc cutting
and/or arc welding equipment.
• All safety notices on the heater should be observed.
Bring the basic tools needed for heater inspection. Some of the items include:
• Tubesheet maps
• Flashlights
• Mirrors
• Fiber optic cable
• Borescope
• Leak detection fluid
• Internal micrometers for measuring tubes
• Tube leak location equipment, individual tube hydro-tester
• Cameras
• Heater drawings
• Heater data sheets
6-2
6.2 Preventive Maintenance Tasks
This section includes a preventive maintenance (PM) template, discussion of performance

monitoring, internal inspection, cleaning, chemistry monitoring and operator rounds, NDE tasks,
and PM charts [31].
6.2.1 PM Template
The preventive maintenance template [31] for feedwater heaters is shown in Figure 6-1. The PM
tasks are:
• Performance monitoring
• Nondestructive examination (NDE) testing – see Section 6.3 for NDE testing
• Internal inspection
The definition of equipment that is critical is whether the equipment is functionally important,
risk significant, required for power production, and related to safety or other regulatory
requirements. The duty cycle is assumed to be high. Severe service conditions include equipment
operating above 1000 psig (6.9 MPa). Mild service conditions include equipment operating
below 1000 psig (6.9 MPa).
High-pressure feedwater heaters are considered as critical and high duty cycle; their service
conditions are severe. Low-pressure feedwater heaters are considered as critical and high duty
cycle; their service conditions are mild.
From the PM template, the task interval for performance monitoring of the high- and low-
pressure heaters is monthly. The task interval for an NDE inspection for the high-pressure
heaters is every five years, and for the low pressure heaters is every ten years. The task interval
for an internal inspection is five years for the high-pressure heaters and ten years for the low-
pressure heaters.
6-3
Table 6-1
Feedwater Heater Preventive Maintenance Template [31]
Equipment Descriptions 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Critical: Yes X X X X
No X X X X
Duty Cycle: High X X X X
Low X X X X
Service Condition: Severe X X X X
PM Tasks Mild X X X X
Performance Task Interval One One

Monitoring Month Month
NDE Inspection Task Interval Five Ten

Years Years
Internal Inspection Task Interval Five Ten

Years Years
Note: Column 1 is for high-pressure feedwater heaters. Column 3 is for low-pressure feedwater heaters.
6-4
6.2.2 Performance Monitoring
Performance monitoring addresses the overall integral performance of the heater. Performance
deterioration detectable by this task is likely to be caused by corrosion, erosion, scaling, or other
deposits and/or control system problems.
Corrosion is caused by a variety of conditions that are characterized by random occurrence times
and the possibility of rapid deterioration. The randomness of these failure causes and their
potential to develop quickly require frequent performance monitoring. More information on
heater failure mechanisms can be found in Section 5.2 of this guide.

Monthly performance monitoring is recommended for all feedwater heaters.
Performance monitoring should include the following tasks:

• Monitor, track, and trend the heater terminal temperature difference (TTD)
• Monitor, track, and trend the heater drain cooler approach (DCA) temperature
• Monitor, track, and trend the ∆T across the heater
• Monitor, track, and trend the shell pressures
• Monitor, track, and trend the position of the level control valves
• Monitor, track, and trend the position of the liquid level
6.2.3 Internal Inspection
This section covers the frequency of internal inspections, the areas for visual inspection, and an
example of off-line inspections.
6.2.3.1 Inspection Interval
Key Technical Point

The task of interval inspection provides a material condition assessment that
is also predictive of future deterioration. The suggested interval is 5 to 10
years and is best interpreted as an average interval. With a sampling scheme,
this interval provides a more or less continuous assessment of condition.
To achieve a continuous assessment, it is beneficial to perform the task each outage on a portion
of the heaters. As an example, consider a set of 18 high-pressure heaters of which three are
6-5
examined each outage, starting with the first outage in a continuing cycle. Over the first nine
years of plant experience, the average interval is close to five years. Over the first 18 years, the
average moves out to seven years and then to over eight years. The average intervals move to be
10 years, then 14 years, and then 16 years.
This kind of sampling scheme has the following characteristics:

• It is very stable.
• It provides continuous feedback on equipment condition.
• It starts close to the average intervals shown in the PM template.
• It provides feedback early in the life of the equipment.
• It provides a significant degree of interval extension over the life of the heaters, assuming
that the experience remains good.
6.2.3.2 Visual Inspection
An important task in preventive maintenance is performing visual inspections of the heaters

when the heaters are off-line [18, 21, 31]. Direct visual examination of a feedwater heater is
limited to channels, pass partition plates, covers, and the tubesheet face on the feedwater side.
Shell-side inspection without shell removal is limited to the exterior shell, nozzles, and internals
that are accessible by remote visual testing (RVT).
The inspection areas and associated tasks listed below are options for inspection when the
channels are opened. The existing conditions of the equipment might dictate that more or fewer
tasks should be implemented. The task guidelines of what to look for and what to document in
the selected areas are listed below:
• Tube inlets – For heaters with carbon steel or copper alloy tube material, check for signs of
erosion in the tube inlets downstream of the tube-to-tubesheet weld. Use an internal
micrometer to establish baselines, measure weld rollover, and quantify wall thinning. Check
any sleeves for expansion and erosion between the sleeves and tubes. Start with the
peripheral tubes, next do the drains cooler tubes, and finally check some randomly located
tubes. Perform a borescopic inspection on a representative sample of tubes.
• Tube-to-tubesheet joint and ligaments – Tube welds should be checked for signs of
cracking and erosion. Shell-side air tests can be used to locate leaking holes and cracks. Dye
penetrant tests can be used to quantify surface weld cracks.
• Tubesheet – Check for any tubesheet leakage from wormholing through the tubesheet.
Determine the seal integrity of existing tube plugs. Look for any signs of leakage or partial
plug failure. Verify the tube plug map. The cladding around the tube welds and the periphery
of the tubesheet should be examined for defects. If cracking is indicated, dye penetrant
examination should be performed.
• Pass partition – Check for erosion, cracking, and distortion of the pass partition plate and
weld cracking/failure at the periphery of the plate. Plate integrity must be maintained to
ensure no leakage between the passes that results in partial heater bypass. The channel and
6-6
tubesheet weld connections, cover, cover bolts, nuts, and the cover-to-plate sealing surface
should be checked for signs of erosion and cracking.
• Channel/manway – Check internal surfaces for signs of FAC and the channel-to-tubesheet
weld for cracks. Note any cracks in welds or in the tubesheet-to-channel transition or other
corners. Use dye penetrant testing. Look for gouging or other damage to diaphragms and
gasket surfaces.
• Inlet and outlet feedwater nozzles – Check for cracks and other damage. Also, inspect inlet
diffusers and outlet liners, if installed.
• Shell internals – When access to the shell side exists, inspect for loose, missing, or damaged
fasteners. Inspect for evidence of erosion on the impingement plates, erosion/corrosion on the
tube support plates, and vibration damage on the tubes.
• External vents and drains – Verify that they are fully operational and used. It is not unusual
to discover a line that has been blanked off or a vent system that is not being used in
operation.
• Internal vent off-take tubing/piping – Heaters with carbon steel vent off-take piping are
susceptible to severe inside-diameter steam/water droplet erosion, especially at the 90°
bends. Videoborescope/probe inspections through the vent pipe cutout at the heater shell
connections can assess internal vent tubing/piping conditions. If the heater shell is removed,
the vent off-take piping can be examined for perforations at the 90° bends. Repairs include
complete replacement of the carbon steel pipe with stainless steel pipe. Removal of the shell
is necessary to replace the internal vent piping. Without removal of the shell, a repair might
include a local shell hole cutout at the first 90° bend in the vent flow direction.
6-7
In Table 6-2, the components for inspection, the objective of the inspection, and possible repairs
or scope expansion are given.
Table 6-2
Visual Inspection Template [21, 31]
Component Inspection Objectives Possible Repairs
Tube Inlets Erosion, weld rollover, wall thinning, Install inserts.

sleeve condition, borescope on sample
of tubes
Tubesheet Joint Weld integrity Grind and reweld tube-to-tubesheet

and Ligament welds.
Tubesheet Tubesheet wormholing, condition of Reweld tubesheet. Replace leaking

tube plugs, cladding condition tube plugs. Repair cladding.
Pass Partition Plate erosion, cracking, distortion, Grind and reweld partition plate
plate hardware and weld connections weld; replace plate; resurface
erosion and cracking gasket surface; and replace cover,
bolts and nuts.
Channel/ Manway FAC, weld cracking, gouging, gasket Grind and reweld tubesheet-to-
surfaces channel weld; weld repair; resurface
gasket surface.
Inlet and Outlet Cracks, erosion Weld repair.

Feedwater
Nozzles
Shell Internals Shell thickness near inlet nozzle, Apply weld buildup or replace shell
condition of fasteners, impingement section. Replace impingement
plates, tube support plates and tube plate. Replace fastener, tube
vibration damage staking, and expanded sleeves.
External Vents Operational condition Remove blanks. Clear lines.

and Drains
Internal Vent Steam/water droplet erosion Replace 90° piping bends. Replace
Piping all vent piping.
Some typical inspection results are:

• If shell-side access was available, baffle plate erosion caused by excessive shell-side
velocities of longitudinal and/or cross flows
• If shell-side access was available, baffle plate tube hole-to-tube clearance increase caused by
tube fretting from vibration or flashing in the drains cooler zone
• If shell-side access was available, outside diameter tube wear caused by leak impingement,
tube collision, or tube vibration at the tube supports and baffles
6-8
• Extensive tubesheet material loss caused by wormholing of high-pressure feedwater from the
channel side
• Extensive tube erosion under the steam/drains inlet caused by an impingement plate that is
missing, cracked, or sized improperly
• Shell inside diameter erosion caused by excessive steam velocities, impingement damage
from a failed tube, or shell thinning from inlet extraction steam
• Catastrophic failure in the U-bend region caused by improper stress relieving of U-bends or
inadequate tube support
6.2.3.2.1 Remote Visual Testing
Because of the complex geometry and welded construction of a feedwater heater, direct visual
inspection or observation of heater internals with the naked eye is not practical. The NDE
techniques may determine the failure mechanisms but may not determine the root cause of the
failure. Remote visual testing (RVT) has proven valuable as a complementary testing technique
in support of NDE and in the root cause determination [28].
Remote visual testing technology is currently based around four different viewing tools and two
methods for recording/documentation. The relative success or failure of a given inspection is
dependent on the proper choice of the RVT tool. Six of the tools are:
• Borescope
• Fiberscope
• Videoborescope
• Closed circuit television
• Video cassette recorder
• Photographic equipment
6.2.3.2.1.1 Borescope
A borescope is a rigid, optical inspection device that uses glass lenses to transmit or relay an
image from a remote subject to an eyepiece. Figure 6-1 shows a borescope.
6-9
Figure 6-1
Rigid Borescope [28]
Borescopes offer the highest quality inspection picture compared to fiberscopes, video
borescopes, and closed circuit television cameras by a factor of 10 to 100. Most borescopes use
ultrathin optical glass fibers (fiber optics) as a channel to transmit high-intensity light on the
subject from a larger, high-intensity light source or light box. Modern light sources are 150 to
300 watts and have a Zenon or metal halide bulb with a focusing lens and infrared heat filter.
A borescope’s image can be viewed in three ways:

• Looking directly into the ocular piece. This does not allow group viewing or permanent
documentation.
• Attaching a closed circuit camera through a lens adapter to the borescope. This allows group
viewing and the ability to record the viewed image on a video cassette recorder.
• Attaching a 35-mm still camera to the borescope’s eyepiece. This can produce high-quality
slides or prints for photo documentation purposes.
Borescopes range in diameter from 1/8 to 3/4 inch (3 to 19 mm) diameter, from 4 inches (10 cm)
to several feet (2 feet = 61 cm) in length, and are available with various distal viewing angles.
The viewing angles are 0° (forward), 50° (oblique), 90° (side), and 120° (rear oblique). Since
borescopes are rigid stainless steel tubes, their maximum insertion length into a heater is often
limited by geometry and tube distortion.
6.2.3.2.1.2 Fiberscope
A fiberscope is a flexible optical device that uses two different fiber optic bundles packaged
inside a bendable insertion tube. A randomly oriented fiber optic bundle is used to project light
on a remote subject. A coherently oriented matrix of 12,000–200,000 thin glass fibers then
transmits the image back to the eyepiece. A fiberscope is shown in Figure 6-2.
6-10
Figure 6-2
Fiberscope [28]
Fiberscopes are commercially available in diameters of 0.080 to 0.500 inches (2 to 13 mm) and
in lengths from 3 to 50 feet (0.9 to 15 m). This range of capability, coupled with the benefits of
flexibility, allows snaking the instrument far into a tube or shell. Also, the fiberscope image may
be viewed in the same three modes as a borescope.
6-11
6.2.3.2.1.3 Videoborescope
The industrial video borescope was introduced in 1984. By miniaturizing and placing the charge-
coupled-imager at the distal tip of the instrument, images of remarkable clarity, depth of field,
and color quality are possible. A videoborescope is shown in Figure 6-3.
Figure 6-3
Videoborescope [28]
Because the image can be transmitted through electrical signals, video recording and displaying
is direct. Working lengths of 25, 50 and 100 feet (7.6, 15 and 30.5 m) are available. These
instruments are available in diameters of ¼, 3/8 and ½ inch (6, 9.5 and 13 mm). Videoborescopes
also use fiber optics for illumination and feature tip articulation and good flexibility.
6.2.3.2.1.4 Closed Circuit Television Camera
Miniaturized ½-inch (13-mm) color cameras, packaged with a lens and integral light source in a
waterproof cylinder, make up the closed circuit television camera.
This class of instrument can provide high-resolution images similar to broadcast-quality video
images. While not suitable for inspection of the tube side of feedwater heaters, cameras are
extremely beneficial for global inspection of the shell, drains cooler section, inlet/outlet piping,
and related welds or documentation of the condition of the tubesheet.
An emerging application for miniature cameras is in the support of remote welding and tooling
operations. Because maintenance, cleaning, inspection, and repair operations are limited by
space considerations, remote tooling monitored by video is becoming more attractive.
6.2.3.2.1.5 Video Cassette Recorder
The cost, size, and weight of a video cassette recorder (VCR) have decreased over the past years.
All of the remote visual testing tools can directly or indirectly produce a standard RS-170 signal
that can be permanently recorded on an inexpensive videotape. Videotape recording has the
benefit of recording tens of thousands of data images with audio commentary or video-text
overlay.
6-12
6.2.3.2.1.6 Photographic Equipment
Borescope and fiberscope eyepieces can be easily attached to the lens or body of most 35-mm
cameras. High-speed slide or print film can be used as an inexpensive, high-quality method to
photo-document a feedwater heater inspection. Digital cameras can be used for better viewing
and data storage. The digital images can be viewed and stored directly on a PC.
6.2.3.3 Off-Line Inspection Example
The following discussion is an example of typical activities that would occur when a heater is
removed from service [21].
6.2.3.3.1 Leak Tests Prior to Disassembly
When the unit is at reduced power and the feedwater heater/heater train can be taken out of
service, a heater/heater train leakage test can be performed. With the channel-side pressurized
and in normal operating conditions, the heater/heater train isolation valves for the feedwater tube
side can be closed and a pressure drop observed. If a pressure drop exists, this indicates a leak.
This could be a tube, tubesheet, tube plug, or a drain valve leak.
The heater drain and vent valves need to be checked for leaks that could affect the test results.
The minimum pressure drop needed to initiate heater repair activity should be based on
experimental data. A pressure drop in the order of 20–50 psig (138–345 kPa) per minute should
be large enough to identify a leak.
This test can also determine the condition of the heater/heater train isolation valves. If no
pressure drop or minimal pressure drop is observed after performing the pressure drop test, the
channel side can be depressurized using one of the drain valves. If the channel side can be
depressurized quickly, it indicates that the isolation valves do not leak. The isolation valves can
later be used to isolate the heater train during unit power operation.
Another leak test can be performed before the heater is disassembled. When the heater is
removed from service, the heater is isolated and allowed to cool. The next step is to drain the
channel and shell by opening the manual drains.
If the shell can be effectively isolated, close the shell drain and pressurize the shell with air to
approximately 10–15 psig (69–103 kPa). This can be accomplished by connecting an air hose to
a spare shell connection. Assembling a pressure gauge and valve in series, with a quick
connector on each end, simplifies connection of the hose and controlled pressurization of the
shell. If air is discharged from the channel drain, there is obviously a leak path between the shell
and channel. This can come from leaking tubes, tube-to-tubesheet joints, or tubesheet
wormholing.
If the shell cannot be isolated and pressurized, similar results can be achieved by closing the
channel drain and pressurizing the channel with water. If, after a short time, water begins flowing
6-13
from the shell drain, this would confirm the existence of a leak path between the shell and
channel.
If pressurizing the channel with water is not feasible, leave the channel drain open, close the
shell drain, and slowly fill the shell with water, watching the channel drain for any discharge of
water. If a spare connection is available on a shell drain, a length of clear plastic tubing can be
attached that would serve as a sight glass to observe the water level in the heater.
If these water tests are performed while the generating unit is operating, extreme care should be
taken to ensure that the extraction steam valves are closed tightly. This would minimize the risk
of a turbine water induction. Only clean, chloride-free water should be used for this type of
testing.
If the test results confirm that the heater is leaking, the channel should be opened for further
inspection, testing, and repair.
6.2.3.3.2 Routine Channel Inspections and Tests
When the channel cover of the heater has been removed and it is verified that the channel is
isolated from the feedwater system, the following inspections and tests should be performed:
1. Identify and mark individual leaking tubes – As in the initial leak check, pressurize the
shell with air or fill with water. Mark any tube ends where air or water is discharged. These
tubes will need to be plugged before the heater is returned to service. Document any tubes
that are plugged and include the date on an accurate tubesheet field drawing.
2. Determine the tube leak location – A simple tube leak locator can be made by attaching a
washer and a piece of gasket material to a section of threaded rod. The gasket material should
be the same diameter as the tube inside diameter. Insert the locator into the end of a leaking
tube, thus blocking most of the discharge of water or air. Slowly push the test rod into the
tube using threaded couplers to attach additional lengths of rod as needed. Weld the end of a
fish tape to the threaded rod. This will show the depth of the locator inside the tube.
When the washer is pushed past the failure location, the flow of water or air from the tube
end will resume. If the test rod is inserted the full straight length of a leaking tube without
resumption of air or water flow, the tube being checked is leaking in the opposite straight
length or in the U-bend area. When the tube leak location is determined, mark the rod at the
surface of the tube sheet. Then remove the rod; measure and document the distance from the
washer to the mark. Repeat this test process for each of the leaking tubes. Record the tube
leak information on a tubesheet drawing. The tubesheet drawing can be used to analyze the
leak locations and tube failure mechanisms.
3. Inspect tube ends for inlet-end erosion or obstructions – For heaters with carbon steel or
copper alloy tube materials, the tube inlets should be inspected for erosion. Visually inspect
all tube ends and remove any obstructions. Measure the inside diameter of several tubes in
the inlet pass. Compare this information to the initial tube inside diameters and
6-14
measurements from the last inspection. Excessive thinning may require the installation of
sleeves. For more information on tube inlet erosion, refer to Section 5.2.2.1 in this guide.
4. Inspect stress risers for cracking – Visually inspect all stress risers within the channel to
include the tubesheet/channel-barrel knuckle radius, sheer key grooves, pass partition welds
and fasteners, nozzle penetration welds, etc. If the tubesheet has a weld overlay, a small
mirror should be used to inspect the circumference. This will determine if any delamination
of the overlay has occurred. If cracking is found, an excavation and/or weld repair should be
performed.
5. Inspect sealing surfaces of gasketed closures – Visually inspect all sealing surfaces where
gaskets are used. All cracks, erosion, or other damage should be repaired. This will minimize
the possibility of leakage occurring after reassembly. This can be of particular concern if the
TTD has been increasing and erosion of the pass partition plates is noted. Inspect the pass
partition flange plate for flatness with a straight edge. Heater fabrication errors can result in
bowed flange surfaces that are a source of bypass leakage at the partition cover. Also, check
for bowed partition cover plates that occur from system transients such as water hammer. In
such cases, the pass partition flange and plate should be repaired or replaced. More
information on gasketed surfaces can be found in Section 7.4.3.1 in this guide.
6. Inspect bolted partition plates – Visually inspect for loose or missing bolts and nuts. The
manufacturer may recommend tack welding the nuts. Wiredrawing can occur in the tapped
hole and bolt threads in high-pressure heaters with drilled-through and tapped bolt holes in
the stationary pass partition base. Blind-ended capture nuts or caps can be added behind the
partition base to seal off the flow path.
7. Perform eddy current test (ECT) – An eddy current test can provide a qualitative
indication of the condition of the tubing. This test is most effective when combined with a
tube sample removal for correlation and interpretation of the test results. The test accuracy
can be limited by scaling or fouling on either the inside or outside of the tubes. The use of
multiple frequency analysis can produce better accuracy in the testing results.
Eddy current testing requires prenotification of the inspection contractor. Probes of the
correct tube size and calibration standards are required. More information on eddy current
testing can be found in Section 6.3.4.1 of this guide.
8. Perform individual tube hydrostatic test (ITHT) – When a tube fails in a high-pressure
heater, the feedwater exiting from the rupture impinges upon the surrounding tubes. The
leakage flow can cause serious erosion to adjacent tubes and additional tube failures. This is
one reason why tubes can fail in groups. In the past, it was common to plug tubes (usually
six) adjacent to a failure. This was known as insurance plugging. Insurance plugging was
performed to ensure that any tubes damaged by the erosion were also plugged.
Tools have been developed to hydraulically pressurize individual tubes. This is a destructive
test that is meant to fail tubes with significant wall loss. Generally, the test pressure is higher
than the heater test pressure. It is important to select a reasonable criterion in setting the test
pressure. One criterion is to set the test pressure so that the tubes will reach 85% of the
minimum allowable tensile stress at 70°F (21° C) with a loss of 70% of the wall thickness.
6-15
By using the Heat Exchange Institute tube thickness formula, multiplying the tensile stress by
0.85 for the stress and using 30% of the tube wall thickness, the pressure can be estimated by
the following equation:
Test Press (psig) = (2 * 0.30 * T* 0.85 Stress) / (tube diameter (in.) – 0.80 * 0.30 * T)
Where:
T = tube wall thickness in inches
Stress = tensile stress in lbs/in2
Test Press (MPa) = (2 * 0.30 * T* 0.85 Stress)/(tube diameter (mm) – 0.80 * 0.30 * T)
Where:
T = tube wall thickness in mm
Stress = tensile stress in MPa
This provides a reasonable criterion that includes the tube stresses and tube size. The test
pressure can be adjusted up or down as the situation warrants.
Key Technical Point

Another use of the individual tube hydrostatic test is to verify the eddy
current testing results. For example, when the eddy current results indicate
crack-like signals in the tubes, the suspect tubes can be tested to determine
their structural integrity. If the tubes pass the test, these tubes can be returned
to service. In the case of inside or outside diameter tube pitting, this test is
not effective in assessing the eddy current testing results because of the low
stress riser factor related to pitting flaws.
If the tube does fail from the hydrostatic test, it may be necessary to stabilize the tube to
prevent damage to adjacent tubes. This can be accomplished by installing a rod or cable type
stabilizer. More information on this subject can be found in Section 7.2.1 in this guide.
9. Remove tube sample – Removing a failed tube is recommended for every heater that is eddy
current tested This is the best way to calibrate the defect indications and to gain confidence in
the test results. This may be useful when the tube leak detector finds a failed tube.
Removing a failed tube allows the use of microscopy to provide flaw characterization. Using
scanning electron microscopes with energy-dispersive spectroscopy enables a corrodent to be
detected in the tip of a crack or pit. This is important in determining the tube failure
mechanism.
6-16
Tube sample removal requires a specialized tool to cut and extract the tube from the
tubesheet. This can be a complicated procedure in hemispherical channels. Tube inside-
diameter cutters are usually not a standard size, but they can be fabricated if necessary.
It is not necessary to cut a tube if it is completely severed at the failure. In these cases, the
removal may require only tube joint weld removal, capturing the tube end and jacking out the
sample with a hydraulic cylinder. This can provide a direct examination of the cause of
failure. Sometimes, the dramatic nature of the failure removes important causal evidence.
Such failures can also make removal of the tube sample very difficult if the tube end has
flared open or bent. More information on tube removal can be found in Section 7.2.6 of this
guide.
If a borescope inspection is to be performed, it should be done before the sample is removed.

