Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
CHAPTER 2
CELL STRUCTURES & THEIR FUNCTIONS
CHEMISTRY
Possible to understand cells
Cells are composed of chemicals
Chemicals = responsible for many of the cell’s characteristics
CELLS
Basic living unit of life
Human = trillions of cells + acts as a host to countless other organisms
Determines the form and function of the human body
1/5 of the size of the smallest you can make on a sheet of paper
Complex living structures
Many characteristics in common
Most cells are specialized to perform specific fxns
A highly organized unit
==============================================================================
ORGANELLES
Performs specific fxns
NUCLEUS
An organelle containing cell’s genetic material
CYTOPLASM
Living material surrounding the nucleus
Contains many types of organelles
CELL MEMBRANE
Plasma membrane
Where the cytoplasm is enclosed
Formed by Golgi
apparatus
Secreted by
exocytosis
Lysosome Cytoplasm Enzymes that digest
material taken into
the cell
Mitochondrion Cytoplasm Aerobic respiration
ATP synthesis
Microtubule Cytoplasm Supports cytoplasm
Assists in cell division
Forms components of
cilia & flagella
Centriole Cytoplasm Facilitates the
movement of
chromosomes during
cell division
Cilia On cell surface w/ many on Move substances over
each cell surfaces of certain
cells
Flagella On sperm cell surface w/ one Propel sperm cells
per cell
Microvilli Extensions of cell surfaces w/ Increase surface area
many on each cell of certain cells
==============================================================================
FUNCTIONS
1. Cell metabolism & energy use
Cell metabolism – chemical rxns that occur w/in cells
Energy released = for cell activites
- Synthesis of new molecules
- Muscle contraction
- Heat production -> regulates body temperature
2. Synthesis of molecules
Synthesizes protein, nucleic acids, & lipids
Diff cells = do not all produce the same molecules
Structural & fxnal characteristics = types of molecules produced
3. Communication
Produce & receive chemical & electrical signals
Allows them to communicate w/ one another
e.g. nerve cells = communicate w/ one another
w/ muscle cells = muscle cells contract
==============================================================================
CELL MEMBRANE
Plasma membrane
Outermost component of cell
Encloses the cytoplasm
Forms boundary bet. material inside & outside of it
Extracellular substances – substance outside of cell
Intracellular substances – substance inside of cell
Supports cell contents
Acts as selective barrier that determines what moves into and out of the cell
Plays a role in communication bet. cells
Molecules:
- (major) Phospholipids, proteins
- Cholesterol, carbohydrates
FLUID-MOSAIC MODEL
Phospholipids form a double layer of molecules
Lipid barrier between the inside & outside of cell
Hydrophilic
- Water-loving
- Polar, phosphate-containing ends
- Face the cellular & intracellular fluids
Hydrophobic
- Water-fearing
- Non-polar, fatty acids
- Face away from the fluid on either side of the membrane towards the center
of the double layer
Molecules
- Cholesterol – added strength & flexibility
- Protein – “float”; extend from inner to outer surface of cell membrane
= membrane channels, carrier molecules, receptor molecules,
enzymes, or structural support
- Carbohydrates – bound to some protein molecules (modifies fxn)
Membrane channels (+ carrier molecules)
- Movement of substances thru cell membrane
Receptor molecules
- Part of intercellular communication system
- Enables cell recognition & coordination of the activities of cells
e.g. nerve cell = release a chemical messenger that moves to a muscle cell
= temporarily binds to a receptor on the muscle cell membrane
- Binding – signal that triggers a response (contraction of the muscle cell)
==============================================================================
Selectively Permeable
Allow some substances, but not others, to pass into or out of the cells
MEMBRANE TRANSPORTS
Passive
Does not require the cell to expend energy
Diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion
Active
Does require the cell expend energy (ATP)
Active transport, secondary active transport, endocytosis, exocytosis
SOLUTION
Generally composed of one or more substances (solutes) dissolved in the predominant
liquid or gas (solvent)
Diffusion
- Solutes moving from a higher concentration to a lower concentration
- Results from natural, constant random motion of all solutes in a solution
- More solute particles occur in higher conc. than in lower conc.
- Moves randomly = higher to lower > lower to higher
- Important means of transporting thru the extra- & intracellular fluids
- Substances (nutrients & some waste products) can diffuse into & out of the
cell
- Normal intracellular conc. of many substances = diffusion
At equilibrium
- Net movement stops
- Movement of solutes in one directions = balanced in the opp. Direction
Concentration gradient
- Difference in the concentration of a solute in a solvent bet. 2 points divided by
the distance bet. the 2 points
- Steeper when the difference is larger/distance is smaller
- Substance moves down (or w/) the gradient = higher to lower
- Substance moves up the gradient = lower to higher
Does not occur by diffusion
Requires energy
Phospholipid bilayer
- Barrier to most water-soluble substances
Small, water-soluble substances can diffuse bet. the phospholipid molecules
of cell membranes
Channels – where other water-soluble substances pass through
= consists of large protein molecules that extend from one surface
of cell membranes to the other
= several channel types = allows only certain substances to pass thru
= size, shape, charge of a molecule
e.g. Na+ = Na+ channels; K+ = K+ channels; Cl- = Cl- channels
= rapid movement of water across cell membrane also occurs here
Lipid-soluble molecules = readily pass thru the phospholipid bilayer
= O2, CO2, steroids
==============================================================================
OSMOSIS
Diffusion of water across a selectively-permeable membrane
Higher water concentration to lower water concentration
Water can pass thru either bet. phospholipid molecules or water channels
Important to cells = large volume changes caused by water movement can disrupt cell
fxns
Occurs when cell membrane is less permeable, selectively permeable, or not permeable
to solutes
A conc. gradient for water exists across the cell membrane
H2O diffuses from solution w/ higher water conc. across the cell membrane into a solution
w/ lower water conc.
Ability to predict direction of water movement = depends on knowing w/c solution on
either side of the membrane has the higher water conc.
Conc. of solution = expressed in solute conc. (not in water conc.)
Osmotic Pressure
Force required to prevent the movement of water across a selectively permeable
membrane
Measure of tendency of water to move by osmosis across a selectively permeable
membrane
- Measured by placing a solution into a tube that is closed at one end and
immersing the tube in distilled water
- Water molecules move by osmosis thru the membrane into the tube, forcing
the solution to move up the tube
- Net movement stops when hydrostatic pressure in the tube causes water to
move out of the tube at the same rate at w/c it diffuses into the tube by
osmosis
- Osmotic pressure = hydrostatic pressure
Greater conc. = greater osmotic pressure = greater tendency of water to move into
solution
Less concentrated solutions (less solute, more water) to more concentrated solutions
(more solute, less water)
Hydrostatic pressure
Moves water out of the tube back into the distilled water surrounding the tube
Hypotonic
Lower concentration of solutes + higher concentration of water relative to cytoplasm
Water has less tone or osmotic pressure than the cell
Cell swells
Hemolysis
Isotonic
Equal concentrations
Neither shrinks or swells
Hypertonic
Higher concentration of solutes and a lower concentration of water relative to cytoplasm
Water has more tone than cell
Cell shrinks
Crenation
Solutions injected to the blood vessels or tissues must be isotonic to the body’s cells
because swelling or shrinking disrupts normal cell function & can lead to death