The Open University of Sri Lanka

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

Bachelor of Technology Honors in Engineering – Level 3
ECX 3231 – Electrical Circuits and Measurements
Academic Year 2015/2016
Lab – 01

Session I – Study of Transient Response of Electrical Circuits

Aim – Understand the behaviour of current in passive electrical circuits.

Objectives –

1. Gain knowledge of passive electrical circuits and their characteristics.

2. Understand the practical importance of study of transient response.
3. Understand the application of differential equations in electrical circuit analysis.
4. Use of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope to observe the transient response of electrical circuits.

Introduction – In electrical circuit analysis, it is important to identify the behaviour of current when
an excitation has occurred in the circuit. This excitation can be described as a change
(connection/disconnection/change of properties) of a source or a component. If the circuit is a pure
resistive one, the change of excitation will change the current instantaneously without a time delay.
But circuits having energy storing elements such as capacitors and inductors will take some time to
change from one state to another. The time taken to change is called the transient period and
thereafter it is referred as the steady state. Therefore the response of such circuits is having the
Transient Response and the Steady state Response. Transient response mostly depends on the
nature of the circuit. Further the transient response dies out after a short interval and then the response
is fully depending on the nature of the external source. The complete response can be defined as the
sum of the two responses.

Complete Response = Transient response + Steady-state response

Expressions for the current through passive circuits.

Voltage across a capacitor

1
𝑉𝐶 = ∫ 𝑖(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝐶

Voltage across an inductor

𝑑𝑖(𝑡)
𝑉𝐿 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡

Therefore, expression for current in circuits having energy storing elements (capacitors and/or
inductors) can be represented by an Ordinary Differential Equation (ODE). Solution of such
equation can be used to predict the behavior of current or voltage of the circuit.

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The nth order ODE is expressed as,

𝑑𝑛 𝑦 𝑑𝑛−1 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑎0 + 𝑎1 + ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥

If the circuit is having only one energy storing element, the equation is a 1st order ODE. If two
different types of elements connected in series, it will be a 2nd order ODE.

An ODE is further clarified as,

Homogeneous if f(x) = 0

Non – Homogeneous if f(x) ≠ 0

Solution for an ODE is,

Complete Solution = Complementary Solution (𝒚𝑪 ) + Particular Solution (𝒚𝑷 )

For Homogeneous differential equations there is no particular solution existing. Hence the
complementary solution stands as the complete solution.

Relationship between differential equations and circuit response

Since the complete solution represents the complete response of the circuit, the complementary and
particular solutions represent the Transient and steady state responses of the circuit respectively.

This lab session focuses on study of Transient responses of 1st order and 2nd order circuits for different
excitations.

Use of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) to observe the transient response

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) is a device which is capable of displaying repeating voltage
signals. When a continuous signal is applied to an input of the CRO it detects a particular voltage
level of the signal which is referred as the ‘trigger level’ set by manual controls, and draw the signal
on the screen from left to right (Horizontal Sweep). It waits for the same trigger level to detect and
starts to draw the signal again when it comes. This repetitive process happens rapidly; hence the
sweeps on the screen are appearing as a still picture. It is difficult to identify the time gap between
two sweeps by naked eye.

When a circuit is excited, the transient period occurs only for a very short time (few
milliseconds) and it will not repeat. Since the CRO is displaying repetitive signals, the transient period
cannot be observed on it. CRO will display the steady state only. Therefore in this lab session a
special circuit is used to excite the circuit repeatedly in a periodic manner to repeat the transient
response. After this modification, the CRO will display the required responses because the transient
response will be repeating at every excitation.

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Preparatory Tasks

Divide into two groups as instructions given below.

 Odd group – 1st digit of the registration number is odd

 Even group – 1st digit of the registration number is even

C i(t) L i(t)

E R E R

Figure 1.1: RC circuit Figure 1.2: RL circuit

1. Consider the 1st order circuits given in Figure 1.1 (RC) for odd group and Figure 1.2 (RL) for
even group.
2. Write an expression for the voltages of the circuit using Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL).
3. Form the differential equation.
4. Obtain an expression for the complete solution i(t).
5. Draw the graph of current against time using the expression obtained in step 4.

L C
i(t)

E R

Figure 1.3: LCR circuit

6. Consider the 2nd order circuit shown in Figure 1.3 for both odd and even groups.
7. Form the differential equation and write down all possible complementary solution types for
this equation mentioning the conditions required for each solution type. Derive expressions
for the condition to be satisfied to have each type.
Important – Recall the damping types (over damped, critically damped and under damped)
and the types of roots of a 2nd order characteristic equation. Use the expression for the roots of
characteristic equation.