In this way, the tube can act as a guide to the location of the tube break.
10. Perform additional nondestructive tests – The dye penetrant and magnetic particle tests are
relatively simple. These tests are often used on welds and cut plate edges to check for cracks.
Other nondestructive tests include ultrasonic tests and wet fluorescent dye checks.
When knuckle radius or shear groove cracks are evident or suspected, a shear wave type of
ultrasonic test from the outside of the channel can be used. This test will provide some
reasonable estimates of the type, style, and depth of the cracks. Expert analysis is needed to
determine if the cracks represent a serious or potential impact on the safe operation of the
heater.
11. Inspect existing tube plugs – Determine if the existing tube plugs are leaking. Look for seal
integrity and signs of leakage. Verify the location of the plugs to the tubesheet map.
12. Act on Test Results – After completion of the inspections and tests, the necessary repairs
can be performed. The repairs include tube plugging so the heater can be returned to service.
It is critical to properly document all test results and keep accurate records of the repairs that
were performed. These accumulated data are used in the planning process to prepare for
future inspections.
Perhaps the most significant benefit of a complete off-line heater inspection and testing is in
the area of improved operating practices. Proper analysis of failure causes and patterns can
lead to corrective actions that improve heater reliability, efficiency, and life.
6.2.4 Cleaning (Non-Chemical)
Cleaning is a corrective maintenance activity that would be employed after significant

degradation had been observed. Therefore, cleaning is not considered a preventive maintenance
task for feedwater heaters. Cleaning does not have the objective of extending the life of the tubes
but only removes deposits from the internal surfaces.
6-17
Cleaning should include the following tasks:

• Evaluate the type of performance degradation that has occurred.
• Determine the appropriate cleaning method or process that provides the best results and
limits damage to the heater.
• Consider chemical cleaning as a currently available option.
6.2.5 Chemistry Monitoring and Operator Rounds
Chemistry monitoring is considered an important (but routine) activity in the operation and
maintenance of cooling systems. A separate discussion is not required for feedwater heaters, that
is, it is not considered specifically a feedwater heater PM task; however, it is included in Table
6-3 for completeness.
Operator rounds are included in Tables 6-3 and 6-4 as a PM task. This is performed continuously
and does not appear as a task with an interval in the PM template. Operator rounds can include
activities such as detecting unusual noises or external leaks and monitoring operations
parameters, water levels, and drain flow.
6.2.6 Nondestructive Examination Tasks
Nondestructive examination (NDE) includes a variety of techniques to detect tube erosion

(external and internal), tube scaling, tube cracking or other defects, and the condition of the shell
side inlet nozzle. Among these, tube problems are the most common.
Many of the failure causes are random in nature with a wide range of possible development
times, depending on condition. The occurrence of these events might influence the frequency of
NDE.
The NDE task is not a significant additional effort after the heater has been opened. Performing
NDE is closely associated with the performance of the internal inspection. Although NDE
inspection is primarily a material condition assessment, the information it provides is predictive
of future deterioration.
Key Technical Point

The suggested interval for performing NDE is 5–10 years. The suggested
interval assumes that no abnormal items are discovered during these
inspections. The suggested interval is best interpreted as an average interval
with a sampling scheme that provides a more or less continuous assessment
of condition. To achieve the suggested interval, it is beneficial to perform the
task on a portion of the heaters each outage.
6-18
6.2.7 PM Charts
There are two charts [31] listed in this section and they are:
• Failure locations, degradation mechanisms, and PM strategies – This chart lists the major
heater components, possible degradation mechanisms, and corresponding information on the
mechanisms.
• PM tasks and their degradation mechanisms – This chart lists the major components,
degradation mechanisms, corresponding preventive maintenance tasks, and intervals.
6-19
Table 6-3
Failure Locations, Degradation Mechanisms, and PM Strategies [31]
Failure Location Degradation Degradation Influence Degradation Failure Timing Discovery/Prevention PM Strategy
Mechanism Progression Opportunity
Tubes Erosion - High flow velocity - Continuous Random - Eddy current - NDE inspection
(internal) - Corrosion - Inspection - Internal
(almost always - Non-uniform deposits, for - Continuous or inspection
in heaters with example, copper, random
carbon steel magnetite and scale
tubes)
Erosion - Fluid Impingement - Continuous - Random, can be - Eddy current - NDE inspection
(external) very rapid - Performance - Performance
- Two-phase flow, where - Random - Random monitoring monitoring
the heater is not designed - Operator rounds
for the condition
Chemical - Water chemistry - Continuous or - Random, can be - Inspection - Operator rounds
corrosion random rapid - Monitoring of levels - Internal
- Tube material - Continuous and drain flow inspection
- Chlorides (with stainless - Random - Eddy current - Performance
steel materials) - ∆T monitoring
Defect - Manufacturing defects - Random - Random - Inspection - NDE inspection
- Installation error - Eddy current
Cracking - Vibration - Continuous or - Random - Eddy current - NDE inspection
- Fatigue random - Inspection - Performance
- Chlorides (with stainless - Performance monitoring
steel materials) monitoring - Operator rounds
- Vibration - Internal
- Leak testing inspection
Scaling or - Magnetite or copper from - Continuous - Expect to be - Performance - Performance
deposits other components troublefree for monitoring monitoring
several years - Inspection - Internal
- Eddy current inspection
- Condensate water - Chemistry monitoring - NDE inspection
chemistry
- Residue from oil seal - Random - Random, can be
failures rapid
6-20
Table 6-3 (cont.)

Failure Locations, Degradation Mechanisms, and PM Strategies [31]
Failure Location Degradation Degradation Influence Degradation Failure Timing Discovery/Prevention PM Strategy
Mechanism Progression Opportunity
Tube joint -welded Defect - Improper installation Random Random - Chemistry monitoring Internal inspection
- Abusive transient - Pressure testing
- Plugging - Ultrasonic testing
Tube joint -rolled Defect - Improper installation Random Random - Chemistry monitoring Internal inspection
- Abusive transient - Pressure testing
- Plugging - Ultrasonic testing
Internal hardware: -Loose - Water hammer - Random - Random, on a Audible noise Operator rounds
baffle, diffuser scale of years
partition & support -Failed welds - Vibration - Continuous
plates, tie rods,
spacers, shroud, - Thermal stress
seal end plates,
impingement plates -Erosion (air - Impingement as a - Random - Random and
and air off-take off-take result of a tube failure rapid
systems system) - Two-phase flow,
beyond design
expectations
Tubesheets Cracking of Improper plugging Random Random - Pressure test Internal inspection
ligament - Inspection
Inlet nozzle and -Flow- - Flow rate - Continuous - Random, detect- - Inspection - Internal
surrounding shell accelerated able after two to - UT thickness inspection
area corrosion three years - NDE inspection
-Erosion - Water quality
- Impingement from tube - Random - Random, can be
failure rapid
Closure devices: Gaskets and - Improper installation - Random - Random - Inspection - Operator rounds
channel partitions, leaks - Improper material - Thermal performance - Performance
partition covers, - Age - Continuous - Expect to be monitoring
manways, reversing failure free for
chambers, flange, up to seven
impingement covers years
6-21
Table 6-4
PM Tasks and Their Degradation Mechanisms [31]
PM Task Performance NDE Internal Operator

Monitoring Inspection Inspection Rounds
Interval Monthly or Four Years/As Two Years/ As Each Operator
Not Required Required Required Shift
Failure Location Failure Timing Degradation
Mechanism
Tubes Random Erosion (internal) X X
Random, can be very rapid Erosion (external) X X X
Random, can be very rapid Chemical X X X
corrosion
Random Defect X
Random Cracking X X X X
Expect to be troublefree for Scaling or X X X
several years if deposit is deposit
magnetite or copper;
random and can be rapid
for other deposits
Tube joint - Random Defect X
welded
Tube joint - rolled Random Defect X
Internal hardware: Random, on a scale of -Loose X
baffle, diffuser, years; can be rapid -Failed welds
partition & support
plates, tie rods, -Erosion (air off-
spacers, shroud, take system)
seal end plates,
impingement
plates and air off-
take systems
6-22
Table 6-4 (cont.)

PM Tasks and Their Degradation Mechanisms [31]
PM Task Performance NDE Internal Operator

Monitoring Inspection Inspection Rounds
Interval Monthly or Four Years/As Two Years/ As Each Operator
Not Required Required Required Shift
Failure Location Failure Timing Degradation
Mechanism
Tubesheets Random Cracking of X
ligaments
Inlet nozzle and Random, but detectable Flow-accelerated X X
surrounding shell after two to three years corrosion/erosion
area Random, can be rapid Impingement X X
from tube failure
Closure devices: Expect to be failure free for Gasket leaks X X
channel, up to seven years, some
partitions, partition random
covers, manways,
reversing
chambers, flange,
impingement
covers
6-23
6.3 Nondestructive Examination
Several nondestructive examination (NDE) methods are used to perform a complete feedwater
heater inspection [30]. Accurate diagnoses are dependent on selecting the proper NDE technique
or combination of techniques. The NDE techniques are:
• Visual testing (VT) (covered in Section 6.2.3.2)
• Ultrasonic testing (UT)
• Magnetic particle testing (MT)
• Dye penetrant testing (PT)
• Electromagnetic testing (ET)
Destructive failure analysis is sometimes needed to determine or verify the failure mechanisms
found in the heater.
6.3.1 Ultrasonic Testing
Ultrasonic testing (UT) [27, 32] is a nondestructive examination method that measures the time
and sound path between an entry point of the material and the back reflection. Interpretation of
the back reflection results in the accurate identification of wall thickness and material defects
such as pits and cracks.
Ultrasonic testing can be used to identify weld defects, cracks, etc. in pressure vessel
components. However, surface NDE methods are less expensive. UT is particularly valuable in
determining wall thickness in shells where internal erosion has occurred.
Ultrasonic testing for wall thickness measurement has become extremely accurate in the last few
years because of higher frequency (>20 MHz) transducers and digital, microprocessor-based
instruments. Ultrasonic testing thickness measurements can be easily calibrated for any material
over any reasonable thickness (0.020–0.250 inch) (0.51–6.4 mm) and is accurate when the
material’s acoustic velocity is known.
Ultrasonic testing can discriminate between inside or outside diameter tubing metal loss and
between gradual thinning, step-type fretting, or localized corrosion. One system that is used in
the inspection of heater tubes is called the internal rotary inspection system (IRIS). Ultrasonic
testing is not affected by attachments external to a tube, such as support plates or corrosion
products.
The disadvantages of using UT are:

• The testing is slow.
• The testing makes only point line measurements.
• The testing requires experienced operators.
6-24
The pulse-echo technique can very accurately measure the wall thickness of a tube at the point
where the sound pulse enters the tube wall. System sophistication increases with the number of
transducers used. The number of transducers is a function of the coverage desired for the tube
thickness survey. The number of transducer crystals packed in a probe unit that will fit inside a
heater tube is currently limited to four.
The ultrasonic transducers are mounted along the tube axis so that the sound pulse emitted from
the transducer travels parallel to the tube axis. At an optimum distance from the crystal face, the
pulse is redirected by a 90° mirror. This allows the pulse to enter perpendicular to the inner tube
wall. The coupling medium is deaerated/demineralized water that is supplied to and distributed
by the probe unit and connecting hoses.
Part of the ultrasonic energy is reflected by the inner wall of the tube and returns to the
transducer as the first back echo. The remaining part of the initial pulse penetrates the wall and is
reflected at the outer surface of the tube wall. This pulse returning to the transducer is called the
second back echo or first back-wall echo. A large portion of the initial pulse remains in the tube
wall, bouncing from the inner to the outer tube wall and sending an echo back to the transducer
each time. The result of this effect is that a train of echoes is received by the transducer and is
processed into elapsed time/distance information by the electronic system.
An alternative to the fixed transducer system described above is a single transducer mounted in a
probe with a rotating mirror. This provides 360º degree analysis at the expense of speed of
measurement.
6.3.2 Magnetic Particle Testing
The magnetic particle testing (MT) method [27] is used in the detection of surface and shallow
subsurface flaws such as cracks, forging laps, and nonmetallic inclusions in magnetic materials.
A major advantage over other surface testing methods is that the surface does not have to be
smooth and clean. In addition, the MT technique offers high sensitivity.
MT operates on the principle that induced magnetic lines of force, produced by the activation of
an electromagnetic yoke placed on the equipment, will be interrupted by a defect. The defect
causes leakage of the magnetic flux lines into the air at the location of the defect. Application of
fluorescing magnetic particles suspended in a fluid will collect around the defect, fluoresce, and
outline the defect. The defect is observed with the use of a black light.
6.3.3 Liquid Penetrant Testing
Liquid penetrant testing (PT) [27] is a surface flaw inspection method. It can be applied to both
magnetic and nonmagnetic materials for the detection of surface cracking and surface laps.
The surfaces to be tested must be thoroughly cleaned and relatively smooth (250 rms or better).
PT sensitivity is good but less than the magnetic particle testing method.
6-25
The method operates on the principle that a flaw open to the surface will, by capillary action,
absorb colored dye that is applied to the flawed surface. After a soaking time of approximately
10 minutes, the dye is thoroughly removed and the surface dried. Then a light application of
white powder is sprayed on the surface. The outline of the flaw can be seen as the white powder
blots the dye out of the flaw.
6.3.4 Electromagnetic Testing
Assessment of the condition of feedwater heater tubing to determine remaining service life must
be performed rapidly, and the technique used must provide a high degree of confidence in the
accuracy of the results. In addition, the inspection data must be repeatable so rates of tube
degradation can be determined through periodic inspections during planned outages. Only the
electromagnetic testing (ET) techniques meet these criteria [13, 27].
Some advantages of using ET to test for tube leaks are:

• ET is a proven technology.
• ET is the most widely used technology for internal tube evaluations.
• ET is relatively fast.
• ET signals provide distinct shapes for the different types of flaws and provide clues for
failure analysis.
• Documented ET data can provide excellent life histories of tube wear and predict future
problems.
• ET can be used to evaluate tube supports and baffles in contact with the tubes.
Some disadvantages of using ET techniques are:

• Many variables can lead to inaccurate interpretations of the ET signals.
• ET technicians must have extensive, high-quality training and practical expertise.
• If used as the only form of NDE for evaluating tube condition, ET results can lead to
inappropriate decisions regarding maintenance and/or replacement.
Selection of the most appropriate ET techniques is dictated by the magnetic properties of the
tube material. The testing technique for nonmagnetic alloys (304 SS) is eddy current testing
(ECT). Pulsed ECT has been used to determine shell thickness. Full-saturation ET, partial-
saturation ET, remote-field testing ET, and flux leakage are tests used for the inspection of
magnetic alloys.
6-26
6.3.4.1 Eddy Current Testing
Key Technical Point

The most commonly used NDE technique for determining the condition of
installed tubes is ECT. It is extremely fast, repeatable, good for baseline
screening, and accurate in sizing known defects. However, ECT is very
operator dependent. Quantification of certain types of defects is sometimes
difficult, and other NDE methods must be used in conjunction with ECT.
Eddy current testing (ECT) employs an internal probe specifically designed for the tube inside
diameter and the material being tested [33, 34]. The probe consists of an alternating current coil
that establishes an electrical field that produces a field of eddy currents in the tube. Tube wall
flaws such as wall thinning, cracks, or pits interrupt this field, and the interruptions cause an
impedance change in the coil. The impedance change is reflected as a Lissajous signal and is
measured in terms of signal amplitude and/or signal phase. A flowchart showing the process of
generating eddy currents and magnetic fields is shown in Figure 6-4.
6-27
Figure 6-4
Process of Generating Eddy Currents and Magnetic Fields
In-place tube bundles are inspected from the tube inside diameter by pulling the test probe
through the tube at a constant speed. Tubing can be inspected at rates greater than 1 foot per
second (30.5 cm/sec). During this process, the data can be saved to a magnetic disk for review by
a qualified analyst. Defect type, size, depth, and wall thickness can be determined by comparison
to a suitable calibration standard.
6-28
The tubes are scanned through the absolute and/or differential test modes to achieve full
volumetric inspection along the entire tube length. This is accomplished by fully inserting the
probe and pulling the probe back along the tube length at specified test speeds. The two test
modes are characterized as follows:
• The absolute method is sensitive to gradual tube degradation, such as inside wall erosion,
outside erosion-corrosion, fretting wear, condensate grooving at the support plate locations,
and dimensional variations.
• The differential method is more sensitive to abrupt tube degradation; therefore, it is excellent
for detecting small, localized flaws. Also, the differential coils tend to minimize the effects of
minor variations in tube diameter, chemical composition, and hardness.
The most common setup used in heat exchanger tubing examinations is the external reference,
self-comparison, differential coil arrangement. This arrangement employs two differential
probes, providing both differential and absolute signal responses. It essentially combines the self-
comparison differential coil arrangement with the external reference, absolute coil arrangement.
The external reference, absolute coil arrangement uses two absolute bobbin coils rather than
differential coils in two separate tube samples. The inspection probe works both in the
differential mode for detecting small, localized flaws and in the absolute mode for detecting long
gradual flaws and dimensional variations. Because both modes of operation are employed
simultaneously with this arrangement, it is the practical choice for heat exchanger tubing
examinations.
The inspection objective is to detect and analyze all potential tube flaws. By combining the
analytical capabilities and features of both methods, the qualitative and quantitative accuracy of
eddy current testing is improved.
The optimum inspection system employs a multiple-frequency eddy current instrument. The
eddy current instrument is of the impedance bridge type. For each tube scanned, a permanent
record of the data from both modes of inspection should be produced and used for the data
analysis.
Eddy current test equipment calibration for each heater is performed using sample tubes
(reference standards) of the same electrical resistance and dimensions as the tubes to be
inspected. The sample tubes include a variety of machined artificial flaws that approximate
actual flaws found in in-service heaters. These flaws are used to identify the nature of
discontinuities and to quantify the extent of the damage incurred.
Some of the advantages of eddy current examination include the following:

• Relatively fast. For tubing inspections with a high digital sample rate, test speeds of up to
260 inches per second (6.6 m/s) can be achieved.
• Good sensitivity to material property changes (physical/chemical) of the test object.
• Good sensitivity to surface cracks.
• Portable equipment that is state of the art.
• Easy configuration and application for automated examination.
6-29
• Easy storage of data for past and future review and comparison (useful for data trending).
• Multi-frequency, multi-channel equipment used for efficient monitoring of eddy current
signals.
Some of the limitations of eddy current examination include:

• Eddy currents are affected by the presence of flaws and variation of material properties, such
as conductivity, permeability, geometry, etc.
• Eddy currents are influenced by flaw orientations that make the testing directional.
• Eddy current is mainly used for testing thin materials.
• The sensitivity level for flaw detection is not uniform throughout the test piece. Optimum
detection occurs at the test surface closest to the test coil and decreases exponentially below
the surface.
• Credible eddy current signal interpretation requires a high level of operator training and
awareness.
Because conventional eddy current testing cannot be performed on magnetic tubing material,
there are several alternative eddy current tests that can be performed:
• Full-saturation ET – This procedure uses a magnetic saturation technique that renders the
ferromagnetic tubing to be nonmagnetic. Because of access and space considerations,
magnetic saturation is accomplished with permanent magnets such as neodymium-iron-boron
to saturate the tube wall from inside the tube. This saturation technique is effective for tubes
made of 439 stainless steel, Seacure, Monel, and Al29-4C with a wall thickness of up to
0.035 inches (0.9 mm). After the tube saturation is accomplished, the inspection is very
similar to the conventional eddy current testing, where the coil impedance is monitored and
related to the tubing condition.
• Partial-saturation ET – This technique uses an ET probe equipped with permanent magnets
to partially saturate the tube wall. Because the material permeability is not kept constant by
magnetically saturating the tube wall, this method relies more on monitoring material
permeability changes than material resistivity changes. This technique is applicable to carbon
steel and thick-walled ferritic stainless steel tube materials. Phase discrimination is used for
flaw identification, and flaw sizing is totally dependent on the signal amplitude.
• Remote-field ET – This technique provides a volumetric inspection of ferromagnetic tubing
without magnetically saturating the tube wall. This technique is applicable to all
ferromagnetic tubing including carbon steel, Monel, and ferritic stainless steel. There are
several variations to the remote-field applications for smaller diameter tubing. One technique
relies on monitoring the phase lag information between the transmitter and receiver coils
separated by three to four tube diameters. Another technique involves the monitoring of
receiver signals without any reference to the transmitter signal. Both signal amplitude
information and phase angle information are used to detect and size ferromagnetic tubing
flaws, respectively.
• Flux leakage – Typically, a pair of induction coils are used to detect tubing flaws, one for
inside and outside diameter flaws and another one for only inside diameter flaws. By
6-30
positioning one differentially connected induction coil between the magnet poles, differences
in flux leakage along the tube wall are monitored. A second differential coil placed outside
the magnets is sensitive primarily to residual flux from the inside diameter of tubes and to
deeper outside diameter flaws. Because differential coils are insensitive to gradual wall loss,
some probes are equipped with a number of elements placed around one end of the magnet
pole. Any changes in the total flux caused by the gradual wall reduction are easily detected.
Figure 6-5 represents the eddy current examination process that is applicable to feedwater
heaters.
Figure 6-5
ET Flowchart [33]
The following sections describe the activities involved in the ECT process:
• Pre-outage planning
• Vendor selection
• On-site inspection activities
• Post-inspection activities
6-31
6.3.4.1.1 Pre-Outage Planning
The most important considerations in planning the ECT examination are to:
• Prepare a comprehensive tube sampling scheme to adequately assess current feedwater heater
conditions
• Perform necessary corrective measures, including tube pulls, to help mitigate any existing
problems caused by specific damage mechanisms
• Calculate remaining life and plan for timely feedwater heater replacement/repair
The following tasks should be considered in the pre-outage planning process when implementing
the ECT examination program:
• Gather heater design drawings, past records of operation, maintenance/repair, chemistry, and
previous ECT examination reports
• Establish a tube sampling scheme consistent with an existing numbering system
• Establish tube plugging criteria
• Prepare ECT bid specifications
• Prepare for repair/remedial measures/tube cleaning if necessary
6.3.4.1.1.1 Gather Information
To maximize the benefits of performing ECT on feedwater heaters, the plant should make all
relevant drawings, past inspection and examination reports, and repair records available to the
contracted inspection vendor. These reports and records can be used in pre-outage planning as
follows:
• Past examination reports are used to prepare an ECT examination plan, including a listing of
tubes from known problems areas that will be examined and new tubes selected randomly
from the entire tube bundle.
• Tube sheet maps of plugged tubes and tubes to be examined using a PC-based database
management program are prepared.
• Technical specification sheets, applicable to data acquisition and analysis, are prepared.
These technical specification sheets include, at a minimum, the selection of optimum probes,
operating frequencies, calibration standards, damage-specific calibration curves, and
recording and reporting criteria.
6-32
6.3.4.1.1.2 Tube Sampling Scheme

A basic objective is to optimize the tube sampling plan by using a
combination of targeted and random sampling to minimize the risk of
potential tube failures. A general approach is to test the periphery tubes, the
tubes in the drains cooler zone, the tubes surrounding plugged tubes, and
then a random selection of tubes.
After the tube sampling scheme is determined, the current numbering pattern of the tubes needs
to be followed. The degraded tubes selected in the tube sampling plan can be tested and trended
to assess the damage-specific growth rate, if any.
6.3.4.1.1.3 Tube Plugging Criteria
Establishing suitable plugging criteria [2] is necessary to remove from operation the potential
tube leaks that could cause unscheduled outages. The plugging criteria should maintain an
adequate margin of tubes to allow the intended heat transfer function and should be based on the
allowable wall loss that is specific to the damage form and the component being tested.
Factors that should be considered when determining the tube plugging limit include total heater
service hours, forced outage costs, frequency of inspections, heater performance, results of shell
pressure tests, tube destructive analysis results, history of failures, and so on.

EPRI has developed a Heat Exchanger Plugging Criteria Calculator. The
Calculator [2] is contained in a spreadsheet that determines the allowable
wall loss. The tube plugging criterion is expressed as a percent of tube wall
loss and is generally in the 40–80% wall loss range.
The tube plugging criteria can be calculated from the following formula:
Tube Plugging Criteria (%) = Allowable wall loss – ET Sizing Error
The allowable wall loss considers the following degradation factors:

• Consequence of leakage
• Safety-related equipment
• Damage type
6-33
• Growth rate
• Tube material type
• Available leak detection method
• Water chemistry
• Fouling potential
• Design pressure
• Design temperature
A weight (%) is assigned to each factor. The weight is then multiplied by a low, medium, or high
risk assigned to each degradation factor. The result is a weighted total of the degradation factors.
A sample calculation is shown in Table 6-5.
Table 6-5
Tube Wall Degradation Factors [2]
Factor 5-High 3-Medium 1-Low Risk Weight Deg.

(R) (W) Factor
Leakage Potential Adjacent tube Minimal 3 20% 0.60
consequence radiation failure
release
Safety Safety- Class 2 Class 3 1 15% 0.15
related related component component
Damage type Stress Wear, Pitting, 1 15% 0.15
corrosion and corrosion, erosion
fatigue loose part
cracking
Growth rate >30% 20–29% <20% 3 15% 0.45
Tube Brass alloys CuNi alloys, Titanium 3 10% 0.30
material 304 SS, 400
series SS
Leak method No NA Yes 1 5% 0.05
Water Out of tech Out of admin. Maintained 1 5% 0.05
chemistry spec limits limits within limits
Fouling Raw water All other types NA 1 5% 0.05
potential
Design >500 psi 300–500 psi <300 psi 3 5% 0.15
pressure (3.4 MPa) (2–3.4 MPa ) (2 MPa)
Design >500ºF 300–500ºF <300ºF 3 5% 0.15
temperature (260ºC) (149–260ºC) (149ºC)
Total 2.1
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With a tube wall degradation factor, the allowable wall loss can be determined from Figure 6-6.
Figure 6-6
Finding Allowable Wall Loss [2]
From this example with the calculated tube wall degradation factor of 2.1, the allowable wall
loss is 79%. Assuming the ET sizing error is 10%, the plugging criteria equals 69%
(79% - 10%).
6.3.4.1.1.4 Bid Specification
In order to assess current feedwater heater conditions, a comprehensive scope of work in the
form of a bid specification is prepared by utility engineers. The bid specifications provide an
exact scope of work including specific tube sampling schemes, examination and analysis
methods to use, and criteria for reliable and comparable data recording and reporting formats.
A bid specification can be short with technical details left to be worked out after the vendor
selection has been made, or it can be long with specific feedwater heater examination details
outlined in the technical work scope.
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The following sections are generally included in a bid specification:

• Scope
• Project, name, size, location, and general site conditions
• Definitions
• References
• Equipment and services by the contractor
• Equipment and services by the owner
• Subcontractors
• Quality assurance requirements
• Requirement for storage
• Service, access, and laydown requirements
• Safety requirements
• Exceptions
• Schedule
• Guarantees and warranty
• Documentation to be furnished by the contractor
A more detailed bid specification might include specifics of feedwater heater components
including drawings, vendor qualification, calibration standard drawings, data acquisition/analysis
procedures, records, and so on. In addition, the following sections might also be found in more
detailed bid specifications:
• Scope of examinations
• Eddy current contractor qualifications
• Qualified data acquisition/analysis procedures
• Qualified operators
• General examination approach
• Eddy current examination plan
• Equipment requirements, including probes
• Eddy current calibration standards
• Recording/reporting criteria including consistent tube support locations
• Records
• Preliminary/final reports
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6.3.4.1.1.5 Remedial Measures
For every ECT test being planned, it is a good practice to prepare for plugging defective tubes,
thus removing potential tube leakers from service. In some cases, it is desirable to pull tubes to
perform root cause failure analyses. If feedwater heater life extension is an issue, it is prudent to
be prepared to sleeve the number of affected tubes. More information on tube plugging, tube
removal, and installing tube sleeves can be found in Section 7.2.1 in this report.
6.3.4.1.2 Vendor Selection
ECT vendors respond to a request for proposals to provide ECT examination services. An
examination vendor is selected from those who meet the utility-specified selection criteria. To
maintain the quality of ECT service, it is recommended that the selected vendor undergo site-
specific performance demonstration tests to qualify both the ECT examination techniques and
the data analysts. This request for a successful bidder to undergo performance demonstration
tests is generally included in the bid package.
Performance demonstration involves evaluating the proficiency of selected vendors to reliably

detect and size realistic flaws found in the mockups located at the EPRI NDE Center in
Charlotte, NC. This site-specific performance demonstration focuses on qualifying both
procedures and data analysts on mockups that contain tube damage forms similar to those
expected in the field. The actual demonstration can be conducted at the vendor’s site or at the
EPRI NDE Center.
The two-step demonstration process involves a protocol of reviewing relevant information about
the mockups, for example, feedwater heater history, tube dimensions, locations of tube support
plates, observed damage forms, and other relevant information. Reporting and grading criteria
established for each mockup by the utility and the NDE Center are discussed and disseminated to
the vendor prior to testing. All standards, including an ASME standard necessary to perform the
performance demonstration, are included in the furnished mockups.
Actual data acquisition is performed as a group using the vendor-prepared examination

procedure. Data analysis is conducted separately to evaluate the capability of individual analysts
to analyze data. In general, a passing score of 80% or higher is required for the flaw detection
and sizing phase of the performance demonstration. If unsuccessful on their first try, the vendors
are given a second chance to pass the test after receiving additional training by the NDE Center
administrator. This training typically involves an overview and review of recommended damage-
specific procedures for each mockup that was not successfully tested. Upon successful
completion, the utility can be assured that their feedwater heater components are being tested
using the most suitable and qualified procedure by their selected inspection vendor.
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To implement a successful inspection program, it is important to maintain close communication

with the plant engineer. The following tasks constitute the basic functions of the inspection
vendor:
• Supply eddy current testing equipment including spares
• Supply trained and qualified eddy current technicians
• Prepare examination plans including tube sampling plans and tube examination procedures
• Conduct on-site eddy current examinations per the prepared examination plans
• Perform eddy current data analysis
• Prepare a final report
It is also the responsibility of the vendor to do the following:

• Secure feedwater heater information when preparing examination plans. This would include
drawings, past repair records, and previous inspection outage reports.
• Determine the availability of applicable standards. If not available, fabricate a necessary
number of calibration standards for use and safekeeping at the plant.
• Request the on-site support necessary to perform the inspection.
• Provide daily progress results and report any problems for immediate resolution.
• Prepare preliminary test results with a listing of tubes recommended for corrective actions.
• Assist with the operations involving tube removal such as validation that the correct tubes
have been pulled by confirming the presence of flaw signals, marking flaw locations on
removed tube samples, and identifying upstream/downstream sides of the removed tube
samples to ensure the original tube orientation.
• Participate in an exit interview, discuss the inspection results, and make recommendations.
• Prepare a final report within six weeks of completing the on-site inspection.
The successful completion of the above functions and responsibilities should provide the utility
with an updated condition of the inspected feedwater heater components.
6.3.4.1.3 On-Site Inspection Activities
Before the start of the examination, all relevant documents, including personnel certification,
ECT equipment calibration records, and prepared examination plans for each component should
be reviewed and approved. To allow for data comparison, it is important for the vendor to use the
tube numbering system that was outlined in the examination plan. The inspection station should
be equipped with a table, chairs, and power.
After opening the feedwater heater, a visual inspection should be performed to determine the as-
found conditions. This information should be documented as necessary with pictures. If it is
warranted, a more detailed feedwater heater visual inspection can be conducted using such
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inspection devices as borescopes, fiberscopes, or video probes. These devices can extend into the
tube and allow the operator to view scale, deposits or pitting, if present. See Section 6.2.3.2.1 for
more information on remote visual testing.
In a general inspection of tubes and tubesheets, the following items should be checked to
determine if any applicable corrective actions are necessary:
• Inside diameter pitting and its extent both along the tube and around the inside diameter tube
circumference
• Tube ends or splits; thinning, gnarled ends; and excess tube projection
• Tube-to-tubesheet welds for corrosion
• Tubesheet ligaments for cracks, deformation, discoloration due to de-alloying, and tubercle
formation
During the examination, it is the responsibility of the utility engineer to ensure that the prepared
examination plan is implemented accordingly. The engineer should review the examination
progress daily, compare progress to the planned schedule, and document any delay or lost time.
Daily progress can be tracked using an applicable database management program. The daily
status report from the vendor should include the following items, as a minimum:
• Total number of tubes tested each day and the percent completion to date
• Tubesheet map showing the locations of plugged and obstructed tubes
• Number of degraded and defective tubes in the percent wall loss range that is <20%, 20–
39%, 40–59%, 60–79% and >80%
• Tubesheet map showing the locations of tubes with defective indications
• Documentation of vendor delay/lost time due to circumstances beyond their control
The daily reports allow the utility engineer to assess feedwater heater operability or repairs and
to determine whether the examination scope should be expanded. Also, the furnished status
reports will be used to plan and repair defective tubes by plugging. If an unexpected number of
tubes are found to be defective, the utility should plan to pull tubes during the examination to
perform both root cause analyses and to validate ECT analysis results.
The examination activities, including progress (as compared to the planned completion
schedule), any unforeseen problems, and delayed/lost time should be reported to the plant
manager on a daily basis.
6.3.4.1.4 Post-Inspection Activities
After the inspection activities are completed, an in-depth analysis of test results for immediate
remedial actions and for planning future inspection activities must be conducted. Specific utility
engineer responsibilities include the following:
• Perform an exit interview with the inspection vendor.
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• Obtain preliminary test results followed by a final report within six weeks of the completion
date.
• Prepare a list of tubes to be plugged.
• Identify candidate tubes, if applicable, for tube pulls and destructive analysis.
• Implement recommendations for mitigation of observed damage, heater repair, or heater
replacement.
• Estimate the remaining heater operating life based on the current and prior test results. Plot
the number of tubes plugged versus time (semi-log scale). Look for a sharp increase in the
number of tubes plugged to determine if rapid failure is imminent.
• Communicate significant findings to management, other utilities, EPRI, and vendor
organizations through workshops and symposiums.
Key Technical Point

After the final NDE report has been received, the utility is strongly urged to
record the latest ECT information in a database. This would help the utility
monitor feedwater heater conditions and estimate remaining operating life.
Depending on economic and operational factors, it might be necessary to re-
evaluate the established plugging criteria because it ultimately affects the
remaining feedwater heater operating life.
In order to allow comparison and trending of successive ECT examination results, the final
report must be comparable and consistent. The following outlined sections, as a minimum,
should be included as part of the final report:
• Introduction – The introduction provides background information on all of the components
that were tested, reasons for performing ECT examinations, and the desired objectives.
• Examination Scope – The examination scope should note all of the inspected feedwater
heater components along with the actual number of tubes that were examined for each
component.
In addition, all material- and damage-specific ECT technical specification sheets should be
included for each feedwater heater component. This includes essential inspection variables,
including standards and calibration curve setups, which are detailed in the system-specific
data acquisition and analysis procedures. All applicable procedures and drawings of the
calibration standards would be included as appendices to the examination report. Similarly,
all applicable equipment and personnel certification records should be included in the
appendices.
• Examination Results – The examination results section summarizes the overall condition of
the inspected feedwater heater components. In general, a one-page summary table is
prepared, followed by detailed descriptions of the tube conditions for each of the examined
6-40
feedwater heater components. The following information is typically found in the summary
table:
– Identification of the inspected feedwater heater components
– Tube material types and sizes
– Total number of installed tubes per heater
– Number of previously plugged tubes
– Number of blocked or restricted tubes
– Actual number/percentage of tubes tested
– Number of tubes recording damage by percent wall loss range
♦ 80% or greater wall losses
♦ 60–79% wall losses
♦ Less than 20% wall losses
– Number of tubes exceeding plugging criteria, thus recommended for plugging
– Number of degraded tubes equal to or greater than 20% but less than the plugging criteria
for monitoring and estimating flaw growth rate
– From the summary table, more detailed examination results are presented for each
component. A compilation of analyzed datasheets would show, as a minimum, the
following information:
♦ Header information containing the name of the company, plant site, unit
number, feedwater heater designation, and date
♦ Tubes tested and identified in terms of row and tube number
♦ ECT amplitude/phase angle information from a selected analysis channel
♦ Location of ECT indications with reference to known tube support plate
number or referenced tube end
♦ Applicable three-letter code to characterize tubing conditions
♦ Extent of tubes tested, for example, full length or partial
The type and nature of damage forms are based on the combination of past feedwater heater
experiences, flaw locations, and ECT signatures. The nature of evaluated tubing conditions is
provided in the analyzed data sheets using three-letter codes. Additionally, copies of
printouts showing ECT Lissajous figures can be included for those defective indications that
exceed a pre-established plugging criterion.
If tube pulls were performed in order to conduct root cause failure analysis, this information
will typically not be included as part of the examination report. Another service vendor or
another group within the organization performing the inspection typically does the
metallurgical analysis, and their findings are generally reported separately. It may be useful
to have a copy of the failure report summary included in the final report.
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• Tubesheet Maps – To aid in assessing the feedwater heater condition graphically, tubesheet
maps are generally included as part of the examination report for each of the inspected
components. These maps are generated using the same database management software that
was used initially to prepare the examination plans.
Typically, tubesheet map header information will include the customer name, plant name,
feedwater heater designation, and inlet/outlet side. In addition, the tubesheet map will include
the status of each examined tube, possibly using color-coded and unique identification marks
representing the following tube conditions:
– Plugged tubes
– Restricted/obstructed tubes
– 80–100% wall loss
– <20% wall loss
A longitudinal layout of the heater, showing tube support positions dimensionally and
numbering should also be included.
• Recommendations – This section provides specific recommendations based on the
examination results. Generally, any defective tubes exceeding the plugging criteria and/or
more than 10% of the examined tubes showing a growth rate of more than 10% wall losses
should be targeted for re-examination during the next refueling outage. Also, an increase in
the tube sampling plan might be recommended, based on the severity of the inspected
feedwater heater conditions. Otherwise, examination of the feedwater heater component can
be extended to every three years or three cycles, whichever is less, if operating conditions
remain the same.
• Database management software – After the ECT examination is complete, the acquired
data is analyzed for the presence or absence of tubing flaws. Data analysts record the
conditions of each analyzed tube using either three-letter codes (for example, NDD to denote
no detectable defect, DNT to denote a dent, and so on) or specified percent wall losses. In the
end, a report is generated for each analyzed tape, disk, or calibration group. These reports can
then be imported into a specialized database management program (DBMP). A DBMP can
be used to:
– Create examination plans and design tubesheet maps of the feedwater heaters
– Plot imported results based on queries created by the user
– Compare one outage to another using queries and plot the results on a tubesheet map
– Export data into spreadsheet applications to create trending or growth charts
Most DBMPs offer colored tubesheet maps and symbols that are controlled by the user.
Currently, the following three commercial PC-based software programs are available:
6-42
– EddyVision 32 Database Management Software (32 bit) marketed by CoreStar

International
– ISIS-Tube/HX Trends for Windows (16 bit) marketed by ABB Combustion Engineering
– Tubesheet Mapping and Reporting System (TMARS) (32 bit) marketed by Zetec
Additional information on these products is provided in EPRI report, Evaluation of PC-

Based Eddy Current Database Management Programs, GC-110388 dated December 1988.
6.3.4.2 Pulsed Eddy Current Testing
In one program, EPRI evaluated the pulsed eddy current technology [35] that was developed by
Rontgen Technische Dienst, a company in the Netherlands. This technology was under license
from ARCO and is commercially available in the name of Incotest. Pulsed eddy current testing is
used to determine the thickness of feedwater heater shells.
Pulsed eddy current detects the presence of defects by inducing eddy currents in the insulation
jacket and in the outside surface of the pipe. The change in the magnetic field is monitored as the
currents diffuse and permeate the pipe and the wall of the insulation jacket. The wall thickness is
then measured by recording the time it takes for the currents to diffuse and permeate the pipe
wall and comparing the time with calibration standards.
Pulsed eddy current testing has been increasingly used in feedwater heater condition assessments
because of the following features:
• The technology measures the wall thickness of the heater through the insulation. This
eliminates the cost of insulation removal.
• The probe can penetrate a carbon steel shell up to several inches (2 inches = 51 mm) thick
• The probe requires no contact with the shell and can be applied to on-line heaters.
• The testing is not affected by the shell’s curvature, coatings, cladding, or the insulation type.
• The probe can compensate for lift-off and jacket material type.
• The probe is tolerant of misalignment and rocking.
• The probe is not sensitive to the operator’s skill level.
6-43
The technique focuses on a relatively large area that limits its application to widespread
corrosion. This is the case with flow-accelerated corrosion. Limitations of the technology
include:
• Assessment over a broad area
• May underestimate wall loss and miss areas of localized damage
• May require re-calibration at various locations in the vessel
Based on the initial results, the pulsed eddy current technology is best used to detect and monitor
the progress of flow-accelerated corrosion in feedwater heaters after some corrosion has
occurred. In its early stages, wear damage appears to be shallow and covers a small area. As the
damage progresses, the wall loss and the affected area increase.
The results suggest that the pulsed eddy current technology provides information about the shell
condition after the wall loss exceeds 20%, combined with a minimum area of 10 inches (25 cm).
For erosion conditions below this threshold, the pulsed eddy current technology is not reliable. It
is one of EPRI’s ongoing efforts to gain access to a large heater database that will quantify this
detection boundary and to work with the technology developer to reduce the footprint to achieve
more accurate inspection tools.
Based on the results obtained in this evaluation [35], it was concluded that:
• In cases of wear with a large area extent, the pulsed eddy current and ultrasonic wear patterns
closely matched.
• In cases of wear with a relatively small area extent, the pulsed eddy current technology did
not detect the presence of flow-accelerated corrosion damage.
• The flow-accelerated corrosion safety factor should be increased when assessing feedwater
heater shells with pulsed eddy current technology.
• The pulsed eddy current technology provides information about the shell conditions after the
wall loss exceeds a threshold value, combined with a minimum area extent.
6-44
Figure 6-7 shows a picture of an NDE technician taking readings on feedwater heater insulation.
Figure 6-7
Taking Pulsed Eddy Current Readings on the Feedwater Heater Shell [35]
6.3.5 Component Testing
NDE techniques used for the testing of the channel and tubesheet area and the shell and nozzle
area are described in the next sections.
6.3.5.1 Channel and Tubesheet Area
Visual testing (VT) is a viable technique for inspecting the channel and tubesheet area. Magnetic
particle testing and liquid penetrant testing should be used to examine the partition welds, nozzle
welds, and the channel-to-tubesheet radius. Ultrasonic testing may be used to determine the
channel thickness. Because of the complex geometry of a feedwater heater channel, it is difficult
to evaluate flaws such as cracks at the channel-to-tubesheet radius.
The advantages of VT are low cost and speed. If the examiner is highly skilled in the technique
and knowledgeable of the expected degradation mechanisms, most discontinuities will be found.
The surface preparation required is wire brushing and grinding.
Minor surface cracks might not be identified by the examiner. Therefore, MT or PT of partition
welds and the channel-to-tubesheet radius should be performed. Because the tubesheet and
channel materials are magnetic, MT is usually preferred. Discontinuities that are located
perpendicular to the axis of the yoke can be found. It is difficult to apply the yoke perpendicular
to the channel radius. For the channel welds that cannot be tested by MT, PT can be used.
6-45
Ultrasonic testing (UT) for the thickness of the channel can be performed. Ultrasonic testing flaw
analysis of cracks emanating from the inside (for example, cracks in the channel radius) is
difficult to evaluate. This difficulty is a result of:
• The thickness of the channel
• The need to remove insulation
• The need for extremely good surface preparation
• The varying surface geometry of the forging
6.3.5.2 Shell and Nozzle Area
Ultrasonic testing, visual testing, and pulsed eddy current testing are the three NDE techniques
used to determine the thickness of shells and nozzles [24]. Thickness surveys should be made in
the shelf areas that are susceptible to impingement erosion.
Ultrasonic testing for thickness measurements is easy to perform and can be made rapidly if
digital display UT equipment is used. Indications of shell wall loss should be verified with UT
equipment of the cathode ray tube type. Laminations on older shells are common and must be
identified as laminations and not shell wall loss.
Recommendations for inspecting the feedwater heater shell areas for flow-accelerated corrosion
damage are:
• Extraction steam inlet nozzle
Heater nozzles should be inspected using UT, following the guidance of the EPRI guide,
Recommendations for an Effective Flow Accelerated Corrosion Program, NSAC-202L-R2
(Nuclear Safety Analysis Center) April 1999. The grid size should be the lesser of 6 inches
(15 cm) or πD/12, where D is the nozzle diameter.
• Heater shell
Both ultrasonic testing and the pulsed eddy current technique have been used for heater shell
inspections. Many U.S. and Canadian plants have used UT, with a grid size of 2–4 inches
(51–102 mm) to inspect the feedwater heater shell. This grid size seems to adequately detect
the presence of wear and can continue to be used. However, a grid size of 4 inches (10 cm)
might be too coarse near a small nozzle (for example, 6 or 8 inch (15–20 cm)). The following
grid sizes shown in Table 6-6 are compatible with the grid sizes recommended in the EPRI
guide, Recommendations for an Effective Flow Accelerated Corrosion Program, NSAC-
202L-R2 (Nuclear Safety Analysis Center) April 1999, for pipes and nozzles.
6-46
Table 6-6
Recommended Grid Sizes [24]
Nozzle Size (D) in Max. Nozzle Grid Size Heater Shell Grid
Inches (mm) in Inches (mm) Size in Inches (mm)
6 (152) 1.73 (44) 2 (51)
8 (203) 2.25 (57) 2 (51)
10 (254) 2.81 (71) 2 (51)
12 (305) 3.33 (85) 3 (76)
14 (356) 3.67 (93) 3 (76)
16 (406) 4.19 (106) 4 (102)
18 (457) 4.71 (120) 4 (102)
20 (508) 5.23 (133) 4 (102)
>24 (610) 6.00 (152) 4 (102)
In cases where the grids surrounding two nozzles overlap, it is recommended that the smaller
grid size be used for both inspections.
The grid sizes in Table 6-6 should be sufficient to detect the presence of wear. However, this
grid size may not be small enough to determine the extent and maximum depth of the wear.
Therefore, where inspections reveal wall thinning, reduced grid sizes should be used to map the
depth and extent of the thinned area. Scanning between the grid points can also be used for
mapping.
Additionally, the heater internal drawings should be reviewed when planning for inspection.
When the heater internals are in close proximity to the shell wall, very localized wear can occur.
This wear can be missed by the 2 x 2 inch (51 x 51 mm) grids. In these localized areas, scanning
between grid points and ultrasonic testing at grids smaller than Table 6-6 should be used.
6.4 Destructive Testing and Analysis
NDE identifies the severity and location of defects. This information and a knowledge of the
materials in service, the system design, and operating experience provide a sufficient basis for
determining the cause of failure. However, it may be necessary to perform destructive testing to
obtain a root cause failure analysis [13, 27]. This becomes critical when certain aqueous
corrosion mechanisms are suspected as the predominant failure cause.
Feedwater heater tubes sometimes fail through corrosion for reasons that can be determined only
through destructive failure analysis. For more information on pulling a tube for destructive
analysis, see Section 7.2.6 in this guide.
Tube samples sometimes provide the necessary information from direct visual observations.
However, there are many situations in which laboratory analyses are required, especially if
6-47
complex failure modes are suspected. For such special analyses, it is important to select a
laboratory experienced in feedwater heater examinations and to provide that laboratory with all
the data relating to the failure, such as:
• Specific composition of tube material alloys
• Full range of water chemistry experienced by the tubes, including possible contaminants left
from previous maintenance on the heater or the steam/drain piping
• Pressures and temperatures of normal and abnormal operations
• Data from all forms of NDE inspection (ET, UT, VT, MT, PT)
• Samples of tube corrosion products, if applicable
• Likely failure modes and reasons for suspecting them.
• Pertinent plugging maps
• Age of the heater
• Layup conditions
• Condition of like heaters in the unit
• Condition of heater tubes adjacent to the tube pulled
Some of the test results that can be expected from the metallurgical lab include:
• Metallurgical/chemistry analysis
• Measurement of significant mechanical properties
• Metallography
• X-ray diffraction
• Inductively coupled plasma spectroscopy
• Scanning electron microscopy
• Energy dispersive spectroscopy
• Scanning auger microanalysis
• Electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis
• Rotating eddy current test
• Rotating ultrasonic test
6-48
A root cause failure analysis consists of an extensive review and evaluation of all factors that
could have contributed to the component failure or its severely corroded condition. When this
work has been completed, the root cause is determined through a logical process of elimination.
The failure analyst is obligated to:
• Identify the failure mechanism(s)
• Determine the general cause(s), such as metallurgical deficiencies, operational- or layup-
induced cause(s), or aqueous environment
• Determine the specific cause(s), such as corrosive surface inclusions, sensitization,
blockages, inappropriate/ineffective water treatment, inadequate layup procedures, or
cavitational flow
Using these analytical techniques, the cause or causes of failure can be identified. Appropriate
corrective actions can then be stated, and a remaining life projected.
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7
REPAIRS
This section covers:

• Tube leak detection methods
• Tube repairs
• Tube-to-tubesheet repairs
• Diaphragm, pass partition, channels, and covers
• Miscellaneous repairs
• Spare parts
7.1 Tube Leak Detection Methods
To detect feedwater heater tube leaks, operators commonly monitor heater water levels, terminal
temperature differences between water and steam, and stem positions on liquid level control
valves. However, given the volume of water passing through the heaters, leaks must be quite
large before becoming detectable by these means [27].
After a tube leak starts within a heater, it may be hours or days before the leak is discovered. In
the meantime, thermal efficiency losses caused by the leak and damage to adjacent tubes can
reduce plant efficiency significantly and cause the unit to come off-line.
Once the presence of a tube leak is detected, determining which heater in a train is leaking can be
difficult. Not only is leak detection delayed, but in some cases, the wrong heater is taken off-line,
which adds to an already inefficient situation. By contrast, if leaks are reliably detected early,
plant personnel can take a leaking heater off-line for repair before adjacent tubes are damaged.
The following are some leak detection methods:

• Operation indications
• Acoustic leak detection on-line and off-line
• Shell pressurization off-line
• Leak location within the tube
• Eddy current testing off-line (covered in Section 6.3.5.1)
7-1
Repairs
7.1.1 Operation Indications
One of the easiest leakage monitoring methods is to mark the stem position of the normal drain
valve and check the position during each operating shift. This method can be improved by
developing a valve flow versus stem position calibration curve.
Indications of leakage can also be found from:

• Increasing water level in the heater
• Increasing terminal temperature difference (TTD)
• High-level alarms actuation
• Opening of the high-level dump valve to the condenser
• Discrepancy between the condensate and feedwater flow indicators
• Drain valve stem position higher than normal or an increasing air demand signal for air-
operated control valves
• Excessive pressure drop across the integral drains cooler
With the heater off-line, a tube leak can be detected by checking the shell-side drains with the
tube side in operation. This can be done after removing the heater from service and before
shutting down the tube-side flow. Checking the shell-side drains with the tube side in service can
also be performed during heater startup.
7.1.2 Acoustic Leak Detection
When a leak develops in a pressurized heater tube, turbulence associated with the water
emanating from the leaking tube generates pressure disturbances in the surrounding medium.
These disturbances or sound waves are propagated through the shell-side steam medium, the
water-side fluid medium, and the heater structure. Using accelerometers or piezoelectric or other
pressure transducers in contact with the medium of interest, monitoring systems can transform
the energy associated with these mechanical displacements into proportional electrical signals.
By tracking trends in the root mean square (rms) voltage generated with the aid of such sensors,
leak detection systems enable utilities to detect tube leaks early [36]. See Figure 7-1 for a heater
leak detection system.
7-2
Repairs
Figure 7-1
Schematic of a Feedwater Heater Leak Detection System [36]
The earliest application of acoustic leak detection in feedwater heaters involved adapting
pressure transducers from boiler tube leak detection systems. These transducers were sensitive to
airborne sound. In that application, the transducers were placed on the drain lines of the heaters
and were in contact with and sensitive to fluid-borne disturbances on the shell side of the heaters.
Any leaks in the feedwater heater tubing generated sound waves that propagated throughout the
fluid medium and impinged on the sensing devices located in the belly drain.
The original low-frequency (2–20 kHz) systems performed relatively well, readily detected
simulated leaks through holes as small as 0.01 inch (0.25 mm), and successfully located leaks in
several utility heaters. However, these systems also indicated leak conditions when no leak was
present and, in some instances, failed to detect leaks. During fluctuating load conditions, the heat
cycle flow and feedwater train background noise varies. The low-frequency, fluid-borne
transducers detect a considerable increase in background noise during load changes. This
increase in background noise can mask the onset of leakage.
High-frequency (20–175 kHz) leak detection monitoring is more effective and reliable than low-
frequency monitoring. This is because high-frequency sensors are less affected by normal
operating plant noises and fluctuating plant parameters. However, because low-frequency
sensors can provide a variety of useful data, system manufacturers have developed dual-
frequency sensors and dual-frequency amplifier/filter modules that can look at both frequency
bands.
The dual-frequency equipment has been successfully demonstrated at the former Philadelphia
Electric Company’s Eddystone Station, Peach Bottom Nuclear Plant, and the former Pacific Gas
and Electric Company’s Moss Landing Plant.
7-3
Repairs
The acoustic leak detection system is used to monitor the heaters while on-line. However, the
system can also be used during hydrostatic testing of the heater off-line.
Feedwater leak detection systems consist of sensors, signal-processing equipment, and output
displays. The high-frequency, structure-borne sensors are coupled to the tubesheet using a metal
waveguide. The low-frequency sensors are mounted on the outlet drain line and the inlet
feedwater line of the heater.
For additional information on acoustic leak detection, see Acoustic Feedwater Heater Leak
Detection Systems, AP-101840-V2P14 [36].
7.1.3 Shell Pressurization
The most widely used methods for leak detection using shell-side techniques are [13]:
• Pressurized Air – This is the most common method of leak testing in use today. The shell
side is pressurized with compressed air (approximately 30–40 psig [207–276 kPa]). A leak-
check solution is distributed over the tubesheet face. Leakage is then checked visually by
looking for bubble formation. Tube-to-tubesheet joints and installed tube plugs can also be
checked in this manner. Care should be taken not to stand directly in front of the plugs during
testing, especially if they are of the driven-in type. Tube leaks can also be found by using
one’s hand to find an emerging draft. Large leaks are obvious. Smaller leaks might not be
identified until the larger leaks are plugged and the unit is re-tested.
• Water – The shell side of a horizontal heater is filled gradually with water. The tubesheet is
constantly scanned for water emerging from tubes. Leaks must be identified and sealed for
inspection purposes using the appropriately sized rubber stoppers or removable test plugs. By
temporarily plugging leaking tubes, testing of tubes higher in the bundle is possible. Sealing
leaks permits testing of tubes higher in the bundle. This method may prove indeterminate if
the tube or tube-to-tubesheet failure is small and only standing head pressure is applied. This
is one of the safest methods, but it is also messy if there are many large leaks.
• Vacuum – The shell side is subjected to a vacuum and the tubesheet inspected by covering it
with an airtight layer, such as wax paper or clear plastic. Leaking tubes and tube-to-tubesheet
joints will be identified by depressions in the material. The leaking tubes should be plugged
with the appropriately sized rubber stoppers or removable test plugs to allow for the testing
of other tubes. If the leak test is conducted without stoppers, the possibility exists that smaller
leaks will be undetected.
Another test method is to plug all the tubes on both ends of the bundle with rubber stoppers.
The shell side of the heater is subjected to vacuum. The plugged tubes are exposed to
vacuum for one to two hours. During that time, the air is evacuated from the leaking tubes.
The rubber stoppers are removed on one side of the tube bundle in a controlled manner. The
rubber stopper on a leaking tube is very hard to remove. The sound of air rushing into a
leaking tube can easily be heard after the stopper is lifted. All the other stoppers come out
easily. This method can find very small tube leaks.
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Another test method can be used on low-pressure heaters installed in the condenser neck
where steam extraction isolation valves are not present. The tube-side channel is filled with
water with the shell drained and vented. A vacuum is established on the channel through the
vent line. A manway view port fixture designed for vacuum conditions is temporarily
installed on the channel manway. With the channel filled with water and vacuum applied by
an air ejector, any tube leaks can be identified through the manway view port by air bubbles
escaping from the tube end.
During heater testing with water on the tube side and vacuum on the shell side, the feedwater
nozzles can be plugged. Temporary installation of rubber inflatable plugs in the feedwater
piping nozzles minimizes the amount of water needed to flood the heater, eliminates the
effect of leaking isolation valves, and reduces the operator coordination of isolating the
heater. With the rubber plugs in place, the channel is filled to just above the top tube row.
This leaves an air space for water expansion during the vacuum application. This prevents
water from being drawn up the vent line to the air ejector.
• Halogen – The shell side is purged of air and filled with a halogen gas. An electronic sniffing
device is then used to detect any leakage. This method is generally helpful in determining if
leakage is present. It is difficult to use when trying to identify the specific tube, especially if
multiple leaks are present.