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Laboratory Tasks

1. Build the RC or RL circuit (According to the group) using the components given by the
instructor.
2. Apply a square wave as the source to the circuit.
3. To observe the current variation in the circuit it is required to obtain a voltage waveform
which is equal in shape with current waveform. (Recall that the oscilloscope is capable of
displaying voltage signals but not current signals) Since the resistor obeys the Ohm’s law it is
possible to observe the voltage waveform across the resistor to get the shape of current
waveform. Therefore observe the voltage across the resistor on oscilloscope.
Important – The square wave is considered as a repetition of excitation by constant voltage.
Therefore the complete response can be visible during each voltage step of the square wave.
4. Change the frequency of the signal to obtain a steady response within each voltage step of the
signal.
5. Record the observations. Include the voltage of the applied square wave and all component
values used in the circuit.
Important – When marking the values of current waveform, use the resistor value to
calculate the actual current from voltage.
6. Disconnect all connections and build the series LCR circuit as given in Figure 1.3. Use the
components given by the instructor. The resistor is a variable one.
7. Apply a square wave as the source to the circuit. The purpose is described in step 3 above.
8. Observe the behavior of current through the circuit as described in step 3 and 4 above.
9. Change the resistance in the circuit by varying the variable resistor and identify the 3 types of
responses of 2nd order circuits and record the observations as done in step 5 above.
10. Remove all the connections and build the 1st order circuit again and connect the special signal
processing circuit between the signal generator and the RC or LC circuit. Use new
components according to the guidelines given by the instructor. Change the output of the
signal generator to sinusoidal wave.
11. Power up and tune the signal processing circuit to obtain the complete response. Get the help
of the instructor to set the signal generator parameters such as voltage and frequency.
12. Observe the behaviour of current through the circuit as described in step 3 above and Record
the observations. Note down the component values, the parameters of sinusoidal wave applied
to the LC/RC circuit including amplitude, phase and frequency.

Analysis of Results

 Using the component values used in laboratory tasks steps 1 to 9, calculate the exact response
of 1st order and 2nd order circuits. Compare them with the observations. Justify the results.

 In calculations always use the initial conditions recorded from the practical observations. This
condition occurs just before the excitation. (initial current or voltage)

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  Try to justify the results obtained in step 12 with the help of knowledge of differential
equations and electrical circuit analysis.
Discussion

 Discuss the importance of study of transient analysis using real time examples.
 Discuss the accuracy of this experiment and give suggestion to improve it.
 Discuss the use of special signal processing circuit in this laboratory session.
Important – Limit the discussion to a maximum of one page.

Session II – Study of AC Network Theorems

Aim – Study of AC circuits at steady state.

Objectives –

1. Network simplification using Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.

2. Obtain maximum power from a source by Impedance matching.

Introduction – Two terminal networks containing more than one source and having number of
branches, need simplification in order to find currents and voltages at the terminal ends. Also when
such networks are loaded, it is required to find the maximum power which can be delivered from
source to load. This lab session focuses on one of the theorems used for such simplification that is
Thevenin’s Theorem as well as the Maximum Power Transfer theorem to find the correct load to be
added.

Thevenin’s Theorem

Thevenin’s Theorem states that any two terminal linear network of generators and impedances can be
replaced by a single ideal voltage source in series with an impedance. (Refer ECX3231 Book 1
Session 3 for details)

1. The voltage of the source is equal to the open circuit voltage at the two terminals.
2. The series impedance is the impedance measured between the two terminals when all
generators are replaced by their internal impedances.

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

The Maximum power transfer theorem states that the maximum power will be transferred from source
to load when the load impedance is equal to the complex conjugate of the source impedance.

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Preparatory Tasks

100µH 100µH 330Ω 100µH 330Ω A

100Ω 1nF

V1 = 5 sin (ωt) B

Figure 2.1

1. Consider the circuit given in Figure 2.1. Calculate the reactance of each element using the
angular frequency (ω) as 1×106 rads-1
2. Calculate the open circuit voltage and the impedance between terminals A and B. Hereafter
referred as VTH and ZTH respectively.
3. If a load having a resistance of 100Ω and inductance of 100µH is connected in series at A and
B, calculate the current and voltage of the load. (Use Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.)
4. Calculate the power absorbed by the load. Indicate the power factor.
5. Find the complex conjugate of ZTH and identify the component/s to be added in series to the
load to transfer the maximum power.
6. Calculate the current, voltage and power when the load is matched to the source impedance.
Indicate the power factor.

Laboratory Tasks

1. Build the circuit shown in Figure 2.1.

2. Measure the voltage at terminals A and B which is the open circuit voltage or VTH. Use the
waveform of source V1 as the reference to measure the phase of any waveform hereafter.
3. Connect the load of 100Ω and 100µH at terminal A and B. Measure the Voltage across the
load.
4. To measure the current through the load, obtain the voltage waveform across the resistor of
the load and calculate the magnitude of current. Measure the phase difference also.
5. Connect the components which have been calculated in preparatory tasks step 5, in series with
the existing load.
6. Measure the voltage at terminals A and B.
7. Measure the current through the load.
Analysis of Results
1. Using the practical results, prove the Thevenin’s theorem.
2. Justify the transfer of maximum power from Thevenin’s source to load.
Discussion
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of use of Thevenin’s theorem in network simplifications.
Important – Limit the discussion to a maximum of one page.

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