It is important to verify that the leak is a tube leak and not a tube-to-
tubesheet joint leak. One way to verify that the leak is not a joint leak is to
install a rubber stopper in the tube during leak testing. If there are leaks
detected with the rubber stopper installed, then the leak may be in the joint.
7.1.4 Leak Location in Tube
Identifying the exact location of the tube leak within the tube can be difficult. However, the
location is important in determining the probable cause of failure. In U-tube feedwater heaters,
the following details should be determined:
• The pass in which the failure occurred
• The failure location distance from the tubesheet
• The overall length of the failure if possible
A test probe, similar to the one described in Section 6.2.3.3.2, can be used to determine the leak
location within the tube. The probe usually consists of a flexible rod or stiff wire with rubber or
fiber washers attached. Tygon or similar plastic tubing can be substituted for the rod. The tubing
outside diameter should be slightly smaller than the heater tube bore. The use of plastic tubing
can provide a faster test method because of the material’s flexibility and the ability to be passed
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through the U-bend. The diameter of the washers should be the same diameter as the tube bore.
A picture of the probe is shown in Figure 7-2.
Figure 7-2
Tube Leak Locator [33]
After the test probe has been assembled, the shell side of the heater is pressurized with air or
nitrogen. As the probe is introduced into one end of a leaking tube, the pressurizing gas flows out
the corresponding tube end in the other pass. As the probe is fed into the tube, it eventually
passes over the leak, and the pressurizing gas briefly flows from both passes. After the probe
passes beyond the failure, air or nitrogen will flow only from the tube end where the probe is
inserted. This test method does not work if there are two failures in the same tube, if the tube is
bent, or if the internal tube wall surfaces are very rough.
Additional visual information can be obtained by using a borescope or fiberscope to examine the
leaking tube. An individual tube hydrostatic test procedure is given in Section 6.2.3.3.2 of this
guide.
7.2 Tube Repairs

• Tube plugging
• Tube plugs
• Plug removal
• Tube sleeves
• Tube pulling
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Repairs
7.2.1 Tube Plugging
Identifying the locations of small leaks can be difficult. When a leak has become large enough to
be identified, the leaking tube may have caused damage to adjacent tubes. The adjacent tubes
may be damaged enough that they begin to leak.

In the past, when a tube leak was identified and plugged, the tubes
surrounding the leaking tube were also plugged to reduce the risk of future
tube failures when the heaters were returned to service. This practice was
known as insurance plugging. With the use of eddy current testing, this
practice is declining. Insurance plugging causes an unnecessary number of
functional tubes to be plugged prematurely.
Time constraints can influence how a leaking tube is repaired. For example, a tube leak may be
plugged with a temporary tube plug and insurance plugging performed on the tubes around the
leaking tube when outage time is at a premium. At the next planned outage, the temporary tube
plugs can be removed, and testing can be performed on the leaking tube and adjacent tubes to
determine the actual condition. Only the defective tubes would then be plugged with a permanent
plug, and the insurance plugged tubes would be returned to service [34]. A flowchart illustrating
these decisions is shown in Figure 7-3.
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Figure 7-3
Tube Leak Flowchart
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As a minimum, the following requirements should be met in preparation for plugging tubes:
• The tubes to be plugged should be located and clearly identified. Both ends of the same tube
should be clearly marked and plugged. A common mistake occurs when marked tube ends
are mismatched and plugged. Then “additional” leaks are detected during the pressure testing
after the tube plugging or when the heater is returned to service. Several ways to ensure that
both ends of the same leaking tube are marked correctly include passing a flexible probe or
rod through the tube, injecting air through one end of the tube, and so on. A laser pointer can
be used in a straight-tubed heater.
• Tubes to be plugged should be cleaned as necessary to ensure a proper seal between the plug
and tube or tubesheet.
• A plugging procedure should be made available for review and approval.
• If welded plugs are used, the weld procedure should specify adequate preheat and post-weld
stress relief. Warping of the tubesheet and damage to adjacent tube joints can occur if the
proper stress relieving is not performed.
• If necessary, the failed tube should be stabilized to prevent additional damage to neighboring
tubes. See Section 7.2.1.1 for more details on tube stabilizing.
• After the plugging operation, leak testing of the plugged tubes is recommended.
• The tube locations and types of plugs should be recorded for future reference. This
information should be recorded on the tubesheet map.
• Violating or perforating the tube to eliminate the risk of pressure buildup in it can be
performed. This should be done only if there is no intention of returning the tube to service.
Where the clearance or access to the tube end is limited, compact plug installation tools can be
used. Limited access can occur in the tube row adjacent to the partition plate and in the
outermost tubes in the hemi-head style heaters. A compact hydraulic ram can be used to install
the breakaway style plugs. Also, breakaway plugs can be manually installed with an installation
tool similar to the one shown in Figure 7-4.
Figure 7-4
Special Plugging Tool
Courtesy of Expansion Seal Technologies, Harleysville, PA
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Installation is accomplished by inserting the tool and plug assembly into the tube end. Tightening
the nut draws the conical pin through the sealing ring and expands the ring outward. A reaction
arm braces against the head wall or partition plate and prevents the tool from spinning as the nut
is tightened. The integral breakaway piece controls the sealing force of the plug against the tube.
See Section 7.2.2.3.1 for more information on how the breakaway plug is installed.
7.2.1.1 Tube Stabilizing
Tube stabilizing can be accomplished by inserting rods or cable into the tube to provide
additional internal support. The rods or cable should be long enough to bridge the defective
region of the tube. The rods or cable should extend through the next support plate and preferably
extend through the next two support plates. One end of the stabilizer should be anchored to the
tube and/or tubesheet to prevent migration within the tube during heater operation. Tube
stabilizers can be fabricated on-site or purchased commercially. A typical rod and cable tube
stabilizer is shown in Figure 7-5.
Figure 7-5
Rod and Cable Tube Stabilizer
A tube needs to be stabilized if it is severed. The severence can occur in an area of high cross-
flow, such as the drains cooler section or near the inlet or outlet nozzles. If the severed tube is in
an area where damaging mechanisms are occurring, a group of tubes can be stabilized to prevent
the problems from moving into the tube bundle.
Rods can be sized close to the tube inside diameter. Therefore, it is suggested to use rods in tubes
that have already failed. Cable stabilizers should be used if the break occurs in the U-bend (to
support existing tubes) and in locations where rod stabilizers are difficult to install.
Typically, the tube stabilizer is 1/16 to 1/8 inch (1.6 to 3.2 mm) smaller than the tube inside
diameter. The stabilizer should be no larger than 1/2 inch (13 mm) in a 0.555 inch (14 mm)
diameter tube, 5/8 inch (16 mm) in a 0.680 inch (17 mm) diameter tube, or 3/4 inch (19 mm) in a
0.819 inch (21 mm) diameter tube. If a cable is used as a tube stabilizer and the tube cannot be
restored to service, the cable should be a little smaller.
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The stabilizer material should match or be galvanically compatible with the tube material.
Typically, the cable material is a stainless steel material, and the rod stabilizer material can be
carbon steel or stainless steel. If the heater tube material contains copper, then the stabilizer
material should be galvanically compatible with the copper in the tube.
If a cable is used for a severed tube, a sheath can be installed over the cable to protect it. The
sheath should be a hard material such as stainless steel tubing. It should be attached to the cable
by crimping. Welding should not be used because of the establishment of a heat-affected zone.
Welding can also sensitize the cable, and the cable wires can be burned through during the
welding process.
Another option in using the cable on a severed tube is to use a cable of thick construction, such
as a 1 by 7 strand. Each cable strand is thick enough to resist being eroded by the tube. However,
the cable is stiff and can be difficult to bend for insertion in the peripheral tubes.
Only one end of the cable should be anchored. If the cable cannot slide in the tube, the cable may
not require anchoring at all.
7.2.2 Tube Plugs
The plugging of leaking tubes is the most common and one of the most important of the
corrective maintenance activities [13]. Plug designs can be categorized as follows:
• Hammer-in taper type
• Elastomer type
• Mechanical type
• Welded type
7.2.2.1 Hammer-In Taper Type
This is the plug with the simplest design. The plug has a gradual taper that produces mechanical
contact and a seal near the tubesheet extremity of the tube. The plug material should be
compatible with the tube to be plugged and is usually softer than the tube material. Brass and
various steel alloys are currently used. This application is normally limited to low-pressure
heaters where the tube-side pressure is consistently greater than the shell-side pressure. If
possible, inside diameter threads should be placed in the end of the plug to aid in future removal.
A picture of a hammer-in taper plug is shown in Figure 7-6.
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Figure 7-6
Hammer-In Taper Plug [13]
Characteristics of the hammer-in taper plug are the following:

• This is an inexpensive plug.
• It is quick and easy to install with a hammer.
• It is removable with a pipe wrench or by drilling.
• Loose fit-up can result in dislodging the plug from pressure and temperature cycling.
• Over-driving the plug can crack the ligaments or loosen the adjacent tube-to-tubesheet joints.
• Surface imperfections on the tube interior can provide multiple leak paths.
• This plug requires good hole preparation and concentricity.
Another type of hammer-in taper plug is a two-piece ring and pin design plug that uses a
matching taper on the inside of the ring to distribute the force of the driven pin. There is a
uniform snug fit over the length of the plug that is an improvement over the one-piece taper plug.
See Figure 7-7 for a two-piece ring plug.
Figure 7-7
Two-Piece Ring Plug
Courtesy of Elliott Tool Technologies, Dayton, OH
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Characteristics of the two-piece ring plug are the following:

• There is greater contact area between tube and plug when compared with the one-piece
tapered plug.
• This plug is easy to install with a hammer.
• This is an inexpensive plug.
• It is removable with a pipe wrench or by drilling.
• The plug can dislodge if the fit-up is too loose.
• The plug can damage the ligaments and adjacent tube joints if it is hammered too hard. There
is less risk for the two-piece ring plug than for the one-piece taper plug.
• Surface imperfections on the tube interior can provide multiple leak paths.
• Potential leak paths may develop between the pin and ring as well as the ring and tube.
7.2.2.2 Elastomer Type
The elastomer type plugs are designed to seal in high-pressure conditions and can be removed if
necessary. When tightening the plug in the tube, the jaw segments and the O-ring are expanded
to hold and seal the tube-side and shell-side pressure. The O-ring seal conforms to slightly
irregular surfaces and has a long life for temperatures up to 550ºF (288ºC).
See Figure 7-8 for a graphic of an elastomer plug in the shelf condition and Figure 7-9 for the
plug installed.
Figure 7-8
Mechanical Gripper Type Plug, Shelf Condition
Courtesy of Powerfect, NY
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Figure 7-9
Mechanical Gripper Type Plug, Installed
Courtesy of Powerfect, NY
The characteristics of the elastomer plug are the following:

• The plug is adjustable for a tight fit-up and flexible seal.
• It is easily installed in difficult circumstances.
• The O-ring conforms to slight irregularities better than metal-to-metal designs.
• The ease of removal of this plug enhances the follow-up inspection and repairs.
• It is reusable with replacement O-rings.
• The plugs can be used as temporary anchors for securing drill guide fixtures.
• The service temperature of the plug is limited by the elastomer material.
• The elastomer materials are subject to compression set and age hardening in the hot, wet
conditions found in feedwater heaters.
• Over time, the elastomer materials lose their compressibility and become susceptible to
leakage, vibration, and plug loss.
• Elastomer plugs are generally acknowledged to have a limited service life. A program of
periodic inspection, tightening, and possible plug replacement should be incorporated into
the preventive maintenance program.
7.2.2.3 Mechanical Type
Mechanical plugs are metal plugs that use a mechanical means to seal the tube end. Several types
of mechanical plugs are available. The breakaway, torque, and expandable thimble type plugs are
described in this section.
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7.2.2.3.1 Breakaway Type Plugs
The breakaway type plug uses a conical-shaped, tapered pin that is drawn axially through an
expandable metallic sealing ring. An example is shown in Figure 7-10.
Figure 7-10
Breakaway Type Plug, Pop-A-Plug II
As the ring expands, it contacts and is compressed against the tube wall or tubesheet hole,
forming a leak-tight seal. As the ring is compressed, the friction between the pin and ring
increases until it exceeds the strength of a tensile member, or breakaway, setting the plug and
releasing it from the installation tooling. External ridges or serrations along the circumference of
the sealing ring compensate for tube wall defects and out-of-round conditions.
Breakaway plugs are installed using a compact hydraulic ram or manual plug installation tool to
provide the pulling force. This type of plug is initially smaller than the tube inside diameter and
can be installed at any location within the region of the tubesheet. Also, the breakaway style plug
can be used to plug a tubesheet hole. The breakaway type plug does not damage the tube or
tubesheet coating. Consideration should be given for proper plug material selection.
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Repairs
Characteristics of the mechanical breakaway type plugs are the following:

• This plug can be inserted at any depth of the tubesheet, thus avoiding severely corroded areas
near the tubesheet face.
• It seals in pressures greater than 7000 psi (48 MPa).
• Installation is quick.
• It provides controlled, repeatable installation loads without tube or tubesheet damage.
• This plug is sensitive to the proper match of the tube hole and plug sizes.
• It requires good hole preparation and concentricity.
• This plug provides a high degree of seal integrity.
• It is easily removable using a threaded spear and slide hammer.
7.2.2.3.2 Torque Type Plug
The torque type plug uses torsion to expand a portion of the plug outward until it contacts the
tube wall. External ridges or serrations along the circumference of the sealing ring compensate
for minor tube wall defects. This plug type is initially smaller than the tube inside diameter and
can be installed at any location within the region of the tubesheet. This style of plug can also be
used to plug a tubesheet hole. The plug is installed using a manual plug installation tool.
Consideration should be given for proper plug material selection. A typical torque type plug is
shown in Figure 7-11.
Figure 7-11
High Pressure Tube Plug
Courtesy of Torq N’Seal
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Repairs
Characteristics of the torque type plug are the following:

• This plug seals in pressures greater than 6500 psi (45 MPa).
• Installation is quick if the tube does not need machining.
• This plug is sensitive to the proper match of the tube hole and plug sizes.
• It is sometimes difficult to achieve the appropriate torque values because of the antispin
device that can permit slippage (applicable to Torq-N-Seal plugs).
7.2.2.3.3 Expandable Thimble Style Plug
Another type of mechanical plug is the expandable thimble style plug. This plug is a thin-walled,
thimble-shaped metallic plug that is mechanically or hydraulically expanded into the tube or
tubesheet hole. It is important not to over-expand the plug during installation. Over-expansion
can result in tube joint failure of adjacent tubes.
Generally, a hammer-in taper plug is driven into the open end of the thimble after it has been
expanded. This is to identify that the tube has been plugged. Consideration should be given for
proper plug material selection. The installation method is time consuming, requires a skilled
installer, and is equipment intensive. Caution should be used when installing the hammer-in plug
to prevent damage to adjacent tubes. When properly installed, this style of plug provides a high
degree of seal integrity and can be removed using conventional tube pulling techniques. An
example of a thimble style plug is shown in Figure 7-12.
Figure 7-12
Expandable Thimble Style Plug
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Characteristics of the expandable thimble style plug are the following:

• Over-expansion can cause adjacent tube damage.
• It is removable by standard tube pulling techniques.
7.2.2.4 Welded Type
Welded type tube plugs can be manually or explosively welded.
7.2.2.4.1 Manually Welded
Welded hammer-in taper plugs consist of either a solid or thimble-shaped conical plug that is
driven into the tube end or tubesheet hole. The plug is then seal welded to the tube, tubesheet
cladding, or tubesheet base material. Welded tube plugs must be compatible with the materials to
which they are welded. Caution is needed when driving in the plug before welding to prevent
cracking the tube and/or tubesheet. Adequate pre-heat and post-weld stress relieving procedures
should be followed to prevent weld failure, warping of the tubesheet, and damage to the adjacent
tube joints. When properly installed, these plugs offer high working pressures and a high degree
of seal integrity.
If possible, inside diameter threads should be placed in the plugs to aid in future removal. See
Figure 7-13 for a welded tapered plug and Figure 7-14 for a welded hollow plug.
Figure 7-13
Welded Tapered Plug
Courtesy of Perfex Services
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Repairs
Figure 7-14
Welded Hollow Plug
Characteristics of the welded type plug are the following:

• Good permanent repair is possible with proven welding procedures.
• Successful procedures are well documented.
• It is very difficult to perform the proper welding procedures, especially in vertical channel-
down heaters.
• Weld buildup from numerous welded plugs contributes to stress cracking in brittle, heat-
affected zones. Thimble designs are less susceptible to stress cracking.
• This plug should not be used in coated tubes or tubesheets.
• Qualifying the welding procedure and welders and performing the actual welding process are
time-consuming tasks.
• Welding difficulties include the skill required for welding the alloys, the cramped spaces, and
the wet conditions in the channel, especially if the unit is on-line.
• Welded tube plugs are difficult to remove.
7.2.2.4.2 Explosively Welded
Unlike conventional high-temperature welding, explosive welding is a true kinetic bonding

process with weld lengths three to five times longer than conventional welds. Because there is no
heat-affected zone and no need for post-weld heat treatment, the potential for stress corrosion
and cracking of adjacent welds is minimized. However, the charge size must be limited to
eliminate deformation of the tubesheet ligament. It might be necessary to support adjacent tubes
during the welding process. A picture of an explosive plug is shown in Figure 7-15.
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Repairs
Figure 7-15
Explosively Welded Plug
The force of the explosion expands the entire plug to fit snugly in the tube. Note that the area of
the actual kinetic weld corresponds to the tapered portion of the plug. The explosive forces
accelerate the plug material, impacting and forming a strong metallurgical bond with the tube
material.
If the leak is in the tube-to-tubesheet weld, a short section of the tube (approximately 1 inch (25
mm)) can be removed, and a modified, stepped plug installed and welded to the tubesheet.
Characteristics of the explosively welded tube plug are the following:

• This plug offers greater integrity and long term reliability than other plugging methods.
• This plug is easily installed, even with limited access.
• Minimum preparation is required.
• Tubesheet damage can be avoided by an engineered, limited explosive charge and by
supports in adjacent tubes, if needed.
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• This plug is suitable for use in complex repairs involving tubesheet restoration.
• This type of plug can be less expensive than permanent repairs by conventional welding,
especially if several tubes need plugging and time is available for advanced arrangements.
• Installation of this plug requires the use of licensed, skilled personnel. This can require more
time to arrange than is normally available during a forced outage.
• Plugs usually are pure nickel and are difficult to drill out if removal becomes necessary.
• This plug requires very good cleanliness and a dry surface to achieve a leak-tight bond.
7.2.3 Tube Plugging Records
Feedwater heater tube plugging records provide information regarding the present condition and
the rate of change of the condition [27]. These records should include a drawing of each
tubesheet showing the plugged tubes, the type of plugs installed, and the plugging date. The data
should be recorded on a tube plugging diagram. These records should be supplemented by notes
regarding apparent failure cause, mode of unit operation before failure, and the pass in which the
failure occurred.
An example of a tube failure report is shown in Table 7-1.

Table 7-1
Tube Failure Report Example [27]
Heater Parameter Heater Data

1. Feedwater heater number
2. Tube size
3. Tube material
4. Date of failure
5. Date and time heater removed from service
6. Date and time heater returned to service
7. Load or outage required
8. Loss of generation (MWs)
9. Heat rate increase (Btu/kw-hr)
10. Tube location number(s)
11. Tube failure location
12. Failure distance from tubesheet
13. Failure type
14. Leak location method
15. Type of plug used
16. Operational conditions before tube failure
17. Probable cause of tube failure
18. Other observations
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7.2.4 Plug Removal
As part of good maintenance and life extension programs, many utilities are reviewing their
maintenance histories and considering restoration by decreasing the number of tubes currently
plugged in some heaters. There are several good reasons for such consideration, including the
following:
• Many non-defective tubes were plugged for insurance purposes because they were adjacent
to failed tubes. It was thought that the insurance tubes might have received collateral damage.
• Some tubes were plugged although basically sound because they developed leaks at the tube-
to-tubesheet joint. Some tubes can be put back into service using modern sleeving
techniques.
• Previously installed plugs have begun leaking or their reliability is in doubt.
If a restoration effort is needed, the general approach is to perform the following tasks:
1. Remove all previous plugs in question.
2. Inspect tubes and tubesheet joint areas with appropriate NDE methods.
3. Apply individual tube hydro-tests to all suspect tubes.
4. Analyze all information available to determine the tubes to replug and the tubes to restore.
5. Replug failed tubes and others where NDE tests so indicate, using a reliable permanent
method
6. Restore damaged tube areas with appropriate sleeving techniques.
7. Hydro-test all repairs.

There are potential risks of trapped pressurized water in the tube during plug
removal. Extreme care must be taken during plug removal when the shell-
side operating temperature is less than ~350ºF (~177ºC). The use of
protection plates should be considered. Also, plugs without stabilizers
attached should be removed first to lower the energy that might be ejected.
Plug removal techniques vary with the type of plug used. Hammer-in plugs can be removed by
first drilling and tapping a hole in the exposed end of the plug. Then a tube spear and pulling
setup is used to pull the plug from the tube end. A typical tube plug removal tool is shown in
Figure 7-16.
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Figure 7-16
Plug Removal Tool
Mechanical breakaway type plugs can be removed by reversing the installation process. After
pushing the tapered pin out of the ring, a tube spear and pulling device can be used to remove the
remaining pieces from the tube end.
The weld material on welded plugs should first be ground away. Then the plug can be drilled,
tapped, and pulled. Explosively welded plugs are often the most difficult type of plug to remove
because they must be drilled out. Care should be used when attempting to drill out any plug type
because the drill can move off-center and enter at an angle to the tube axis. Severe damage to the
tube end and tubesheet can then occur.
7.2.5 Tube Sleeves
Tube sleeves can be used to cover damaged inlet tube ends and seal over a tube leak at almost
any place in the tube [13]. Often permanent repairs can be made without losing the use of the
tube. Characteristics of tube sleeves are the following:
• They can be the optimum repair for inlet end erosion.
• They can restore a leaking tube to operation.
• They can strengthen tubes at the tube supports where vibration and thinning has occurred.
• They require advance planning for the vendor and the tools.
• They require skilled sleeve installation methods.
Sleeves can be installed by mechanical expansion, explosive welding techniques, or hydraulic

expansion. For tube defects located near the tube end, a roller expanded method can be used.
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For the explosive welding technique, Figure 7-17 shows a portion of the tube machined away
and an explosive sleeve positioned. Kinetic welding is achieved in two areas: to the tubesheet
(and/or cladding) at the inlet end of the tubesheet hole and to the tube (approximately 6–8 inches
(152–203 mm) back from the inlet end). The resulting welded sleeve has an inlet diameter
greater than the original tube diameter at the inlet end. This reduces the water velocities and
turbulent erosion that is often the cause of the original failure or damage.
Figure 7-17
Explosive Sleeve in Tube and Tubesheet
In addition to the tube end explosive sleeve, mechanical sleeves can be hydraulically installed
anywhere along the straight tube length. Figure 7-18 shows a mechanical sleeve installed at a
tube support location deep inside a tube. This sleeve design is installed using hydraulic pressure
to expand plastic bladders inside the sleeve. These plastic bladders expand the sleeve into the
tube. The expansion process is computer controlled to produce a reliable expansion size.
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Figure 7-18
Hydraulically Expanded Deep Bundle Sleeve
Courtesy of Framatome, ANP, Lynchburg, VA
Characteristics of the deep bundle sleeve are the following:

• The sleeve can be installed anywhere along the straight tube length.
• Minimum tube preparation is required.
• The sleeve becomes the new tube pressure boundary and is designed to take the pressure
loads.
• The sleeve stiffens the tube in areas of high cross-flow and reduces further tube damage.
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• Sleeving in the areas of known problems can minimize the risk of future forced outages. This
can be thought of as insurance sleeving.
• The tube-to-channel head clearance can limit the length of the sleeve used in some areas of
the tubesheet.
During a 1993 outage at Entergy Operations’ Arkansas Nuclear One Unit 1, 101 sleeves were
successfully installed in two high-pressure feedwater heaters [37]. The sleeve installations kept
70 tubes in service. The heaters had 5/8 inch (16 mm) diameter, 304 stainless steel tubing. By
1993, the heaters had been in service for 19 years and had 10–12% of their tubes plugged. This
resulted in a 1–1.5ºF (0.56–0.83ºC) temperature increase in the heater’s terminal temperature
difference. This lower final feedwater temperature caused lost unit efficiency and lower
electrical output. If the 70 tubes had been plugged, the feedwater outlet temperature would have
decreased by 0.5ºF (0.28ºC). This decrease is equivalent to a 0.25 Megawatt loss. The sleeves
were expanded using a hydraulic expansion system.
The Wolf Creek nuclear power plant provides another example of tube sleeving using the
hydraulically expanded process [23]. Since 1990, an increasing number of the 304 stainless steel
feedwater heater tubes in the number 1 and 2 feedwater heaters (six heaters total) at the Wolf
Creek plant have experienced failure due to fretting wear within the drains cooler region. Tube
damage is the result of a thin end plate design. Despite performing extensive eddy current
inspections and preventive plugging on the heaters during planned plant shutdowns, the damage
mechanism was powerful enough that tube leaks were continuing to occur while at power,
resulting in the occasional forced shutdown of a string of heaters for plugging.
As an option to feedwater heater replacement, a method of reducing the tube-to-end plate gap by
expanding the tube into very close contact with the end plate and sleeving tubes with wear
indications was evaluated. Based on an evaluation of outage schedule time and cost, it was
decided that the option of repairing the feedwater heaters rather than replacing them would be
pursued.
During Wolf Creek’s September 2000 refueling outage, Framatome ANP performed feedwater
heater tube plug removal, end plate expansions, and sleeving. A total of 731 plugs were
removed, 2813 end plate expansions were made, and 1225 sleeves were installed. All work on-
site was performed within the outage scheduling constraints.
Tube sleeving was performed in the drains cooler section of the number 1 and 2 feedwater
heaters for three specific reasons:
• The sleeve would be installed at the drains cooler end plate, after the tube was expanded, to
stiffen the tube to minimize future vibration damage.
• The sleeve would be installed either to keep tubes in service that would have been plugged
(based on eddy current indications) or to return previously plugged tubes to service.
• The sleeve would be used in areas that were showing signs of high-wear growth rates and
might require plugging in the future. This can be called insurance sleeving.
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Repairs
The initial scope was for a total quantity of approximately 880 sleeves. It was expected that the
sleeves would be installed at the end plate in the top three rows of tubes and in selected tubes
with eddy current indications. The sleeves were either 13.5, 15, or 18 inches (34, 38, or 46 cm)
long. Usually, the longest sleeve that could fit into a tube location was used to increase the
stiffness of the tube as much as possible. The expansion steps for the three sleeve lengths were
identical.
Based on the eddy current results from the September 2000 outage, the number of sleeves that
were installed was much greater. In addition to the increased quantities of tube indications,
additional upper rows of tubes were sleeved due to the large tube-to-end plate gap sizes. A total
of 1225 sleeves were installed into the number 1 and 2 heaters, or 1.4 times more sleeves than
expected.
In heater 1A, numerous locations could not be sleeved due to tube bowing between the baffles.
Aside from the problems in this heater, there were only a few other locations in the remaining
five heaters that could not be sleeved. These restrictions were either restricted access at the tube
end or obstructions within the tube. On average, approximately 110 sleeves were installed in a
12-hour shift. As with tube expansion, some production was lost when switching from sleeving
to tube expansions and when moving equipment between feedwater heaters.
In addition to the removal of 731 tapered plugs from the six feedwater heaters, 118 tubes were
repaired and not plugged. These repairs resulted in an average DCA improvement of 6ºF
(3.33ºC) in the number 1 heaters and 13.5ºF (7.5ºC) in the number 2 heaters. Also flashing was
no longer heard in the heater drains.
7.2.6 Tube Pulling
In the course of performing eddy current or visual examinations of feedwater heaters, it is

sometimes necessary to pull a tube from a tube bundle for further examination [13, 34]. If the
subject tube is located on the periphery of a tube bundle and is accessible from the shell side,
removal of a tube section becomes relatively straightforward. Pulling a tube that is accessible
only from the tube side is more involved and can be accomplished if proper procedures are
followed.
Removing a tube through the tubesheet using present methods involves internal push type cutters
(sometimes called flycutters with an adjustable reach) or a high-speed cutter attached to a router.
Normally, the tube is cut beyond the area of failure, usually at the next baffle or support. After
the tube is cut, tube spears, inside diameter grippers, or serrated extractors are used to pull the
sample out through the tubesheet. Hydraulic rams and mechanical jackscrews are the most
frequently used equipment for providing the power for extraction.
Commercial tube pulling equipment is available that can be used to remove tube sections of
almost unlimited length. The tools necessary are described as follows:
• A low-profile hydraulic cylinder and hand, electric, or pneumatic pump with a bore larger
than the outside diameter of the tube being removed.
7-27
Repairs
• A one-revolution tube cutter or a high-speed cutter on a flexible shaft attached to a router.

These come in various sizes to match the size of tube being cut.
• A videoprobe or fiberscope to verify that the tube was cut.
• A tube pulling spear or a tube inside diameter, colette type gripper. These come in various
sizes to match the tube diameter and wall thickness being pulled.
• A series of notched spacers used during tube extraction.
• A series of interconnecting rods with a length equal to the length of tube to be pulled. This
applies to the one-revolution tube cutter.
• An end mill with a pilot for removing the tube-to-tubesheet seal weld. A small grinder will
also suffice for this operation. It might be necessary to thin or remove the tube from the
tubesheet by drilling.
Before pulling the tube, verify that the tube identified is the tube that needs to be pulled. Tube
numbering and counting errors are common. As the tube sections are removed, ensure that the
sections are properly labeled with the heater number, tube number, and piece number. The tube
inside diameter gripping and cutting tools should avoid in-service tube failure areas during tube
removal.
Figures 7-19 through 7-21 illustrate the design, assembly of tools, and sequence of operation
necessary for pulling the tube.
Figure 7-19
Design and Assembly of Tube Cutting Tools [34]
7-28
Repairs
Figure 7-20
Tube Cutting Sequence [34]
7-29
Repairs
Figure 7-21
Tube Removal Sequence [34]
7.3 Tube-To-Tubesheet Repairs
Most low-pressure heater tube-to-tubesheet connections are made by expanding the tubes into
the tube holes machined with two 1/8-inch wide x 1/64-inch deep (3.2-mm wide x 0.4-mm deep)
annular grooves with no subsequent welding [9, 38]. The annular grooves give strength and
tightness on the joint greater than that achieved by expanding tubes into bare holes. Tubes
sensitive to stress corrosion might fail in the vicinity of the annular grooves in addition to the
region of the transition from the expanded to unexpanded tube.
7-30
Repairs
Load-carrying primary joints of most high-pressure heaters are made by strength-welding the
tubes to the front face of the tubesheet. In addition to bearing the pressure-induced axial tube
load, the strength welds seal the feedwater from leaking into the steam side.
Nearly all tube-to-tubesheet welds are fusion welds. Less than 5% of the tubes are connected by
kinetic welding. Most front face fusion welds are fillet welds or groove welds. See Figures 7-22
and 7-23 for a picture of these welds.
Figure 7-22
Front Face Fillet-Welded Joint [38]
Figure 7-23
Front Face Groove Weld [38]
7-31
Repairs
There are two types of tube-to-tubesheet joints used for feedwater heaters:
• Expanded only
• Welded and expanded
Expanded-only tube joints are used for low-pressure feedwater heaters. An alloy weld overlay is
generally not required for an expanded-only tube joint. High-pressure heaters generally use a
welded and expanded tube joint with an overlay on the face of the tubesheet to match the tubing
material.
The same expansion techniques are used for both the expanded-only and the welded and
expanded joints. The available expansion techniques are:
• Roller expansion
• Hydraulic expansion
• Explosive expansion
The size and thickness of tubing, the tubing and tubesheet material, the method of attachment,
and the detail of construction all influence the effectiveness of the tube-to-tubesheet joint. Full
depth expansion is normally specified for both expanded-only and welded and expanded joints to
eliminate the tube-to-tubesheet crevice. Roller expansion is the method most often used and is
done with a torque controlled gun that rotates mechanical rollers, sometimes referred to as pill
rollers. An expanding tool is shown in Figure 7-24.
Figure 7-24
Expanding Tool [27]
7-32
Repairs
During roller expansion, part of the tubesheet and all of the tube wall is deformed plastically to
lock in contact pressure. The tube and tubesheet elastically rebound after the roller expansion
tool is collapsed. This rebound causes contact pressure between the tube and tubesheet. A
disadvantage of the roller expansion method is that it strain-hardens the longitudinal fibers of a
tube. This makes the tube more susceptible to stress corrosion cracking.
Hydraulic expansion is accomplished with a mandrel and seal ring device that produces a
uniform pressure on the tube inside diameter during expansion. Hydraulic expansion results in
minimal strain hardening and does not cause any longitudinal stress in the tube. It does reduce
the tube wall approximately 1–3%. Hydraulic expansion is more expensive than roller expanding
because it requires about twice as much fabrication time as roller expanding on thinner
tubesheets.
The tube joint strength is related to the yielding of the tube and partial yielding of the tubesheet.
Hydraulic expansion achieves this directly, whereas roller expansion achieves it indirectly. Both
hydraulic and roller expanding can give strong tube joints when used properly.
To obtain a good, expanded-only tube-to-tubesheet joint, the tubesheet must be drilled with
smooth, straight holes without drilling spirals or scratches. The tube ends should not have any
longitudinal scratches and should be buffed prior to tube insertion into the bundle. Clean gloves
should be worn when stuffing tubes to avoid getting oil or dirt on the tube ends.
When a welded and expanded tube joint is specified, prerolling of the tubes before welding
should not be performed. This is because any lubricant might cause problems with the tube
welding. Inspection of the tube weld before any tube expansion is also very important. After tube
welding, a shell-side air and soap test of at least 15 psi (103 kPa), followed by a liquid penetrant
examination should be made. Any leaks should be repaired and retested. A mass spectrometer
test, if desired, could also be performed before expanding the joint.
Following the tube expansion, the tube welds should be liquid penetrant tested, as a minimum,
followed by hydrostatic, pneumatic, or vacuum testing.
Another type of tube joint welding is explosive welding. The main advantage of this method is
the elimination of the heat-affected zone. However, the disadvantage for this method has been
the cost.
If leaks are found in the tube-to-tubesheet joint, repairs include the following options:
• Weld repair
• Tube rerolling
• Hydraulic expansion to re-expand the tube
• Tube removal and new tube insertion with a rolled or explosive joint
7-33
Repairs
7.3.1 Tubesheet Repairs
When the pressure on one side of a tubesheet is considerably higher than the pressure on the
other side, leaks occur through the smallest leak paths [39]. The consequent erosion, which looks
like the holes bored by worms, is called wormholing or wire-drawing. Wormholing can occur in
the following places:
• Tube-to-tubesheet welds
• The surfaces of the tube and tube hole
• The ligaments between the tube holes in the tubesheet
If the tubes are more resistant to abrasion than the tubesheet, the ligaments can be severely
damaged. The problem can be so severe that the tubesheet is rendered unsafe.
When an inspection discloses washing away of the tube-to-tubesheet welds or if there has been
leakage from the high-pressure side to the low-pressure side through the joint, there is a good
probability of wire-drawing damage to the ligament. One of the reasons for full depth expanding
tubes into tubesheet holes is to reduce the prospect of leakage that causes wormholing; however,
this is not a guarantee against it.
Always examine eroded tube-to-tubesheet welds to determine whether cracks or porosity has
been exposed. Remove weld metal to the bottom of the crack or porosity. If the crack has not
progressed into the tube and ligament, it is feasible to repair it by welding. Repair welding
requires thorough cleaning. Removing all foreign matter from the region of the crack is not
likely; therefore, do not consider any welding process other than manual metal arc (stick). Use
the smallest diameter electrode available and weld in multiple passes. Inspect between passes for
porosity and cracking.
If the wormholing has progressed into the ligaments, grind out the area that contains the damage.
This requires closing off the tubes in the damaged area. To repair the damaged region, remove
most of the tube embedded in the tubesheet. Leave enough tube insertion to anchor and stabilize
the tube. Grind out the damaged area. Round metal bars should be press-fitted into the holes. The
front ends should be installed just below the ground-out region. Apply layers of weld metal on
the tubesheet until the original thickness has been restored.
7.4 Diaphragm, Pass Partition, and Channel Cover Repairs
7.4.1 Diaphragm
Diaphragms can be reused many times if they have not been excessively corroded and if the edge
weld removal has not created a condition that will produce unsound fillet welds [39]. Since it is
not possible to know in advance if it can be used again, it is advisable to have a replacement
diaphragm available before opening a diaphragm-sealed closure.
7-34
Repairs
The same precautions should be taken for venting, draining, and purging a diaphragm-sealed
joint as for any sealed joint.
After the cover has been removed, carefully remove and inspect the studs. If the studs have been
bent or if the threads are too badly damaged to rechase them, obtain replacement studs. Protect
the tapped holes in the shell from damage. One of the best protection methods consists of
painting the interior of the holes with a weld spatter-resistant paint and stuffing wicking into the
holes to prevent intrusion of foreign matter. Another protection method is to make up loosely
threaded or push-fitted brass hole plugs.
Examine the surface before replacing a diaphragm. Grind or file out any pits or grooves until you
reach sound metal. Build up the surface with weld material and metal-grind the surface until
smooth. Clean away all foreign matter with a volatile solvent that is safe for use in the area and
on the metal. Tack weld the diaphragm into place. Make the closing weld in accordance with the
manufacturer’s recommendation. Do not exceed the recommended weld size, and use the
recommended welding process.
After rewelding the diaphragm into place, remove the stud hole protectors. Use a wire brush to
clean the stud holes, and blow out any foreign matter with an air nozzle. Use an appropriate
thread lubricant and re-install the studs. Because most covers are heavy and clumsy to handle,
slip protective sleeves over the studs before hanging the cover. After the cover is in position,
remove the stud sleeves. Release the cover suspension, and tighten the bolts or nuts.
7.4.2 Pass Partition
Pass partitions sometimes bend even though they meet the minimum thickness specified in the
manufacturer’s standards. The bending might be the result of a greater pressure differential
between the inlet and outlet passes than was assumed in the design. Also, a pass partition plate
with two gasketed edges might not be clamped as tightly as is needed. Bending can result when
the welds joining the pass partition to the channel or tubesheet fail because of restrained thermal
deflection [39].
If a bent pass partition is not torn or crimped, it can usually be straightened. When the corrosion
resistance of a material is not adversely affected by heating, heat the partition with an acetylene
torch and jack or hammer it back into position. Austenitic and other metals must be straightened
by cold jacking. Small hand-operated portable jacks are generally adequate. The spring back of
the metal makes it necessary to jack the plate past the neutral position. When the jacking force is
released, the plate relaxes to the desired location. Because you cannot estimate how far to deflect
the plate, the work requires several jack-and-release iterations.
When the pass partition has been restored to its design position, future deformation can be
prevented by welding a rib across the direction of the bend. The added rib stiffness in the
direction of the bending should be adequate to resist the load applied by the pressure differential.
A disadvantage is that ribbing causes increased turbulence and a slight pressure drop.
7-35
Repairs
An alternative to ribbing is to install round bars as columns to stiffen the plate. These should be
fully welded at the attachment points. It is not a good idea to install a stiff column across a
channel barrel when there is a possibility of restrained thermal expansion. In this case, install a
column on only one side of the pass partition plate.
The best solution to pass partition bending is to cut out the bent pass partitions and replace them
with thicker ones. The pass partition edges must be tapered to fit the gasket ribs at the tubesheet
and channel cover.
Manway-access feedwater heaters have built-in pass partitions. If the pass partition is simply a
solid plate welded to the head and channel barrel, access to the side away from the manway can
be gained only by cutting windows into the pass partition cover. There should be 2 inches (51
mm) of pass partition material remaining after cutting. In addition, a central 2 inch (51 mm) wide
rib should be left. To seal the pass partition, lapped cover plates can be welded to the lips.
Alternatively, studs can be welded to the lips and covers gasketed and bolted in place. The
corners of the nearly rectangular windows should be cut to a generous radius and ground smooth.
This avoids stress concentrations that could cause the corners to tear.
When disassembling bolted pass partition covers, inspect the corners of the bolting flanges for
cracking and tearing. Use an air arc tool, grind out any cracks to their roots, and reweld. After
rewelding, grind the welds smooth.
Channel pass partitions of full opening feedwater heaters that are welded to the tubesheet and
channel barrel fail because of erosion, erosion-corrosion, and thermal stress cracking at the
welds. A redesign and major alteration to the construction is necessary to overcome the thermal
stress cracking at the welds. For the erosion and erosion-corrosion problems, the damaged region
can be removed by burning or removing with an air arc tool. The edges of the hole should be
cleaned and patched with a replacement plate. Although such patches are frequently applied by
lapping the patch plate over the hole, it is better to fit a plate into the hole and make a butt weld
repair. This avoids creating additional turbulence that hastens subsequent failure.
7.4.3 Channel Cover
Moderately corroded or eroded channel covers can be restored by machining to the bottom of the
eroded region, replacing the lost metal with weld metal, and remachining [39]. Replace channel
covers that cannot be weld repaired. Provide the manufacturer with a template of the bolting
flange on the existing channel to make sure that the replacement cover fits.
If a coarse-grained steel was used for the original cover, a fine-grained steel should be used as a
replacement. If erosion or corrosion has progressed more rapidly than was originally estimated,
consider replacing the cover with an integral alloy metal facing resistant to the flowing fluid. The
cladding may be deposited with fusion weld metal, integral roll clad or explosion bonded.
7-36
Repairs
7.4.3.1 Gasketed Covers
There are several areas to investigate in determining why a gasketed joint is leaking [39]:
1. Examine the gaskets.
2. Measure the flange distortion.
3. Check for insufficient bolting.
4. Check for excessive bolting loads.
5. Examine for unequal bolt loading.
6. Investigate for differential thermal expansion between bolts and flanges.
7. Investigate the thermal and/or pressure cycling on gasket tightness.
8. Examine the gasket selection.
1. Examine the gaskets – By carefully examining the gasket during disassembly of the flanged
joint, it can be determined how the gasket has been compressed. When the cover and channel
are flat and rigid, compression is uniform across the gasket ring and circumference. If the
inner or outer edge of the gasket ring is compressed more than the other edge, the mating
parts were distorted before bolting up, during the bolting up process, or under pressure.
2. Measure the flange distortion – Measure for flange distortion by inserting feeler gauges
between the flanges in the bolted assembly at the locations of the bolts and midway between
the bolts. A regular variation indicates the kind of deflection called scalloping.
To find out why there is more gasket compression at one edge than the other edge, measure
the out-of-flatness of the disassembled parts for the full access channel covers. Tubesheets
with expanded tube-to-tubesheet joints often bow as a result of the tube rolling. If the parts
are flat within the usual tolerances, they are probably bending elastically under pressure.
If the flange is found to be distorted, the repair is to remachine the flange to flatness. It might
be necessary to build up the surface to be machined with weld material.
3. Check for insufficient bolting – Measure the bolt stresses with an ultrasonic measuring
instrument. If the stresses at operating conditions are much above the allowable stresses used
in the design, carefully loosening the nuts can allow the structure to rearrange the application
of the load to the gasket and seal the leak. This approach is exactly the opposite of the
approach that is typically tried.
Review the flange design bolting calculations from the OEM. Compare the bolting required
to seat the gasket with the bolting required to resist the pressure. If the bolting required to
seat the gasket is higher and the heater is multi-pass, the gasket rib compression should be
7-37
Repairs
considered. If the gasket rib compression was not considered, there is probably insufficient
bolting to seat the gasket properly.
One possible repair is to replace the gasket with a more easily compressed gasket. If this is
not acceptable, the flanges will require replacement with new flanges designed with
sufficient bolting. As a temporary measure, it might be possible to install C-clamps between
the bolts to provide additional sealing force. This would not be a permanent solution.
4. Check for excessive bolting loads – Evidence of excessive bolt loads is crushed gaskets and
flange edges that make contact with each other because of excessive deflection. The repair
options are:
• If the flange is rigid and strong enough to withstand the bolt load that caused the gasket
crushing, replace the gasket with one that has a higher yield strength.
• For rigid, sufficiently strong flanges, replace the gasket with one that has a limit ring.
• Monitor the bolt load on retightening to ensure that the design load is not exceeded by
more than 20%.
• Instead of regularly tightening bolts on flanged joints, install spring washers under the
nuts.
5. Examine for unequal bolt loading – If the bolt stress is not measured during the bolting up
process, the bolts may be unequally loaded. This can occur when the flanges are flat and the
gasket has been uniformly compressed except in the region of one or two bolts. If the gasket
has not been damaged, the repair for this situation is to loosen all the bolts, rebolt in the
manufacturer’s recommended pattern, and measure the stress.
6. Investigate for differential thermal expansion between bolts and flanges – If the bolts
expand more than the mating parts, the gasket has probably unloaded and leakage can occur.
The common strategy is to retighten the bolts to correct for the unloading. When the unit
cools during shutdown, the gasket and bolts experience additional loading. Instead of
retightening the bolts, spring washers can be installed under the nuts to maintain the load on
the studs as a constant.
A successful alternative is to replace the studs with longer ones, installing under the nuts
thick washers of a material that has a higher thermal coefficient of expansion than the studs.
If the mating parts expand more than the studs, the increased load can cause gasket
overloading and crushing and permanently warp the gasket contact surface. The repair for
this situation includes:
• Changing the bolt material to one that has a thermal coefficient of expansion closer to
that of the mating parts
• Replacing the gasket with one that has a limit ring to limit the compression
• Installing a flange-edge spacer that limits the compression that the bolts can apply to the
gasket
7-38
Repairs
7. Investigate the thermal and/or pressure cycling on gasket tightness – Applying loads to
gaskets cyclically may have a ratcheting effect. The gaskets can become progressively harder
with no evidence of crushing. Nonmetal gaskets can become brittle. Metal gaskets can crack.
The repairs for this situation are:
• Estimate or determine from the records the time to gasket failure and institute a gasket
replacement program.
• Install spring washers to maintain constant loading on the gaskets.
• Replace the gaskets with spiral-wound ones that are less likely to fail under cyclical
loads.
8. Examine the gasket selection – When there is a chronically leaking connection, examine the
compressive gasket stress and the gasket design seating stress. Consider substituting a gasket
with higher values.
In the case of channel manway cover leakage, another consideration is to add a metal stop
ring in the gasket design. This ensures uniform gasket compression. This should be added to
the gasket specification. It is important to ensure that adequate bolt loading is applied to
compress the joint to the stop ring thickness.
Leaks can occur from failure of a gasket as a result of contact with the process steam.
Evidence of this occurrence is a progressive deterioration from the inner gasket edge
outward. Replacement of this gasket with one that has a higher stress value is needed.
More information on the assembly of bolted connections can be found in the EPRI guides,
Bolted Joint Maintenance and Application Guide, TR-104213, December 1995 and
Assembling Bolted Connections Using Spiral-Wound Gaskets, TR-111472, August 1999.
7.5 Miscellaneous Repairs

Any repair or penetration of the heater pressure boundary should be reviewed
with the local Authorized Inspection Agency servicing the plant site before
the repair occurs. Approval of the repair method by the Authorized Inspector
is necessary to preserve the integrity of the vessel as an ASME Code-
approved pressure vessel.
7-39
Repairs
7.6 Spare Parts
The recommended spare parts for feedwater heaters are listed in Table 7-2.
Table 7-2
Recommended Spare Parts List [1]
Parts Quantity Comments

Tube plugs 2–3% of tubes depending on Includes welding supplies if
heater condition welded plugs are used.
Bolting: 10% of total Includes a bolt and nut.
manway cover, channel cover,
pass partition cover
Gaskets Two sets Includes gaskets for pass
partition covers. Note proper
storage requirements for
gaskets.
Diaphragm One set Includes special welding
supplies if needed.
Tube expanders One set of roll expansion Drivers and spare rolls optional.
tools for each tube diameter
and gauge
Accessories (gauge glass, ___ As recommended by the
control valve, temperature and manufacturer.
pressure instrumentation
7-40
8
REPLACEMENTS

• Run/repair/replace decision
• Remaining life assessment
• Retubing
• Rebundling
• Complete replacement
• Material selection
8.1 Run/Repair/Replace Decision
After completing the NDE examination, it is the responsibility of the owner to:
• Review the examination results.
• Evaluate recommendations by the NDE vendor to repair or plug the defective tubes
exceeding the established plugging criteria.
• Perform the necessary repairs including tube plugging.
• Make a run/repair/replace decision [40].
8.1.1 Run Decision
A decision to return a heater to service can be made from the following conditions:
• The heater examinations revealed no defective indications, and no tube plugging was
required. Visual examinations of the vessel internals showed no tubesheet ligament cracking
or partition plate weld cracking. Any shell-side examination results showed no visible signs
of tube support plate bowing, no presence of loose parts or foreign objects, no shell thinning,
or no impingement plate damage. If the trends show that the heater thermal performance can
be maintained for the expected life of the heater, continued operation should take place.
• The recommended number of tubes is plugged. The number of total plugged tubes does not
exceed the plugging limit for the heater. The heater can be returned to service.
8-1
Replacements
8.1.2 Repair Decision
A decision to repair the heater is made to restore lost performance or extend the life of the heater.
Some actions for repairing the heater are:
• Remove all tube plugs, and retest the tubes by eddy current testing or other means. Only
tubes that are defective should be plugged. This can return tubes to service and restore
performance from previous insurance plugging.
• Install sleeves in tubes that were previously plugged. This can restore lost performance from
previously plugged tubes and help prevent future forced outages.
• Perform diaphragm, pass partition, tubesheet, channel, and cover repairs to restore lost
performance.
• Perform repairs to the tube-to-tubesheet joint to restore lost performance.
• Replace or weld repair sections of the heater shell with thinning caused by impingement plate
erosion. This can extend the life of the heater.
8.1.3 Replace Decision
Key O&M Cost Point

A replacement decision is made based on how widespread the failure
mechanisms are. If the problem has been correctly diagnosed, necessary
modifications have been made to prevent the problem from reoccurring, and
the number of plugged tubes is below the limit that would affect
performance, replacement may not be necessary.
Key O&M Cost Point

If the failure mechanisms are widespread, the number of tubes plugged is at
or above the limit that affects performance, and continued failures will affect
the heater reliability, replacement is recommended.
Replacement options include retubing, rebundling, and complete replacement. Retubing a heater
is replacing only the tubes. Rebundling is replacing the tubes, tubesheets, support, and baffle
plates in the existing heater shell. Complete replacement includes a new shell, tube bundle,
tubesheet, and support and baffle plates.
The remaining life prediction for a heater is needed before a replacement recommendation can be
evaluated.
8-2
Replacements
8.2 Remaining Life Assessment

Key Technical Point
In general, feedwater heaters are designed with approximately 5% excess
heat transfer surface area.
To determine the maximum number of allowable plugged tubes for a specific feedwater heater, a
comparison must be made between the design basis heat load and the design rated heat transfer
capability [34]. The difference between the two values, noted as a plugging limit, enables a
number of tubes to be plugged. The plugging limit represents the maximum number of tubes that
can be plugged without compromising the designed heat removal capability of the feedwater
heater. Plugging beyond this limit could affect performance in the following ways:
• Heat transfer area is reduced. This must be offset by an additional heat load in the
reactor/steam generator.
• Flow velocity in the tubes is increased. Depending on the tube material, the maximum
velocity can be exceeded and erosion can result.
• Tube-side pressure drop is increased. For low-pressure heaters, the impact is generally
reduced suction pressure to the main feedwater pumps. This increases the load on the pumps.
For high-pressure heaters, the additional pressure drop is accounted for by increased
feedwater pump speed and/or a change in the regulating valve pressure drop.
• Tube-side film coefficient is increased. The overall heat transfer coefficient may be affected.
To predict the operating remaining life of a feedwater heater, the following formula can be used:
RL = (PL - PT) / GR
Where:
RL = Remaining life in months (years)

PL = Number of plugged tubes allowed before the heater performance is affected
PT = Number of plugged tubes to date
GR = Growth rate of tube failures in number of failures per month (year)
8.3 Retubing
Key O&M Cost Point
Retubing a feedwater heater is replacing only the tubes. This is usually the
lowest cost option for replacement. Typically, this is an option for low-
pressure, straight tube type heaters.
8-3
Replacements
This option is viable if the shell and tubesheet are in good condition [22]. The tubesheet should
not have any deterioration from wormholing or inlet erosion. If the baffles or supports have to be
replaced, additional time will be needed during the retubing outage.
It is possible to retube a heater with tube materials that are different from the original materials.
The changed performance of the heater can be calculated.
With expanded tube-to-tubesheet joints, it is easier to remove and replace the tubes. The
tubesheet holes are inspected, and any axial scratches or pulled metal is removed. The tubesheet
cladding condition is inspected to verify contact with the tubesheet. The tubesheet should be free
of any erosion-corrosion effects.
The tubesheet should be cleaned by solvent washing with a volatile, nonchlorinated solvent.
Then the tubesheet should be steam cleaned and dried with dry, filtered air.
If the tubesheet has welded and expanded tube joints, the tube removal process is more
complicated. The original weld material has to be removed by trepanning or grinding. Then the
tubesheet can be cleaned with a solvent and air-dried.
The tube hole diameters and tubesheet tolerances are listed in Section 8.6.2.6 of this report.
8.4 Rebundling
Key O&M Cost Point
Rebundling is replacing the tubes, tubesheets, support, and baffle plates in
the existing heater shell. This is the preferred method of replacement for the
low-pressure, U-bend type heaters located in the condenser neck. In general,
all of the U-bend type heaters can be rebundled. Rebundling costs about 15–
25% more than retubing.
Rebundling offers the following advantages over retubing [22]:

• Rebundling usually includes a new channel head and cover. If the original channel was a
limited access design, then a full access design can be provided.
• Other design improvements that can be included are: central air removal channel vent
system, smaller support plate spacing, and a thicker end plate in the drains cooler zone.
• Thermal design improvements can be included to improve the terminal temperature
difference. A heat rate improvement of 100 Btu/kw (106 kJ/kw) could be gained.
• A change in tube material can maintain the existing terminal temperature difference or
improve it.
A new tube bundle needs to be packaged to protect the tubes from damage during shipment and
storage. A shipping shell made of 3/8-inch (9.5-mm) thick plate is recommended. The shipping
8-4
Replacements
shell should be designed to allow for air testing the welded tube joints. Nitrogen blanketing may
be needed if installation is not imminent.
The replacement bundle must be handled to get it out of the shipping shell before inserting it into
the heater shell. This requires extra installation time, and a risk is taken that the bundle may be
damaged in the process.
8.5 Complete Replacement
Complete replacement includes a new shell, tube bundle, tubesheet, support, and baffles [22].
The removal and installation of a heater is more extensive than the retubing or rebundling
options. With a complete replacement, the nozzle lines must be cut, and the heater lifted from the
supports. A new heater may require a new foundation support.
A complete replacement allows changes in tube material, terminal temperature difference,

channel design, more heat transfer area, a larger diameter, etc. The greatest chance for
improvements can be realized with a complete replacement.
Key O&M Cost Point

The difference in heater cost between a replacement bundle and a complete
heater replacement is usually about 5% or less. This cost difference should
be compared to the installation cost difference to obtain a total cost
difference for these options.
For a complete replacement, new steam and feedwater pipe might be needed. The installation of
new nozzles might be required. Foundation changes can increase the installation costs.
In some cases, the existing building arrangement is such that replacing the heater would result in
extensive installation costs. It is necessary to move equipment out of the way, install the heater,
and put the equipment back in place. When such extreme conditions exist, the replacement can
usually be assembled in place.
8.5.1 New Heater Considerations
Information that affects the redesign and selection of replacement tube bundles or feedwater
heaters should include [1]:
• The entire original heat balance
• The actual operating conditions
• Any abnormal or overload conditions
8-5
Replacements
• Tube materials of other heaters and the condenser

• Water chemistry
• Feedwater treatment
• Existing equipment failures, corrosion, leaking tubesheet joints, etc.
• Space available for new heaters
Typically, the plant would purchase the following feedwater heater accessory equipment:
• Gauge glass with a sight range equal to or exceeding the maximum liquid level range.
• Diaphragm control valve and level controller for maintaining the liquid level within the
heater
• High- and low-level alarms to alert the operator of any abnormal levels within the heater
• Pressure measuring equipment should be provided for the following:
– Feedwater inlet and outlet connections
– Steam inlet connection
– Drains outlet connection
– Shell
• Temperature measuring equipment should be provided for the following:
– Feedwater inlet and outlet connections
– Steam inlet connection
– Drains outlet connection
– Shell vapor
– Shell condensate
For more detailed specifications in ordering new heaters, refer to the following EPRI
publications:
• Nuclear Plant Feedwater Heater Handbook, Volume 2: Design and Procurement Guidelines,
NP-4057, Volume 2, June 1985
• Feedwater Heaters: Replacement Specification Guidelines, GS-6913, August 1990
8.6 Material Selection
This section covers material used for tubes and other heater components. Tubesheet overlay
materials, tube wall thickness, U-bend radii, velocity, temperature, tube support, and tubesheet
holes are also covered.
8-6
Replacements
8.6.1 Heater Materials
Table 8-1 lists various heater components (excluding tube materials) and choices for material
selection. Tube material specifications are shown in Table 8-3.
Table 8-1
Feedwater Heater Material Selection [2, 41]
Component Material Specification Notes

Shell and skirt SA-515, 516 grade 70 plate Steam in < 650°F (343°C)
SA-285 grade C
Shell nozzles SA-105 forging
SA-106 grade B pipe (SMLS)
SA-181 class 70 forging
Shell and skirt SA-204 Steam in > 650°F (343°C)
Shell nozzles SA-387 grade 11, CL.
SA-182 grade F11 forging
SA-335 P11, P12 pipe
Tubesheet SA-350 grade LF2 forging Low pressure
SA-266 grade 2 forging
SA-515, 516 grade 70
SA-181 forging
Tubesheet SA-181 forging High pressure
SA-266 forging
SA-350 Gr. LF2 forging
Channel and channel cover SA-350 grade LF2 forging Low pressure
SA-515, 516 grade 70 P1
SA-266 grade II
Channel nozzles SA-105 forging
SA-106 grade B pipe (SMLS)
SA-181 Class 70 forging
Channel and channel cover SA-181 forging High pressure
SA-266 forging
SA-350 Gr. LF2 forging
SA-516 Gr. 70 plate (cover)
Channel nozzles SA-105 forging
SA-181 forging
SA-226 Gr. II forging
SA-350 Gr. LF2
Drain cooler shroud division SA-285 grade C ½ inch (13 mm) thick min.*
plate SA-515 or 516 grade 70 5/8 inch (16 mm) thick preferred*
Seal plates SA-515 or 516 grade 70 ¼ inch (6.4 mm) thick min.
SA-285 grade C ½ inch (13 mm) thick preferred
Impact plates 304 SS or 316 SS ½ inch (13mm) thick*
8-7
Replacements
Table 8-1 (cont.)

Feedwater Heater Material Selection [2, 41]
Component Material Specification Notes

Drain cooler end plates for SA-285 grade C 3 inch (76 mm) thick preferred
horizontal heaters SA-515 or 516 grade 70 2 inch (51 mm) thick min.
Support plates SA-285 grade C 5/8 inch (16 mm) thick min.
Baffles SA-285 grade C 3/8 inch (9 mm) thick min.
5/8 inch (16 mm)preferred
U-bend supports 304 SS or 316 SS ¼ inch (6 mm) thick
Internal full length air vent 304 SS or 316 SS 3/16 inch (5 mm) min. thick for
manifold plate
0.120 inch (3 mm) thick for pipe
0.250 inch (6 mm) thick for
elbows
Nozzle and shell liners for 304 SS or 316 SS 1/8 inch (3 mm) thick min.
bleed steam and bleed
steam bypass and drain
inlet
*Note: The thickness dimensions that are shown here for impact plates and shroud divider plates
are larger for conservatism. Full penetration welds are used for attachment. These welds are critical
and difficult to make because of limited access. Most failures have been noted in the welds or the
heat-affected zones rather than the plates. The primary purpose of the thicker plate is to allow a
thicker weld size.
8.6.1.1 Tubesheet Overlay
For tubesheet overlays, acceptable tube/overlay combinations are shown in Table 8-2.
Table 8-2
Tubesheet Overlay Materials [2, 41]
Tube Material First Pass Overlay All Other Passes

Austenitic stainless steel E 309 stainless steel E 308 stainless steel
Super stainless steel Inconel Inconel
Ferritic stainless steel Inconel Inconel
Carbon steel Inconel/nickel Inconel/nickel
Monel Monel Monel
8.6.2 Tube Materials
Early heater tubing materials in fossil plants were Admiralty brass, copper and copper-nickel
alloys [1, 42, 43, 44]. These materials have high thermal conductivity and have some corrosion
resistance. In the early 1960s, as fossil generating units grew in size and supercritical units were
8-8
Replacements
introduced in the industry, carbon steel and Monel (70/30 nickel copper) became popular
materials for high-pressure heater applications.
Copper deposits in boilers and turbine blades, along with Monel tubing problems in replacement
heaters, forced the industry to turn to other feedwater heater tubing materials. The most popular
materials were stainless steel and carbon steel. Carbon steel tubed feedwater heaters suffered
premature failures due to:
• Tube inlet erosion
• Improper water chemistry such as low pH level
• High oxygen content
• Improper tubesheet overlay
• Water level control problems in the drains cooler inlet
• Difficulty in using eddy current inspection techniques to detect small defects
In the nuclear industry, turbine and nuclear steam supply system manufacturers have put
requirements in place that have resulted in stainless steel replacing all copper alloys in feedwater
heater applications. In general, the high- and low-pressure heater tube materials should be
suitable for use in the same pH range. When this is not possible, the operating pH will be a
compromise of the requirements of both sets of heaters. This can result in corrosion-related
failures in one or both of the tube materials. Because of the lower design pressure, the lack of
experience with other materials, and the fear of chloride stress corrosion cracking in stainless
steel, copper bearing tubes were used in early PWR plants.
Stainless steel tubes are now generally used in the nuclear heaters. Carbon steel tubing material
has been widely replaced by 304 stainless steel in nuclear feedwater heaters, although carbon
steel is still used for the fossil supercritical units. There have been occasional failures from
chloride stress corrosion, pitting, or crevice corrosion. TP304N tube material has a higher
allowable stress value but does not offer any improvement to pitting or stress corrosion
resistance. Stainless steel is susceptible to stress corrosion and chloride attack and has the lowest
thermal conductivity of the common tubing materials. More recently, other types of stainless
steel tubes, such as ASME SA268-TP439, AL-6XN and Seacure, have been used for feedwater
heaters in high chloride environments.
The nickel-free TP439 alloy and the high-nickel alloy 800 materials provide resistance to stress
corrosion, but their pitting resistance is only marginally better than TP304 stainless steel. The
ferritic TP439 alloy has low allowable stresses, is subject to ductile-brittle behavior, and is
difficult to inspect with eddy current inspection techniques. The welded tube wall thickness is
limited to about 0.083 inches (2 mm). Welded TP439 stainless steel tube is limited to about 2800
psig (19.3 MPa) at 600°F (316°C). The high-nickel, austenitic alloy 800 tube materials do not
have a gauge limit because of ductility. However, this material also has a low allowable stress
and can be an expensive material.
8-9
Replacements
Recently, ferritic 26-3-3 (UNS S44660) alloy tube materials have been used in heater
applications. The latest material is the austenitic AL-6XN (UNS N09367). This material has
excellent resistance to pitting, crevice corrosion, and stress corrosion in the presence of
chlorides. Where pitting is a problem with the 304 SS tube material, the AL-6XN material may
be a good alternative. However, the thermal conductivity of the AL-6XN material is poor.
ASME SA213 T-22 is the most recent tubing material introduced in the industry. T-22 has been
widely used in boilers for many years. A European equivalent of T-22 material has been used
successfully by European manufacturers for several years. In the early 1990s, the first T-22
feedwater heaters were installed in U.S. power plants. T-22 is a low-alloy carbon steel with
2.25% chromium and 1% molybdenum. It is a P number 5A material that requires post-weld heat
treatment of the tube-to-tubesheet joints. The tubesheets are typically clad with Monel. U.S.
utilities have considered this material as a viable option in feedwater heaters since the mid-
1990s. When used as replacement heater tube material, T-22 should last a minimum of 15 to 20
years.
Some comparisons of the T-22 and 304 stainless steel tube materials are:
• When space is a premium, T-22 feedwater heaters are smaller than stainless steel heaters
because of increased thermal conductivity.
• When there is a chance that the feedwater can become contaminated with chlorides, T-22 is
the better choice due to its high stress corrosion resistance.
• A T-22 heater is normally less expensive than a 304 SS heater because of smaller shell sizes.
• The lead time for obtaining a T-22 feedwater heater is longer than for a stainless steel
feedwater heater.
Key O&M Cost Point

The average life expectancy for carbon steel tubed heaters is 12 years. The
average life expectancy for T-22 tubed heaters is 15 to 20 years. The average
life expectancy for type 304 stainless steel tubed heaters is 20 years.
8-10
Replacements
The tube material specifications are shown in Table 8-3.

Table 8-3
Tube Material Specifications [2]
Condition Material Specification/Unified Numbering

System (UNS) Number
Low pressure Copper Alloy SB-395 Admiralty / C44300
SB-395 90-10 Cu-Ni / C70600
Stainless Steel SA-688 TP304 / S30400
High pressure Carbon Steel SA-556-C2 / K03006
Alloy Steel SA-213-T11 / K11597
SA-213-T22 / K21590
Copper Alloy SB-395 80-20 Cu-Ni / C71000
SB-395 70-30 Cu-Ni / C71500
Nickel Alloy SB-163 70-30 Ni-Cu / N04400
Stainless Steel SA-688 TP304 / S30400,
304L / S30403, 304N / S30451
SA-688 TP316 / S31600,
316L / S31603, 316N / S31651
Super Stainless Steel SA-803 TP439 / S43035
SB-676 (AL6XN) / N08367
Some of the basic considerations that influence tube material selection are:
• Tube material costs
• Thermal conductivity of the material
• ASME allowable stress and design temperature
• Erosion-corrosion resistance
• Suitability for attachment to the tubesheet
• Water treatment requirements
Table 8-4 lists the technical and commercial properties of tubing materials.
8-11
Replacements
Table 8-4
Technical and Commercial Properties of Feedwater Heater Tubing [43]
Tube Material Thermal Allowable Stress, Corrosion-Related Approximate Tubing Remarks

Conductivity Problems Cost $/Ft ($/meter)
Btu/Hr-Ft-°F at Psi at 400°F (MPa
400°F at 478°K)
(watt/cm-K) at
478K
Adm. Brass 66 (2.475x10-3) 3500 (24) Stress corrosion $0.80 to $0.90 ($2.62 Presence of NH3 or O2 is
cracking to $2.95) damaging in stress corrosion.
Copper release causes damage
to reactor/steam generator,
boiler, and turbine components.
Cu-Ni Alloys 33 (1.2375x10-3) 8770 (60.5) Intergranular stress $1.10 to $1.30 Presence of NH3 or O2 at high
90-10 Cu-Ni corrosion cracking, ($3.61 to $4.26) pH is detrimental. Copper
exfoliation release causes damage to
reactor/steam generator, boiler,
and turbine components.
70-30 Cu-Ni 21 (0.7875x10-3) 20,050 (138) $1.50 to $2.50
($4.92 to $8.20)
Monel SB 163 16 (0.6x10-3) 24,300 (167) Stress corrosion $5.00 to $6.00 Stress corrosion due to
(70-30 Ni-Cu) ($16.40 to $19.68) manufacturing defects has been
reported in recent years. High
cost, long delivery time.
Carbon Steel 28 (1.05x10-3) 13,400 (92) General corrosion, $0.55 to $1.00\ Lowest cost, pH to be
SA556 Gr. A2 erosion-corrosion, $1.80 to $3.28) maintained between 9.4–9.6,
steam side oxygen content to be less than
corrosion 7 ppb.
SA556 Gr. C2 28 (1.05x10-3) 20,000 (138) $0.55 to $1.00
($1.80 to $3.28)
8-12
Replacements
Table 8-4 (cont.)

Technical and Commercial Properties of Feedwater Heater Tubing [43]
Tube Material Thermal Allowable Corrosion-Related Approximate Tubing Remarks

Conductivity Stress, Problems Cost $/Ft ($/meter)
Btu/Hr-Ft-°F at
400°F Psi at 400°F
(MPa at
(watt/cm-°K) at 478°K)
478°K
Stainless Steel Stress corrosion, pitting,

not recommended in
SA688-TP304 10 (0.375x10-3) 15,710 (108) chloride-contaminated $0.55 to $1.30 Most available tubing material
conditions ($1.80 to $4.26)
SA688-TP304N 10 (0.375x10-3) 17,720 (122)
SA268-TP439 15 (0.562x10-3) 12,680 (87) Recommended when $0.60 to $0.80 Ferritic type stainless steel.
chlorides are present ($1.97 to $2.62) Widely used in MSRs. Not
recommended for high
temperature.
27Cr-3Mo-2Ni 10 (0.375x10-3) 20,370 (140) Recommended for high $1.70 to $2.50 Limited numbers are
SeaCure chloride application ($5.58 to $8.20) manufactured so far.
AL-6XN 9 (0.3375x10-3) 21,900 (151) Recommended for high $2.20 to $3.00 Limited numbers are
chloride application ($7.22 to $9.84) manufactured so far.
Low Alloy Steel Erosion-corrosion Widely used in boilers. Relatively

resistant, subject to new in feedwater heater
SA213-T11 (P4) 21 (0.7875x10-3) 16,800 (116) general corrosion $0.65 to $1.10 application.
(3.61 to $3.28)
SA213-T22 (P5) 21 (0.7875x10-3) 16,600 (114)
8-13
Replacements
Key Technical Point

The suggested tube materials for nuclear feedwater heaters are listed below:
• High pressure – SA-688 TP304, 0.05 percent maximum carbon, austenitic
stainless, external diameter 5/8 inch (16 mm)
• Low pressure – SA-688 TP304, 0.05 percent maximum carbon, austenitic
stainless, external diameter 5/8 or 3/4 inch (16 or 19 mm)
- SA-268 XM8 TP 439 seamless, ferritic stainless, external
diameter 5/8 or 3/4 inch (16 or 19 mm). Larger diameter
tubing of 7/8 and 1 inch (22 and 25 mm) can be used;
however, the use of the larger diameter tubes allows fewer
failures before replacement is required.
8.6.2.1 Wall Thickness
Straight tube minimum wall thickness calculations for a given tube-side design pressure should
be based on the tube external diameters in accordance with ASME Code Section VIII, Division
1, the HEI Standards 3.6.5, and the allowable stress values stated in the code [2]. Use of ASME
Code Section VIII, Table UHA-23, Note 1 should not be permitted for calculating the wall
thickness of 300 series stainless steel tubing. Tube wall thickness calculations should be adjusted
for thinning due to U-bending, based on the bend correction factor stated in the HEI standards.
The wall thickness of inner row tubes and the number of rows requiring thicker tube walls should
be identified on the as-built specification sheet. Note that calculations for the tube wall to
compensate for bend thinning are equal to the calculated straight tube wall times a factor
expressed as:
[1 + tube outside diameter / (4 X bend radius)]
Where the outside diameter and bend radius are in inches (mm).
The design minimum tube wall thickness is shown in Table 8-5.

Table 8-5
Design Minimum Tube Wall Thickness [1]
Material Tube Wall Thickness in Inches (mm)
Copper and copper alloy 0.049 (1.2)
Nickel alloy 0.049 (1.2)
Stainless steel (U-tubes) 0.035 (0.9)
Stainless steel (straight tubes) 0.028 (0.7)
Carbon steel 0.050 (1.3)
8-14
Replacements
8.6.2.2 U-Bend Radii
Tube exterior flattening in U-bends should not exceed 10%. The transition from straight tubing
to the bend of each U-bend should be uniform and free from excessive flattening, localized
excessive thinning, abrupt changes in bend radius, or apparent knuckles on the tube exterior or
wrinkling on tube interior [1, 41].
The minimum radius of U-bends should be 1-1/2 times the tube diameter. There are several
reasons why first row U-bend radii should not be too small. The principal concern is to avoid
excessive deformation and high stresses in the tube wall. It is also important to leave ample room
for the divider plate nub (pass partition in the channel). If the tubes are too close to the divider
plate, maintenance can be difficult.
From EPRI studies [41], the recommendations above the minimum required are:
• The distance (or radius) between the first row tube bends for a 5/8 inch (16 mm) diameter
tube is 1.5570 inch (39 mm).
The following formula should be used to determine the required thickness of the tube wall before
bending.
T = (1+ D/4R) X [(P X D) / (2S + 0.8P)]
Where:
T = Tube wall thickness before bending, in inches (mm)
D = Outside diameter of tube, in inches (mm)
P = Tube design pressure, in psig. (MPa)
R = Radius of bend at centerline of tube, in inches (mm)
S = Allowable design stress at the saturated steam temperature corresponding to the shell-
side design pressure, in psi (MPa)
Cold work in forming U-bends can induce susceptibility to stress corrosion cracking in specific
materials and environments. If required, stress relief of the U-bends should be specified.
8-15
Replacements
The tubes should be laid out on a triangular pitch. Tubes should have a minimum center-to-
center spacing equal to the tube diameter plus 3/16 inch (4.8 mm) or 1.25 times the nominal tube
outside diameter, whichever is greater.
8.6.2.3 Velocity
The maximum tube-side velocity is shown in Table 8-6.

Table 8-6
Maximum Tube Side Velocity [1]
Tube Material Maximum Feedwater

Velocity in ft/sec (m/sec)
Stainless steel, 70-30 nickel copper (Monel) 10.0 (3)
Copper nickel (70-30, 80-20, 90-10) 9.0 (2.7)
Admiralty metal and copper 8.5 (2.6)
Carbon steel 8.0 (2.4)
8.6.2.4 Temperature
It is recommended that the maximum tube metal temperature shown in Table 8-7 not be
exceeded.
Table 8-7
Maximum Metal Temperature for Tube Materials [1]
Tube Material Temperature °F (°C)

Arsenical copper 400 (204)
Admiralty metal 450 (232)
90-10 copper-nickel 600 (315)
80-20 copper nickel 700 (371)
70-30 copper nickel – annealed 700 (371)
70-30 copper nickel – stress relieved 800 (427)
70-30 nickel-copper – annealed 900 (482)
70-30 nickel copper – stress relieved 800 (427)
Carbon steel 800 (427)
Stainless steel 800 (427)
Where tubes are installed in steel tubesheets by expansion only, the recommended maximum
temperatures at the joint are shown in Table 8-8. The temperature at the tube joint is considered
to be the outlet temperature of the feedwater at operating conditions. Welded tube joints should
be used when the temperatures range from the values in Table 8-8 up to the maximum metal
temperatures given in Table 8-7.
8-16
Replacements
Table 8-8
Maximum Temperature of Expanded Tube Joints [1]
Tube Material Temperature °F (°C)

Arsenical copper 350 (177)
Admiralty metal 350 (177)
90-10 copper-nickel 400 (204)
80-20 copper nickel 450 (232)
70-30 copper nickel – annealed 500 (260)
70-30 copper nickel – stress relieved 500 (260)
70-30 nickel-copper – annealed 550 (288)
70-30 nickel copper – stress relieved 550 (288)
Carbon steel 650 (343)
Stainless steel 500 (260)
8.6.2.5 Tube Supports
Baffle holes and tube support plate holes should be drilled 1/64 inch (0.4 mm) greater than the
nominal outside diameter of the tubes [1]. An exception is that baffles in drains cooling zones
may have holes 1/32 inch (0.8 mm) greater than the nominal outside diameter of the tubes. All
burrs should be removed to prevent damage to the tubes.
The spacing of the tube supports is a complex problem that has been studied by HEI. Tube
vibration is affected by many factors including the fluid entrance geometry, fluid exit
configuration, cross-flow, and longitudinal flow baffle configurations.
As a minimum requirement, the baffle and support plates should be spaced so that the
unsupported straight lengths of the tubes have a maximum spacing as listed in Table 8-9. Each
leg of all U-bends in the condensing zone should be supported within 8 inches (20 cm) of the
point of tangency. These maximum unsupported lengths are established for mechanical support
of the tube bundle only.
Table 8-9
Maximum Spacing for Baffle and Support Plates [1]
Tube Outside Diameter in inch (mm) Spacing in inches (m)

5/8 (16) 48 (1.2)
3/4 (19) 54 (1.3)
7/8 (22) 57 (1.4)
1 (25) 60 (1.5)
The minimum thickness of support plates and baffles in the condensing zones should be 3/8 inch
(9.5 mm) for shell diameters of 18 inches (46 cm) and smaller and 5/8 inch (16 mm) for larger
8-17
Replacements
diameter shells. The minimum thickness of baffles in the subcooling zone of all heaters should
be 1/4 inch (6 mm) for spacing less than 18 inches (46 cm) and 3/8 inch (9 mm) for spacing of
18 inches (46 cm) and greater.
The end plate of the drains cooling zone in horizontal heaters should be designed to prevent
leakage of steam from the condensing zone into the drains cooling zone. Close tube-to-tube hole
clearance and adequate end plate thickness is provided for this reason. The end plate tube hole
drilling should be the same as that for the tubesheet. In addition, the end plate thickness should
not be less than 2 inches (51 mm). Many utilities prefer a minimum thickness of 3 inches (76
mm).
The tube bundles should be designed to avoid direct impingement of incoming shell-side fluids
on the tubes. A stainless steel impingement plate should be placed in front of each shell inlet
nozzle. Flow area not less than the nozzle area should be provided between the nozzle and the
impingement plate.
8.6.2.6 Tubesheet Holes
Tube holes in tubesheets should be finished to the sizes and tolerances shown in Table 8-10.
Close fit tolerances are recommended for tubes subject to work hardening. Ninety-six percent of
the tube holes should not exceed the standard over-tolerance value. The tube holes should be
smooth, and burrs should be removed to prevent damage to the tubes.
Key Technical Point

The tube hole in the tubesheet minus the maximum outside diameter of the
tube should never be less than 0.002 inches (51 µm).
Table 8-10
Tube Hole Diameters and Tolerances for Tubesheets [1]
Nominal Tube Hole Diameter & Under Tolerance Over Tolerance

Tube in inches (mm) in inches (µm)
Outside
Standard Fit Close Fit
Diameter
in. (mm) Nominal Under Nominal Under Standard Maximum
Diameter Tolerance Diameter Tolerance
5/8 (16) 0.635 (16.1) 0.004 (0.1) 0.633 (16.1) 0.002 (0.05) 0.002 (51) 0.010 (254)
3/4 (19) 0.760 (19.3) 0.004 (0.1) 0.758 (19.2) 0.002 (0.05) 0.002 (51) 0.010 (254)
7/8 (22) 0.885 (22.5) 0.004 (0.1) 0.883 (22.4) 0.002 (0.05) 0.002 (51) 0.010 (254)
1 (25) 1.012 (25.7) 0.004 (0.1) 1.010 (25.6) 0.002 (0.05) 0.002 (51) 0.010 (254)
8-18
9
REFERENCES, ACRONYMS, AND GLOSSARY
References
1. Standards for Closed Feedwater Heaters, Sixth Edition. Heat Exchange Institute, Inc., March
1998.
2. Mike Catapano, Kenji Krzywosz, and John Tsou, “Feedwater Heater Technology Seminar,”
Feedwater Heater Technology Seminar and Symposium. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: October 2001.
1004022.
3. Thermal Performance Engineering Handbook, Volume II. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: October
1998. TR-107422-V2.
4. Nuclear Plant Feedwater Heater Handbook, Volume 1: Primer. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: June
1985. NP-4057-V1.
5. Feedwater Heater Survey. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: August 1991. GS-7417.
6. K. S. Sunder Raj. Nuclear Plant Component Basic Series: Feedwater Heaters Workbook for
Niagara Mohawk Power Corporation Nine Mile Point Units 1 and 2. October 1992.
7. Recommended Guidelines for the Operation and Maintenance of Feedwater Heaters. EPRI,
Palo Alto, CA: September 1983. CS-3239.
8. Nuclear Plant Feedwater Heater Handbook, Volume 3: Operation and Maintenance

Guidelines. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: June 1985. NP-4057-V3.
9. Joseph E. Schroeder and Stephen N. Flesner, “Feedwater Heater Tubesheet System Design
Features for Cyclic Operation,” Proceedings: Feedwater Heater Technology Conference.
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: May 1991. GS-7290.
10. Feedwater Heater Procurement Guidelines. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: July 1985. CS-4155.
11. High-Reliability Feedwater Heater Study. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: June 1988. CS-5856.
12. Thermal Performance Engineer’s Handbook, Volume 1. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: March 1998.
TR-107422-V1.
13. Feedwater Heaters Maintenance and Repair Technology: Reducing Outage Cost. EPRI, Palo
Alto, CA: August 1990. GS-6935.
9-1
References, Acronyms, and Glossary
14. On-Line Feedwater Heater Performance Monitor. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: January 1991.
FS9101.
15. Reference omitted
16. Heat Exchanger Workstation: Technology Review. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: December 1995.
AP-101840-V3P4.
17. Main Turbine Performance Upgrade Guidelines. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: January 1997. TR-
106230.
18. Jitu Parikh and Vytas Maciunas, “A Case Study of Tube Failure in the Subcooling Zone of
Low Pressure Feedwater Heaters,” Proceedings: 1992 Feedwater Heater Technology
Symposium. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: September 1993. TR-102923.
19. Leeth DePriest and Danny Walker, “ Benefits of Feedwater Heater Performance Monitoring
at Georgia Power’s Plant Hammond,” Feedwater Heater Technology Seminar and
Symposium. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: October 2001. 1004022.
20. Author Unknown, “Feedwater Heater and MSR Performance Monitoring,” EPRI P2EP
Library, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: February 1995. 90.0-848.
21. Raymond J. Reardon and Thomas J. Muldoon, “Optimized Approach for Feedwater Heater
Testing, Inspection and Condition Assessment,” Feedwater Heater Technology Seminar and
Symposium. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: October 2001. 1004022.
22. Carl E. Andreone and Stanley Yokell, “Closed Feedwater Heaters,” EPRI Training Class,
Charlotte, North Carolina, October 2000.
23. Stan Wahlmeier and Bruce Schafer, “Wolf Creek Feedwater Heater Repair,” Feedwater
Heater Technology Seminar and Symposium. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: October 2001. 1004022.
24. CHECWORKS Users Group, “Recommendations for Inspecting Feedwater Heater Shells for
Possible Flow-Accelerated Corrosion Damage,” EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: February 2000.
25. J.R. Crum and R.C. Scarberry, “Development of Galvanic Series in Various Acid and Water
Environments,” Inco Alloys.
26. Failure Cause Analysis Feedwater Heaters. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: April 1981. CS-1776.
27. Manual for Investigation and Correction of Feedwater Heater Failures. EPRI, Palo Alto,
CA: September 1991. GS-7390.
28. Michael J. Nugent and Bruce A. Pellegrino, “Remote Visual Testing (RVT) for the
Diagnostic Inspection of Feedwater Heaters,” Proceedings: Feedwater Heater Technology
Conference. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: May 1991. GS-7290.
9-2
29. Merwin W. Jones and Robert J. Bell, “Reliable Specification Criteria Confirmed Through
Forensic Analysis of A High Pressure Feedwater Heater,” Proceedings: Feedwater Heater
Technology Conference. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: May 1991. GS-7290.
30. R. J. Bell, I. A. Diaz-Tous, and J. A. Bartz, “Manual for Investigation and Correction of
Feedwater Heater Failures,” Proceedings: 1992 Feedwater Heater Technology Symposium.
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: September 1993. TR-102923.
31. Preventive Maintenance Basis Volume 33: Feedwater Heaters. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: July
1998. TR-106857-V33.
32. Michael J. Nugent and Bruce A. Pellegrino, “Heat Exchanger Tube Damage Characterization
Using Complementary NDT Techniques,” Proceedings: Second EPRI Balance-of-Plant Heat
Exchanger Nondestructive Evaluation Workshop, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: February 1993. TR-
101846.
33. Balance-of-Plant Heat Exchanger Condition Assessment and Inspection Guide. EPRI, Palo
Alto, CA: December 1999. TR-108009.
34. Balance-of-Plant Heat Exchanger Condition Assessment Guidelines. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA:
July 1992. TR-100385.
35. Pedro F. Lara and Kenji Krzywosz, “ In-Service Feedwater Heater Shell Condition
Assessment Via The Pulsed Eddy Current NDE Technology,” Feedwater Heater Technology
Seminar and Symposium. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: October 2001. 1004022.
36. Acoustic Feedwater Heater Leak Detection Systems. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: December 1993.
AP-101840-V2P14.
37. I. J. Jacobson and B.W. Schafer, “Arkansas Nuclear One, Unit 1 Feedwater Heater Tube
Sleeving,” June 1994.
38. Stanley Yokell, “Feedwater Heater Tube-to-Tubesheet Connections,” Proceedings: 1992

Feedwater Heater Technology Symposium. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: September 1993. TR-
102923.
39. Carl F. Andreone and Stanley Yokell. Tubular Heat Exchanger: Inspection, Maintenance
and Repair. McGraw-Hill, New York 1997.
40. Eddy Current Testing of Service Water Heat Exchangers for Engineers Guideline. EPRI,
Palo Alto, CA: February 1999. TR-110392.
41. Feedwater Heaters: Replacement Specification Guidelines. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: August
1990. GS-6913.
42. Ivan A. Franson and Jack R. Maurer, “A New Nitrogen-Strengthened FE-NI-CR- MO

Austenitic Alloy for Feedwater Heater Application,” presented at the Joint ASME/IEEE
Power Generation Conference, Miami Beach, Florida (October 1987).
9-3
43. Aziz Siman and Joe Shelton, “Feedwater Heater Application of T-22 Tubing,” Feedwater
Heater Technology Seminar and Symposium. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: October 2001. 1004022.
44. Nuclear Plant Feedwater Heater Handbook Volume 2: Design and Procurement Guidelines.
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: June 1985. NP-4057-V2.
45. Maurice Betaharon, “Single-String Operation of High Pressure Feedwater Heaters: A

Systematic Design Approach,” Proceedings: Feedwater Heater Technology Conference.
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: May 1991. GS-7290.
46. I. A. Diaz-Tous, A. H. Khah, S. Murphy, F. Wong, J. A. Bartz, S. Pace, J. Scheibel, J. Clark,

R. Holhman, and E. Schaub, “First Header-Type Feedwater Heater Technology in the United
States,” Proceedings: 1992 Feedwater Heater Technology Symposium. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA:
September 1993. TR-102923..
47. Glenn J. Tiffin, “Header Type Feedwater Heaters in Supercritical Service Pressure, An
Update of Operational Experience Record at 5+ Years from an End User’s Perspective,”
Feedwater Heater Technology Seminar and Symposium. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: October 2001.
1004022.
9-4
Acronyms
ANSI American National Standards Institute
ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers
ASNT American Society of Non-Destructive Testing
ASTM American Society of Testing Materials
AWS American Welding Society
BWR boiling water reactor
Btu British thermal units
DBMP database management program
DCA drains cooler approach
ECT eddy current testing
EEI Edison Electric Institute
EPIX Equipment Performance & Information Exchange
EPRI Electric Power Research Institute
ET electromagnetic testing
FAC flow-accelerated corrosion
FMAC Fossil Maintenance Applications Center
FFT final feedwater temperature
ft feet
HEI Heat Exchange Institute
INPO Institute of Nuclear Power Operations
IRIS internal rotary inspection system
IRT infrared technology
9-5
ITHT individual tube hydrostatic test
LER Licensee Event Report
MT magnetic particle testing
NDE nondestructive examination
NMACNuclear Maintenance Applications Center
NPRDS Nuclear Plant Reliability Data System
NRC Nuclear Regulatory Commission
O&MR Operations & Maintenance Reminder
OE operating experience
OPEC Operating Plant Experience Code
PM preventive maintenance
PDM predictive maintenance
PT liquid penetrant testing
PWR pressurized water reactor
Rms root mean square
RVT remote visual testing
SCC stress corrosion cracking
SEE-IN Significant Event Evaluation Information Network
SEN Significant Event Notification
SER Significant Event Report
SOER Significant Operating Experience Report
TEMA Tubular Heat Exchanger Manufacturers Association
TR temperature rise
9-6
TTD terminal temperature difference
TWDPS Turbine Water Damage Prevention Standard (ASME)
UCLF unplanned capacity loss factor
UT ultrasonic testing
VT visual inspection testing
9-7
Glossary
channel The portion of the feedwater heater that distributes the water from the pipe nozzle to
the tube inlets, separates the tube passes, collects the water from the tube outlets, and directs it to
the outlet pipe nozzle.
condensate system All piping and components between the condenser and the feedwater
pump suction.
drains cooler approach (DCA) temperature The difference between the shell-side drain
cooler outlet temperature and the tube inlet feedwater temperature. Expressed in ºF (ºC).
extraction steam system Steam piping and components between the turbine extraction
nozzle and the feedwater heater steam inlet nozzle.
feedwater heaters Devices that heat the condensate/feedwater using steam taken from the
turbine at various points. Note: heaters installed in the condensate system are designated low-
pressure heaters and those installed in the feedwater system are designated high-pressure heaters.
feedwater system All piping and components between the feedwater pump suction and the
nuclear reactor/steam generator.
heater drain system Piping and components used to transport the condensed extraction steam
in the feedwater heater to a point of disposal.
hybrid tube expanding Producing an expanded tube-to-tubesheet joint by hydraulic expanding

followed by roller expanding.
hydraulic expanding (hydroexpanding) The direct application of hydraulic pressure inside a

tube end or sleeve for the purpose of producing a tight, strong tube-to-tubesheet or sleeve-to-tube
joint.
pass partition The plate that divides the channel to guide the flow of the inlet
condensate/feedwater. The pass partition cover can be welded or bolted.
roller expanding (also tube rolling and rolling) The process of mechanically expanding a
tube into a tubesheet or a sleeve into a tube. This is accomplished with a tool that has rotating,
tapered, mandrel drive hardened pins. The pins are contained in a counter-rotating cage that
comes into contact with the tube inside diameter, thereby expanding the tube.
sleeving Mechanically or explosively joining a tubular insert to the inside surface of a tube.
The purpose is to bridge a region in which the integrity of the parent tube has been compromised
or to restore sufficient thickness to resist the internal hydrostatic pressure without approaching
the point of rupture.
9-8
temperature rise The difference between the outlet and the inlet feedwater temperature
expressed in ºF (ºC).
terminal temperature difference (TTD) The saturated temperature of the entering extraction
steam minus the exiting condensate/feedwater temperature expressed in ºF (ºC).
tubesheet The component that the tube ends are secured to and supported by. Separates the
channel from the shell.
9-9
A
2001 SURVEY RESULTS
In August 2001, a survey was sent to the members of the NMAC and FMAC power plants for
detailed information on their respective feedwater heater equipment. The intent of the survey was
to gather information that could be used by plant personnel who have similar equipment. The
results of the survey are shown here, listed separately for the nuclear and fossil plants.
A-1
2001 Survey Results
Table A-1
Nuclear Survey Results
A-2
2001 Survey Results
Table A-2
Fossil Survey Results
A-3
B
FOSSIL APPLICATIONS
There are several areas relating to feedwater heaters that are applicable primarily to the fossil
units. The following areas are included in this section:
• A fossil flow diagram
• Heater types and layout
• Tube materials
• Problems
B.1 Fossil Flow Diagram
A heat balance diagram for a fossil double-reheat design is shown in Figure B-1.
Several differences from the nuclear heat balance diagram shown in Figure 2-1 can be seen in
Figure B-1. Some of the differences as they relate to feedwater heaters are:
• The presence of superheated steam in the high-pressure and intermediate-pressure extractions
• The presence of a reheat or intermediate-pressure turbine, intermediate turbine extraction
flows, and intermediate-pressure feedwater heaters
• The presence of a deaerating heater
• The presence of condensate and condensate booster pumps to provide flow to the boiler feed
pumps
B-1
Fossil Applications
Figure B-1
Flow Diagram for Chalk Point Generating Station [45]
B-2
Fossil Applications
B.2 Heater Types and Layout
The temperatures and pressures generated in the fossil plants provide steam that is superheated.
When this steam is admitted to a feedwater heater, a special section is needed to handle the heat
transfer. This section is called a desuperheating zone [2].
The desuperheating zone consists of an enclosure, impingement plate, steam inlet nozzles, steam
outlet, close-off plate, tubes, and segmental baffles. The reasons for having a desuperheater zone
are to:
• Raise the feedwater temperature to higher than the saturation temperature of the steam
• Reduce steam temperature going into the condensing zone
• Reduce the required surface area
B.2.1 Vertical Orientation
The majority of feedwater heaters are installed in a horizontal position; however, some users
prefer a vertical installation because less floor space is required. The channels can be either
above or below the shells. Considerations for vertical heaters involve proper distribution of
steam and condensate within the shell [1]. In some designs, the condensate will fall like rain
from the tube supports while steam usually rises against the flow. A means of separation is
required to prevent the steam flow from holding up the condensate with a resulting slugging or
surging that can result in heater vibration, hydrodynamic instability, and impaired thermal
performance.
Most installations use the channel below the shell, and this style is called channel down. This
design enables the plant designer to run the feedwater piping between the heaters at a lower,
more consistent elevation, and the shell removal is easier.
In vertical channel-down feedwater heaters, the desuperheating zone must be longer than the
drains cooling zone to prevent flooding and possible water back-flow to the turbine. This may
require an inactive tube section below the desuperheating zone and/or thermal limitations to the
design such as reduced subcooling and no desuperheating. A channel-down feedwater heater
with a drains cooling zone and no desuperheating zone requires flooded, ineffective heat-transfer
surface beside the drains cooling zone.
Water level control becomes more critical in vertical channel-down heaters, especially those with
desuperheating zones. There is less capacity (storage volume per height of water level) available
in this orientation. The design may require a larger diameter shell or a greater level-control band.
Generally, more sophisticated level-control systems are required to compensate for low capacity.
Vertical feedwater heaters present a unique level-control requirement. Unlike horizontal heaters
that have a large surface area at the condensate vapor interface, vertical channel-down heater
shells have less free surface area within the cross section of the shell inside diameter. This may
require a 1/2-inch (13-mm) damping orifice in the bottom equalizing leg to increase the effective
B-3
Fossil Applications
capacity. The damping orifice reduces the effect of short duration level fluctuations but does not
affect level trends. In this manner, the small capacity of the vertical heater becomes more
effective.
The cross-sectional area of the vertical channel-down heater shell can be enlarged to increase
capacity as required. Capacity of a vertical heater can also be increased by increasing the level-
control range from a minimum of + 2 inches (51 mm) to + 3–4 inches (76–102 mm) or as
required to satisfy the drain flow of the heater. When this control range is increased,
consideration should be given to increasing the float of the controller to a longer float length.
As the level is dropped in a vertical channel-down heater, the point is reached where the
indicated level coincides with the top of the drain cooler shroud. This point must be indicated on
the gauge glass and also on the level indication in the control room. The heater should never be
operated below this point because control of the drain flow through the drains cooling zone and
the normal drain outlet piping would be completely lost.
If the channel is above the shell, this style is called channel up. To gain access to the channel, the
tube bundle must be removed, major connections broken, and heavy parts lifted. In either of the
vertical heater configurations, complete tube bundle access is more difficult than in the
horizontal configuration.
A channel-up heater with a drains cooling zone requires a full-length section to accomplish a
siphon-type lifting of the condensate. Part-load operation must be considered to ensure sufficient
pressure differential with the downstream heater to lift the drains without flashing. System upsets
that break this siphon can occur. It should be recognized that re-establishing the siphon is
difficult, if not impossible, without a shutdown. Either flashing or breaking the siphon could
result in a vapor/water mixture with resulting tube erosion and vibration.
B.2.2 Desuperheating Zone
Without a desuperheating zone, the feedwater can only approach the saturated steam temperature
but cannot equal or exceed it. Additional temperature increase can be obtained by use of a
desuperheating zone that exchanges the sensible heat in the steam through the large temperature
difference between the steam and the feedwater [1]. Although the heat transfer rate in a gas-to-
liquid heat exchanger is less than that in the condensing zone, the temperature difference is much
greater. Therefore, each square foot of surface in the desuperheating zone transfers a significant
amount of heat. Using a desuperheating zone permits heating of the feedwater to a temperature
higher than the shell-side saturation temperature. When superheat is available, the additional cost
of a desuperheating zone is usually economically justifiable because of the cycle efficiency
improvement.
The use of a desuperheating zone is subject to some limitations. First, the steam temperature at
the exit of the zone has to be sufficient to heat the exposed tubing to a temperature that exceeds
the condensing temperature. Second, there must be sufficient heat in the inlet steam to permit
heating the feedwater to the desired outlet temperature. Other operating parameters should be
considered to avoid wet tube conditions.
B-4
Fossil Applications
The amount that the tube wall metal temperature within the zone exceeds the saturated steam
temperature at the corresponding pressure is referred to as the dry wall safety margin. This
should be a minimum of 2ºF (1.11ºC) at the design point. Generally, dry wall requirements can
be accomplished at plant conditions down to 50% load. Below 50% load, it may not be possible
to ensure “dry wall” conditions.
The condensing and subcooling zones are discussed in Section 2.3.6.
B.2.3 Layout
The following are feedwater designs that are applicable to fossil plants [1]:
• Two zone – desuperheating and condensing zones – horizontal
• Three zone – desuperheating, condensing, and subcooling – horizontal
• One zone – condensing – vertical channel-down
• Two zone – condensing and subcooling – vertical channel-down
• Three zone – desuperheating, condensing, and subcooling – vertical channel-down
• One zone – condensing – vertical channel-up
• Two zone – condensing and subcooling – vertical channel-up
• Three zone – desuperheating, condensing, and subcooling – vertical channel-up
Figures B-2 through B-9 show these various designs and layouts.
B-5
Fossil Applications
Figure B-2
Desuperheating and Condensing Zone, Horizontal Feedwater Heater [1]
B-6
Fossil Applications
Figure B-3
Desuperheating, Condensing, and Subcooling Zone, Horizontal Feedwater Heater [1]
B-7
Fossil Applications
Figure B-4
Condensing Zone, Vertical Channel-Down Feedwater Heater [1]
B-8
Fossil Applications
Figure B-5
Condensing and Subcooling Zone, Vertical Channel-Down Feedwater Heater [1]
B-9
Fossil Applications
Figure B-6
Desuperheating, Condensing, and Drains Cooling Zone, Vertical Channel-Down Feedwater
Heater [1]
B-10
Fossil Applications
Figure B-7
Condensing Zone, Vertical Channel-Up Feedwater Heater [1]
B-11
Fossil Applications
Figure B-8
Condensing and Subcooling Zone, Vertical Channel-Up Feedwater Heater [1]
B-12
Fossil Applications
Figure B-9
Desuperheating, Condensing, and Subcooling Zone, Vertical Channel-Up Feedwater
Heater [1]
B-13
Fossil Applications
B.2.4 Header Type Heater
Many fossil generating units originally designed for base load operation have been placed in
cycling service. Because of the design limitations of the tubesheet/channel type of feedwater
heaters in cycling operation, the reliability and efficiency of the feedwater heaters have been
affected. The header type heater [46, 47], originally developed and used in Europe, provides one
solution to this problem.
As part of an EPRI project, Long Island Lighting Co. (now Keyspan Energy) procured a header
type heater and installed it in Glenwood Power Station Unit #5 in 1991. The heater uses a boiler
header type construction for the feedwater inlet and outlet. This design minimizes thermal
stresses and transients by isolating the cold water from the hot water stream. A picture of a
horizontal header type heater is shown in Figure B-10.
Figure B-10
Horizontal Header Type Feedwater Heater [46]
Some advantages of this design heater are:

• Low peak stresses during transients
• Single string capacity to 900 MW
• Fewer failure mechanisms
• Lower shell-side design velocities
• Standard materials of carbon and low alloy steels
• Designed for cyclic operation.
• Life expectancy of 35–50 years
Some disadvantages are:

• More weight
• More space required
• Higher initial cost for smaller units
B-14
Fossil Applications
Large, header type feedwater heaters have been in service at AmerenUE Sioux Plant Units 1 and
2 since April 1995. Some tube failures have occurred. These are traceable to the initial design
and manufacturing challenges. AmerenUE selected a header style feedwater heater design over
the conventional tubesheet type because of the longevity advantages in the thick wall sections at
the feedwater boundary. Unit 2 was the first of two identical installations of header heaters and
was an EPRI co-funded demonstration project. AmerenUE then proceeded independently with
the Unit 1 installation a year later, using the same vessel design but a different end fabricator.
B.2.5 Deaerators
The open type or contact heater is one where the extraction steam, inlet drains, and condensate
mix and exit at the same saturation temperature, corresponding to the pressure in the heater. In a
nuclear plant, the contact heater has seldom been used.
In a fossil plant, the contact heater is invariably used as a deaerating heater or deaerator [6]. It
consists of a large shell with considerable condensate storage capacity. The condensate is
supplied to the heater through a vent condenser and is permitted to pass to the bottom of the
heater by spilling over a series of trays. The passage of steam through the sheet of condensate
running over the side of the trays ensures complete intermixing of steam and water. Also, the
heating of the condensate to the saturation temperature corresponding to the heater pressure
occurs. When water is raised to its boiling point, the solubility of any gases in solution is greatly
diminished. This causes the gases to leave the solution.
The deaerator in a power plant cycle has a dual function. It heats the water through an
appreciable temperature rise of 60 to 70ûF (15 to 21ûC). At the same time, it removes the
dissolved gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide from the condensate. The noncondensables
pass through the vent condenser where the water vapor is condensed and the gases are
discharged to the atmosphere. Because the deaerator is providing condensate at saturated
conditions, it has to be set at a sufficiently high elevation in the plant to be able to meet the
suction head requirements of the boiler feed pumps. Also, for any transient conditions, such as
load rejection, sufficient water inventory must exist for the boiler feed pumps. The deaerating
heaters are provided with storage tanks that are sized to store a sufficient quantity of water to
handle transient conditions without tripping the unit.
By removing dissolved gases, specifically oxygen, the deaerator helps to protect the boiler from
the corrosive effects of oxygen. Deaerators are normally guaranteed to meet dissolved oxygen
levels of 7.0 ppb in the condensate leaving the deaerator at full load conditions.
Deaerators are classified as either the tray type or spray type. Either type may be constructed
with an external or internal shell and a tube type or direct contact type of vent condenser.
A tray type deaerator uses two stages of heating and deaeration. The first stage, usually a spray
section, involves discharging water from spray valves or spray pipes as thin films or sheets into
the steam space above the second stage tray section. It serves as the water distribution system
and the first stage of heating and deaeration. In some designs, it also serves as a direct contact
vent condenser. The condensing of steam reduces its pressure progressively through tray and
B-15
Fossil Applications
spray sections to a minimum pressure in the vent condenser area. The falling water, containing
small amounts of dissolved gases, leaves the first stage and enters the second stage tray section.
There it is thoroughly mixed with and mechanically scrubbed by the heating steam.
A spray type deaerator uses two stages of heating and deaeration, similar to the tray type. The
first stage is also a spray section of the primary heater. The water is discharged through spray
valves as thin films or sheets into the heating steam. The water is heated and partially deaerated
in the first stage and then enters the second stage that incorporates a steam scrubber and/or
reboiler. It mixes here with all of the incoming heating steam. The water in the steam/water
mixture becomes slightly superheated during the heating and scrubbing process. Some flashing
occurs as it is discharged into the steam space where final deaeration is effected.
B.3 Tube Materials
Current tube materials for feedwater heaters are listed below. Traditional tube materials that have
shown high susceptibility to several modes of failure are not included [2, 41].
The listed tube materials have been successfully applied in nonferrous and carbon steel tube
feedwater heater cycles. It is of note that many utilities have confined their tube selections to the
appropriate stainless steel and Monel alloys. Suggested feedwater heater tube materials are
shown in Table B-1.
Table B-1
Feedwater Heater Tube Materials [2]
Condition Material Specification
Low pressure Copper alloy SB-395 Admiralty

SB-395 90-10 Cu-Ni
Stainless steel SA-688 TP304
High pressure Carbon steel SA-556-C2

Alloy steel SA-213-T11
SA-213-T22
Copper alloy SA-395 80-20 Cu-Ni
SA-395 70-30 Cu-Ni
Nickel alloy SB-163 70-30 Ni-Cu
Stainless steel SA-688 TP304, 304L, 304N
SA-688 TP316, 316L, 316N
SA-803 TP439
Super stainless steel SB-676 UNS N08367 (AL-6XN)
Additional background experience on tube materials are given below:

• Brass, copper nickel, and admiralty metal – Some older heaters still have tubes of these
materials, but they are not considered appropriate for feedwater heaters for various reasons.
The industry shift to all volatile chemistry treatment presents a hostile environment for these
B-16
Fossil Applications
materials. The most durable material is 90/10 copper nickel. This material is still considered
for some low-pressure heaters today. In most cases, replacements for heaters in this category
are stainless steels.
• Austenitic stainless steels – These steels, with a low carbon content (0.05% maximum
carbon for 304 and 0.045% maximum for 316) are the most popular materials being specified
today. Some utilities use austenitic stainless steels for the high- and low-pressure heaters in
nuclear and fossil plants.
Key Technical Point

It is strongly recommended that the use of 300 series stainless steels designed
to the dimensions permitted in ASME Code Section VII, Table UHA-23,
Note 1 be avoided.
Note 1 permits the use of less conservative inputs in the calculations that determine the
required tube thickness. The result is thinner wall tubing with less margin for any form of
physical stress and increased susceptibility to transgranular stress corrosion cracking. This
problem is especially acute for plants cooled with seawater and others where chloride or
halogen ingress may occur. The code does not require manufacturers to notify the purchasers
that Note 1 calculations have been used. Therefore, it is important for purchasers to specify
that Note 1 will not be allowed for 300 series stainless steels. It appears likely that the use of
Note 1 calculations contributed to many of the premature failures associated with
transgranular stress corrosion cracking.
• Monel 70/30 - Monel is composed of 70% nickel and 30% copper. This is still the preferred
choice of some utilities for high-pressure heaters. Other utilities have shifted their preference
to the stainless steels, both austenitic and ferritic.
• Carbon steel - While still selected by some utilities for supercritical applications, industry
experts no longer recommend carbon steel.
• Newer alloys - Inconel 600, Incoloy 800, AL-6XN, and SeaCure are examples of brand
names for relatively new alloys. Favorable recommendations have been made for these
materials.
B.4 Problems
This section covers problems with the desuperheating zone and the tubesheet-to-channel weld
cracking.
B-17
Fossil Applications
B.4.1 Desuperheating Zone
The desuperheating zone is one of the most troublesome sections in fossil feedwater heaters [11].
The following is a listing of major problems that occur in desuperheating zones:
• High steam inlet velocities, when coupled with poor inlet geometry, can result in erosion of
nozzles, baffle plates, shrouds, and tubes. This problem is infrequent and is often associated
with startup, shutdown, and abnormal operation. This occurs when the inlet steam is not
superheated and/or the steam is at a higher mass flow rate than designed. This problem can
be complicated by the presence of tube joint leaks.
• Impingement plate failures occur because of poor or inadequate welding. The practice of skip
or stitch welding is not used anymore. Most specifications require that stainless steel
impingement plates be used under the steam inlet. Differential thermal expansion between
austenitic and ferritic parts can fatigue the welds. Experience has shown that continuously
welded plates are less likely to fail. Thermal strains can be eliminated through the use of
ferritic materials, but these materials require more sophisticated welding processes. With a
double-shrouded desuperheating zone, the shroud can be used as an impact baffle because the
steam is dry. A separate impact plate provides added assurance. In any case, the arrangement
should be carefully analyzed for structural integrity.
• Desuperheating zone shrouds have occasionally failed. Most failures are a result of
inadequate welds, tube leaks, vibration, and incorrect startup procedures. It is important to
use proper warmup procedures when higher temperature steam is introduced into the heater.
• Destructive tube vibration is a common failure mode in desuperheating zones because the
cross-flow velocities are too high for the support spacing used. Steam is directed by baffles in
a direction across the tubes in order to obtain higher heat transfer rates. If the tubes are
inadequately supported, the tubes can fail due to collision. The failure usually occurs at the
mid-span between the baffles and in the area of the baffle hole.
• Wet tube wall conditions have resulted in tube failures before or after the exit of the
desuperheater zone. The failures occur because the water droplets entrained in the steam tend
to erode the tube materials at the high steam velocities. These conditions exist because the
condensing zone has a thermal effectiveness that is too low, superheated steam conditions are
lower than expected, or too much surface area exists in the desuperheating zone.
• The wet steam conditions that exist during startup have caused erosion of tubes between the
steam-side face of the tubesheet and the first baffle. The rate of degradation is a function of
the number of startups and not necessarily a function of age. It should be noted that, in newer
(less than 15 years old) heaters, this problem has not been identified. This might be an
indication of the time needed to accumulate the damage with a number of startups with wet
steam.
• Vertical channel-down heaters may trap condensate that is present at startup. While most
designs provide drains for all of the areas in the desuperheating zone that might accumulate
condensate, problems with stored condensate persist. The drains might not always be used.
There are cases reported of severe/extraction line distortion that is thought to be caused by
thermal shocking caused by trapped condensate.
B-18
Fossil Applications
• There have been many cases reported of severe erosion of carbon steel tubes at the exit of the
desuperheating zone. Although the erosion can be related to the design of the desuperheating
zone, it can also be caused by downward draining condensate flowing into a high-velocity
region. This type of erosion can be caused by water flowing from tube leaks. Often,
secondary tube leaks associated with tube leaks in the high-pressure heaters make it difficult
to isolate the first cause because of the severe damage caused by high-pressure water.
• Desuperheating zone baffles are drilled with holes only slightly larger than the tubes. If the
tubes are not straight or if the baffle assembly is not carefully aligned, handling damage can
occur. If the out-of-alignment amount is severe, the tubes may bind in the baffle and
contribute to ultimate failures.
For a discussion of problems in the condensing and drains cooler zones, refer to Sections 4.2.1
and 4.2.2 of this report.
B.4.2 Joint Cracks
Some heaters in service today have cracks at the tubesheet-to-channel-barrel transition joint. The
design has very small radii (1/4 to 3/4 inch) (6 to 19 mm) at the joint where the tubesheet is
welded to the channel barrel. This geometry introduces very high stresses that can lead to cracks
and ultimately catastrophic failure of the entire forging [13]. An example of a failed forging is
shown in Figure B-11.
B-19
Fossil Applications
Figure B-11
Catastrophic Failure of a Feedwater Heater Forging [13]
Key Technical Point

A rule of thumb is that the radius at the joint where the tubesheet is welded to
the channel barrel should be at least 1 inch (25 mm) for 1000 psi (6.9 MPa)
and an additional 1/2 inch (13 mm) for each increment of 1000 psi (6.9 MPa)
operating pressure.
Heaters should be inspected on a routine basis to verify the condition of the tubesheet and
channel areas, with special emphasis on the transition joint. Proper inspection will require
cleaning as a minimum. Suspect areas should be ground smooth and tested with dye penetrant
and/or ultrasonic tests.
B-20
Fossil Applications
If cracks are found, the utility is faced with several alternatives:

• If a crack is shallow it can be ground out and the area smoothed to avoid stress risers. As a
minimum, follow-up tests are periodically needed to test for future crack development.
• In some heaters with shallow cracks, a solution might be to grind out a larger radius all the
way around the joint and ensure that all cracks are removed.
• If cracks are deep, the correct decision might be to condemn the heater and replace it.
B-21
C
POP OUT SUMMARY
The following list provides the location of key Pop Out information in this report.

Denotes information that requires personnel action or consideration in order
to prevent personal injury, equipment damage and/or improve the efficiency
and effectiveness of the task.
Section Page Key Point
2.4.7 2-29 Because of the radiological consequences of a relief valve discharge in

a BWR facility, the relief valve is piped into a tee to permit liquid/vapor
separation. Where an up-turned or down-turned elbow is used,
personnel protection must be considered in the event of a relief valve
discharge.
2.4.8 2-32 Operational restraints should be placed on the vent valves, particularly
if the venting system can be isolated. This means that the isolation
valves should be locked open with the locks under administrative
control.
2.5.5 2-36 For heaters expected to be out-of-service for an extended period (more
than one week), both the shell and tube sides should be drained and
air-dried, and a nitrogen blanket at 5 psig (34.5 kPa) should be
maintained. This applies to heaters with all types of tube materials.
3.2 3-6 The vital measures of an operating heater are the TTD, DCA, and TR.
3.2 3-6 If the DCA temperature is too high for the existing power level, a serious
operating condition exists. This condition threatens to do severe
damage to the tubes and other internals, such as the drains cooling
zone end plate and baffles. Rapid heater destruction may follow,
especially in a horizontal heater. Corrective action usually consists of
restoring the water level to the proper range from a level that is too low.
Failure to do so can allow flashing to develop destructive velocities and
rapid erosion in the drains cooling zone.
3.2 3-7 The TTD and DCA for each heater should be determined and trended
on a monthly basis.
C-1
Pop Out Summary
4.1.1 4-2 One startup condition that requires special precautions is when one
heater of the string has been out of service for maintenance. When this
heater is ready to be put back into service, a different startup procedure
may be required. The owner should follow the manufacturer’s
instruction manual.
4.1.8 4-7 The shell safety valve is designed to release a given amount of water
(not steam) at a shell pressure that is 10% above the design pressure
of the shell. If tubes continue to fail, it must be recognized that the
safety valve capacity will be exceeded. The shell pressure will continue
to rise and can cause the shell to rupture. A safety valve provides a
limited time to get the heater off-line to avoid an accident.
5.1.1.1.1 5-6 There are three documented safety incidents with feedwater heaters.
The incidents involved removing a manway cover before the heater was
isolated, liquid flashing to a vapor when the pressure gauge fitting was
loosened, and tube plugs shooting out from condensate pressure that
seeped behind the plugs.
5.2.2.3.1 5-31 Basic maintenance inspection procedures should be developed to

inspect the impingement plate on a regular basis.
6.2.2 6-5 Monthly performance monitoring is recommended for all feedwater

heaters.
6.3.4.1.1.2 6-33 A basic objective is to optimize the tube sampling plan by using a
combination of targeted and random sampling to minimize the risk of
potential tube failures. A general approach is to test the periphery
tubes, the tubes in the drains cooler zone, the tubes surrounding
plugged tubes, and then a random selection of tubes.
6.3.4.1.1.3 6-33 EPRI has developed a Heat Exchanger Plugging Criteria Calculator [2].
The Calculator is contained in a spreadsheet that determines the
allowable wall loss. The tube plugging criterion is expressed as a
percent of tube wall loss and is generally in the 40–80% wall loss range.
7.1.3 7-5 It is important to verify that the leak is a tube leak and not a tube-to-
tubesheet joint leak. One way to verify that the leak is not a joint leak is
to install a rubber stopper in the tube during leak testing. If there are
leaks detected with the rubber stopper installed, then the leak may be in
the joint.
7.2.1 7-7 In the past, when a tube leak was identified and plugged, the tubes
surrounding the leaking tube were also plugged to reduce the risk of
future tube failures when the heaters were returned to service. This
practice was known as insurance plugging. With the use of eddy current
testing, this practice is declining. Insurance plugging causes an
unnecessary number of functional tubes to be plugged prematurely.
C-2
Pop Out Summary
7.2.4 7-22 There are potential risks of trapped pressurized water in the tube during
plug removal. Extreme care must be taken during plug removal when
the shell-side operating temperature is less than ~350°F (~177°C). The
use of protection plates should be considered. Also, plugs without
stabilizers attached should be removed first to lower the energy that
might be ejected.
7.5 7-39 Any repair or penetration of the heater pressure boundary should be
reviewed with the local Authorized Inspection Agency servicing the
plant site before the repair occurs. Approval of the repair method by the
Authorized Inspector is necessary to preserve the integrity of the vessel
as an ASME Code-approved pressure vessel.
C-3
Pop Out Summary
Key O&M Cost Point

Emphasizes information that will result in reduced purchase, operating, or
maintenance costs.
2.3.6.3 2-11 A combined condensing and drains cooling zone in one heater
improves the thermal efficiency of the heater and the cycle.
2.4.2 2-15 For maintenance purposes, full access channels are more desirable
than manway access channels. The full access channels generally cost
more than the manway access channels and can require more
maintenance time to open.
2.4.3.1 2-23 The welded pass partition design is the most common and the least
expensive. This design is adequate for low-pressure, base loaded
heaters but not for cyclic duty heaters.
3.1.1 3-2 The number of feedwater heaters in a plant is a design tradeoff

between cost and cycle efficiency.
3.3 3-12 Usually, the TTD of the top heater stage has the largest impact on
thermal performance, while the lower pressure heaters have
correspondingly less impact. The impact of a 1°F (0.56°C) increase in
the TTD of the top heater is approximately a 0.016% increase in heat
rate. For the other feedwater heaters, a 1°F (0.56°C) increase in TTD
increases the heat rate by approximately 0.013%.
3.3 3-12 Changes in heater DCAs have significantly less impact than changes in
TTDs. If there is a 1°F (0.56°C) increase in DCA the corresponding
increase in heat rate is 0.005%. The impact can be less at part load.
3.3.1 3-13 Tubes are plugged because of through-wall leakage or nondestructive

evaluation (NDE) results indicating less than minimum wall thickness.
Tube plugging based on conservative NDE data analysis can lead to
premature loss of thermal performance and high pressure drop.
8.1.3 8-2 A replacement decision is made based on how widespread the failure
mechanisms are. If the problem has been correctly diagnosed,
necessary modifications have been made to prevent the problem from
reoccurring, and the number of plugged tubes is below the limit that
would affect performance, replacement may not be necessary.
8.1.3 8-2 If the failure mechanisms are widespread, the number of tubes plugged
is at or above the limit that affects performance, and continued failures
will affect the heater reliability, replacement is recommended.
C-4
Pop Out Summary
8.3 8-3 Retubing a feedwater water heater is replacing only the tubes. This is
usually the lowest cost option for replacement. Typically, this is an
option for low-pressure, straight tube type heaters.
8.4 8-4 Rebundling is replacing the tubes, tubesheets, support, and baffle
plates in the existing heater shell. This is the preferred method of
replacement for the low-pressure, U-bend type heaters located in the
condenser neck. In general, all of the U-bend type heaters can be
rebundled. Rebundling costs about 15–25% more than retubing.
8.5 8-5 The difference in heater cost between a replacement bundle and a
complete heater replacement is usually about 5% or less. This cost
difference should be compared to the installation cost difference to
obtain a total cost difference for these options.
8.6.2 8-10 The average life expectancy for carbon steel tubed heaters is 12 years.
The average life expectancy for T-22 tubed heaters is 15 to 20 years.
The average life expectancy for type 304 stainless steel tubed heaters
is 20 years.
C-5
Pop Out Summary
Key Technical Point

Targets information that will lead to improved equipment reliability.
2.3.6.3 2-13 In the long drains cooler, the minimum operating liquid level should be
maintained above the flat plate of the shrouding. In the short drains
cooler, the minimum operating liquid level should be maintained at a
point where the entrance into the shrouding (the snorkel area) is
always covered, even during plant transients.
2.4.5 2-28 The design minimum tube wall thickness for U-tube stainless steel is
0.035 inches (0.89 mm) and 0.028 inches (0.71 mm) for straight
stainless steel tubes. The minimum radius of U-bends should be one
and one-half times the tube diameter.
2.4.8 2-30 The 1998 Sixth Edition of the Heat Exchange Institute (HEI) Standards
for Closed Feedwater Heaters recommends that venting systems be
sized to accommodate a minimum of 0.5% of the incoming steam flow.
One critical flow orifice should be installed in each shell-side continuous
vent pipe external to the heater.
2.4.8 2-32 Threaded and flanged joints are convenient for such maintenance.
However, they also become ingress points for non-condensable gases
in lines operating under vacuum conditions. Some utilities that have
welded joints in the orifice piping have found it necessary to cut these
lines as a routine preventive maintenance action to inspect and clean
the vent orifices.
2.5.2 2-35 The heater manufacturer should set the preheat times appropriate for
the equipment. The generally accepted limit of 150°F/hr (65°C/hr) for 5-
inch (13-cm) thick tubesheet walls is used.
3.4 3-15 A complete evaluation for an uprate would have to be performed to

determine if the existing heaters can still be used. Heater bypasses,
additional heaters, material upgrades, etc., can be options to
accommodate any increased temperature, pressure, and/or flow.
4.1.4 4-4 Systems with all steel and stainless steel components generally operate
with a pH between 9.2 and 9.8 to minimize carbon steel corrosion. This
limits the entrainment of corrosion products in the condensate.
Problems are encountered with mixed metal systems containing both
copper and carbon steel alloys. These systems are generally operated
at a pH of 8.8–9.2. This is not an optimum range for the control of
corrosion of either material; however, it is a useful compromise.
4.1.8 4-6 It is noted that the flow from only a few ruptured tubes will exceed 10%
of rated feedwater flow in a short time, particularly in high-pressure
heaters. Continued operation with damaged tubes can rapidly escalate
leakage because of secondary failures resulting from feedwater
impingement on adjacent tubes. Oversized valves in low-pressure
heater drains systems often mask any increasing leakage by
maintaining a normal liquid level until additional tubes fail.
C-6
Pop Out Summary
4.1.9 4-7 As a recommended practice when tubes are plugged in the bottom rows
of the drains cooler zone, the control level should be raised to
submerge these plugged tubes when the row is 50% or more plugged.
4.2.2 4-8 Tube failures in the horizontal, partial-length, full-pass, integral drains
cooler zone are a frequent and major cause of feedwater heater
unreliability.
4.2.3 4-11 Inadequate venting can cause severe problems. At subatmospheric

pressure, the problems from inadequate venting show up as thermal
performance deficiencies and long-term corrosion in the feedwater
heater. If the lack of venting is not severe, the problem does not appear
until a long-term corrosion failure occurs.
4.2.4 4-12 Maintaining the appropriate condensate levels in heaters with integral
drains cooler zones is critical to the reliability of the heaters.
5.1.1.2.1 5-8 For BWR plants, experience has found that the most damaged heaters
from flow-accelerated corrosion operate around 300°F (149°C). They
are typically the #3 or #2 heaters in the plant. (The #1 heater would be
the highest pressure feedwater heater, the #2 the second highest
pressure heater, and so on.)
5.1.1.2.1 5-9 For PWR plants, the most damaged heaters from flow-accelerated
corrosion seem to have entering extraction steam that is wet (steam
quality < 96%) and above 300°F (149°C). They are most likely the #2
heaters. (The #1 heater would be the highest pressure feedwater
heater, the #2 the second highest pressure heater, and so on.)
5.2.1.2 5-18 Stainless steels are particularly susceptible to crevice corrosion.

Crevice corrosion often starts at the back of a tube joint weld where the
manufacturer did not expand the tube into the tubesheet after welding.
5.2.1.3 5-18 Since seawater contains substantial chlorides (approximately 19,000

ppm), seawater-cooled plants are more prone than freshwater-cooled
plants to experience pitting in austenitic stainless steel tube materials.
5.2.1.4 5-19 Exfoliation is a special form of intergranular corrosion attack that is

characterized by the elongated grain attack on a plane parallel to the
rolled or extruded surface. This results in a characteristic delamination
or peeling of the metal strata. Susceptible alloys other than aluminum
and magnesium are the 70/30 and the 80/20 copper-nickel alloys. The
90/10 copper-nickel alloy is immune.
5.2.1.5 5-20 Stress corrosion failures of Monel 400 heater tubing have occurred in a
few applications, primarily at the U-bend locations. The susceptibility to
stress corrosion can be eliminated by properly heat treating the U-
bends to sufficiently relieve the residual stress produced by tube
bending.
C-7
Pop Out Summary
5.2.1.6 5-20 For feedwater heaters, thinning from FAC has been detected on the
shells. See Section 5.1 for more information on the discovery of shell
thinning for the feedwater heaters. The recommended inspections for
shell thinning detection are given in Section 5.2.1.6.1.
5.2.2.1 5-23 Tube inlet erosion is particularly intense within the first inch (25 mm) of
the tube. A borescope inspection of the first 6 inches (15 cm) of a
random number of inlet end tubes should be made. This allows for early
detection of erosion symptoms such as excessive metal polishing or
wear. If erosion is detected, it is recommended to inspect farther down
the tube (10 inches (25 cm)) to the end of the damage.
5.2.2.1.2 5-25 Every time a tube is plugged, the velocity through the remaining tubes
increases. As more tubes need to be plugged, a check should be made
to be sure that excessive velocities do not cause rapid destruction.
5.2.2.2 5-28 Check the quality of tube-joint weldments at each annual inspection. If
the shell can be pressurized for a soap solution check, this is desirable.
If not, a dye penetrant check of tube weldments should be performed.
5.2.3 5-32 A rule of thumb is that the tubes should not vibrate more than 2% of the
tube diameter.
5.2.3.3 5-34 As a general rule for U-tube bundles, it is recommended that special
supporting spacers or strapping be used to support and separate
U-tubes where the outer tube limits are greater than 24 inches (61 mm)
in diameter. Every tube bend that is in the 24–48 inch (0.61–1.2 m)
diameter range should be supported at the U-bend.
5.2.3.3 5-36 The drains cooling zone is recognized as a turbulent zone within the
feedwater heater. An explosive condition can exist in the drains cooling
zone because of steam flashing. Proper preparation of baffles at the cut
line where the tube is positioned is critical for the elimination of sharp
corners within the tube hole. Proper areas should be provided at the
entrance and exit of the drains cooling zone and at baffle cuts.
6.2.3.1 6-5 The task of interval inspection provides a material condition assessment
that is also predictive of future deterioration. The suggested interval is 5
to 10 years and is best interpreted as an average interval. With a
sampling scheme, this interval provides a more or less continuous
assessment of condition.
6.2.3.3.2 6-16 Another use of the individual tube hydrostatic test is to verify the eddy
current testing results. For example, when the eddy current results
indicate crack-like signals in the tubes, the suspect tubes can be tested
to determine their structural integrity. If the tubes pass the test, these
tubes can be returned to service. In the case of inside or outside
diameter tube pitting, this test is not effective in assessing the eddy
current testing results because of the low stress riser factor related to
pitting flaws.
C-8
Pop Out Summary
6.2.6 6-18 The suggested interval for performing NDE is 5–10 years. The
suggested interval assumes that no abnormal items are discovered
during these inspections. The suggested interval is best interpreted as
an average interval with a sampling scheme that provides a more or
less continuous assessment of condition. To achieve the suggested
interval, it is beneficial to perform the task on a portion of the heaters
each outage.
6.3.4.1 6-27 The most commonly used NDE technique for determining the condition
of installed tubes is ECT. It is extremely fast, repeatable, good for
baseline screening, and accurate in sizing known defects. However,
ECT is very operator dependent. Quantification of certain types of
defects is sometimes difficult, and other NDE methods must be used in
conjunction with ECT.
6.3.4.1.4 6-40 After the final NDE report has been received, the utility is strongly urged
to record the latest ECT information in a database. This would help the
utility monitor feedwater heater conditions and estimate remaining
operating life. Depending on economic and operational factors, it might
be necessary to re-evaluate the established plugging criteria because it
ultimately affects the remaining feedwater heater operating life.
8.2 8-3 In general, feedwater heaters are designed with approximately 5%

excess heat transfer surface area.
8.6.2 8-14 The suggested tube materials for nuclear feedwater heaters are listed
below:
• High pressure – SA-688 TP304, 0.05 percent maximum carbon,
austenitic stainless, external diameter 5/8 inch
(16 mm)
• Low pressure – SA-688 TP304, 0.05 percent maximum carbon,
austenitic stainless, external diameter 5/8 or 3/4 inch
(16 or 19 mm) - SA-268 XM8 TP 439 seamless,
ferritic stainless, external diameter 5/8 or 3/4 inch
(16 or 19 mm). Larger diameter tubing of 7/8 and
1 inch (22 and 25 mm) can be used; however, the
use of the larger diameter tubes allows fewer
failures before replacement is required.
8.6.2.6 8-18 The tube hole in the tubesheet minus the maximum outside diameter of
the tube should never be less than 0.002 inches (51 µm).
B.3 B-17 It is strongly recommended that the use of 300 series stainless steels
designed to the dimensions permitted in ASME Code Section VIII,
Table UHA-23, Note 1 be avoided.
B-4.2 B-20 A rule of thumb is that the radius at the joint where the tubesheet is
welded to the channel barrel should be at least 1 inch (2.5 cm) for 1000
psi (6.9 MPa) and an additional 1/2 inch (13 mm) for each increment of
1000 psi (6.9 MPa) operating pressure.
C-9
EPRI Licensed Material.
D
UPGRADE/UPRATE SURVEY RESULTS
In April 2002 NMAC distributed a survey to NMAC and FMAC utility members concerning
feedwater heater experience. The purpose of the survey was to discover any problems with
feedwater heaters resulting from turbine upgrades or thermal power uprates.
A turbine upgrade was defined as “a generation increase as a result of efficiency improvements

in newly designed turbine components.” Typically, temperatures, pressures, and flows do not
change for feedwater heaters as a result of turbine upgrades.
A thermal power uprate was defined as “an increase in unit output by changing the original
conditions,” for example, flow, pressure, or temperature.
The survey data do not indicate any major problems with feedwater heaters as a result of these
changes; however, the utilities did perform a heater evaluation as part of the thermal power
uprate changes. The results follow.
D-1
Upgrade/Uprate Survey Results
Table D-1
D-2
Table D-1 (cont.)

D-3
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Feedwater Heater Maintenance Guide

embedded in the document prior to publication.

Please read the License Agreement

M AT E the Wrapping Material.

Final Report, May 2002

EPRI Project Manager

(A) MAKES ANY WARRANTY OR REPRESENTATION WHATSOEVER, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, (I)

(B) ASSUMES RESPONSIBILITY FOR ANY DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY WHATSOEVER

ORGANIZATION(S) THAT PREPARED THIS DOCUMENT

This report was prepared by

Nuclear Maintenance Applications Center (NMAC)

This report describes research sponsored by EPRI.

Technical Advisory Group Members

2.4.2.4 Manway Access, High Pressure .................................................................2-21

5 FAILURE MODES ..................................................................................................................5-1

5.2.1.1 Galvanic Corrosion .....................................................................................5-17

6 CONDITION-BASED MAINTENANCE ..................................................................................6-1

6.2.3.3.2 Routine Channel Inspections and Tests..............................................6-14

7.2.2.3.2 Torque Type Plug...............................................................................7-16

8.6.2.3 Velocity .......................................................................................................8-16

9 REFERENCES, ACRONYMS, AND GLOSSARY..................................................................9-1

A 2001 SURVEY RESULTS..................................................................................................... A-1

B FOSSIL APPLICATIONS...................................................................................................... B-1

C POP OUT SUMMARY........................................................................................................... C-1

D UPGRADE/UPRATE SURVEY RESULTS ........................................................................... D-1

Figure 2-1 Typical Nuclear Power Plant Cycle ..........................................................................2-1

Figure 5-8 Tube Inlet Erosion ..................................................................................................5-23

Figure 7-24 Expanding Tool.....................................................................................................7-32

Table 2-1 Miscellaneous Shell Nozzle Sizes ...........................................................................2-33

Table A-1 Nuclear Survey Results............................................................................................ A-2

This feedwater heater guide is organized into the following sections:

1. Introduction includes Background, Approach, Guide Organization and Pop Outs.

3. Performance includes Cycle Descriptions, Data Monitoring and Trending, Performance

4. Troubleshooting includes Heater Conditions, Section/System Problems and Charts.

6. Condition-Based Maintenance includes General Maintenance Guidelines, Preventive

8. Replacements includes Run/Repair/Replace Decision, Remaining Life Assessment,

9. References, Acronyms, and Glossary

1.4 Pop Outs

Key Human Performance Point

Key O&M Cost Point

Key Technical Point

A typical nuclear power plant cycle is shown in Figure 2-1.

2.1 Codes and Standards

2.2 Auxiliary Systems

2.2.1 Extraction Steam System

2.2.2 Heater Drain System

The minimum requirements for a reliable drain system are:

2.3 Heater Types and Layout

There are two classifications of feedwater heaters [2]:

A vertical channel-up heater:

A vertical channel-down heater:

2.3.5 Numbering of Heaters

Additional feedwater heater classifications are based on the internal design:

See Appendix B for more information on the desuperheating zone.

2.3.6.1 Condensing Zone

A typical horizontal, low-pressure, single-zone feedwater heater is shown in Figure 2-4.

The condensing zone consists of the following:

• Safety relief valve connection

2.3.6.2 Drains Cooling Zone

The drains cooling zone consists of the following:

2.3.6.3 Two-Zone Heater

A horizontal, high-pressure, two-zone feedwater heater is shown in Figure 2-5.

Key O&M Cost Point