Micro hydro is a type of hydroelectric power that typically produces from 5 kW to 100 kW of

electricity using the natural flow of water. Installations below 5 kW are called pico hydro.[1]
These installations can provide power to an isolated home or small community, or are
sometimes connected to electric power networks, particularly where net metering is offered.
There are many of these installations around the world, particularly in developing nations as
they can provide an economical source of energy without the purchase of fuel.[2] Micro hydro
systems complement solar PV power systems because in many areas, water flow, and thus
available hydro power, is highest in the winter when solar energy is at a minimum. Micro hydro is
frequently accomplished with a pelton wheel for high head, low flow water supply. The
installation is often just a small dammed pool, at the top of a waterfall, with several hundred feet
of pipe leading to a small generator housing.

Contents [hide]

1 Construction

2 Head and flow characteristics

3 Regulation and operation

4 Turbine types

5 Use

5.1 Potential for rural development

6 Cost

6.1 Advantages and disadvantages

6.1.1 System advantages

6.1.2 System disadvantages

7 See also

8 References

9 External links

Construction[edit]

Typical microhydro setup.

Construction details of a microhydro plant are site-specific. Sometimes an existing mill-pond or

other artificial reservoir is available and can be adapted for power production. In general,
microhydro systems are made up of a number of components.[3] The most important include
the intake where water is diverted from the natural stream, river, or perhaps a waterfall. An
intake structure such as a catch box is required to screen out floating debris and fish, using a
screen or array of bars to keep out large objects. In temperate climates this structure must resist
ice as well. The intake may have a gate to allow the system to be dewatered for inspection and
maintenance.

The intake then tunnels water through a pipeline (penstock) to the powerhouse building
containing a turbine. In mountainous areas, access to the route of the penstock may provide
considerable challenges. If the water source and turbine are far apart, the construction of the
penstock may be the largest part of the costs of construction. At the turbine, a controlling valve
is installed to regulate the flow and the speed of the turbine. The turbine converts the flow and
pressure of the water to mechanical energy; the water emerging from the turbine returns to the
natural watercourse along a tailrace channel. The turbine turns a generator, which is then
connected to electrical loads; this might be directly connected to the power system of a single
building in very small installations, or may be connected to a community distribution system for
several homes or buildings.[3]

Usually microhydro installations do not have a dam and reservoir, like large hydroelectric plants
have, relying on a minimal flow of water to be available year-round.

Head and flow characteristics[edit]

Microhydro systems are typically set up in areas capable of producing up to 100 kilowatts of
electricity.[4] This can be enough to power a home or small business facility. This production
range is calculated in terms of "head" and "flow". The higher each of these are, the more power
available. Hydraulic head is the pressure measurement of water falling in a pipe expressed as a
function of the vertical distance the water falls.[4] This change in elevation is usually measured
in feet or meters. A drop of at least 2 feet is required or the system may not be feasible.[5] When
quantifying head, both gross and net head must be considered.[5] Gross head approximates
power accessibility through the vertical distance measurement alone whereas net head
subtracts pressure lost due to friction in piping from the gross head.[5] "Flow" is the actual
quantity of water falling from a site and is usually measured in gallons per minute, cubic feet per
second, or liters per second.[6] Low flow/high head installations in steep terrain have significant
pipe costs. A long penstock starts with low pressure pipe at the top and progressively higher
pressure pipe closer to the turbine in order to reduce pipe costs.

Power from such a system can be calculated by the equation P=Q*H/k, where Q is the flow rate
in gallons per minute, H is the static head, and k is a constant of 5,310 gal*ft/min*kW.[7] For
instance, for a system with a flow of 500 gallons per minute and a static head of 60 feet, the
theoretical maximum power output is 5.65 kW. The system is prevented from 100% efficiency
(from obtaining all 5.65 kW) due to the real world, such as: turbine efficiency, friction in pipe,
and conversion from potential to kinetic energy. Turbine efficiency is generally between 50-80%,
and pipe friction is accounted for using the Hazen–Williams equation.[8]

Regulation and operation[edit]

Typically, an automatic controller operates the turbine inlet valve to maintain constant speed
(and frequency) when the load changes on the generator. In a system connected to a grid with
multiple sources, the turbine control ensures that power always flows out from the generator to
the system. The frequency of the alternating current generated needs to match the local
standard utility frequency. In some systems, if the useful load on the generator is not high
enough, a load bank may be automatically connected to the generator to dissipate energy not
required by the load; while this wastes energy, it may be required if it's not possible to control
the water flow through the turbine.

An induction generator always operates at the grid frequency irrespective of its rotation speed;
all that is necessary is to ensure that it is driven by the turbine faster than the synchronous
speed so that it generates power rather than consuming it. Other types of generator can use a
speed control systems for frequency matching.

With the availability of modern power electronics it is often easier to operate the generator at
an arbitrary frequency and feed its output through an inverter which produces output at grid
frequency. Power electronics now allow the use of permanent magnet alternators that produce
wild AC to be stabilised. This approach allows low speed / low head water turbines to be
competitive; they can run at the best speed for extraction of energy, and the power frequency is
controlled by the electronics instead of the generator.

Very small installations (pico hydro), a few kilowatts or smaller, may generate direct current and
charge batteries for peak use times.[citation needed]

Turbine types[edit]

Several types of water turbines can be used in micro hydro installations, selection depending on
the head of water, the volume of flow, and such factors as availability of local maintenance and
transport of equipment to the site. For mountainous regions where a waterfall of 50 meters or
more may be available, a Pelton wheel can be used. For low head installations, Francis or
propeller-type turbines are used. Very low head installations of only a few meters may use
propeller-type turbines in a pit. The very smallest micro hydro installations may successfully use
industrial centrifugal pumps, run in reverse as prime movers; while the efficiency may not be as
high as a purpose-built runner, the relatively low cost makes the projects economically feasible.

In low-head installations, maintenance and mechanism costs often become important. A low-
head system moves larger amounts of water, and is more likely to encounter surface debris. For
this reason a Banki turbine also called Ossberger turbine, a pressurized self-cleaning crossflow
waterwheel, is often preferred for low-head microhydropower systems. Though less efficient, its
simpler structure is less expensive than other low-head turbines of the same capacity. Since the
water flows in, then out of it, it cleans itself and is less prone to jam with debris.

Screw turbine (Reverse Archimedes' screw): two low-head schemes in England, Settle Hydro and
Torrs Hydro use an Archimedes' screw which is another debris-tolerant design. Efficiency 85%.

Gorlov: the Gorlov helical turbine free stream or constrained flow with or without a dam,[9]

Francis and propeller turbines.[10]

Kaplan turbine : an alternative to the traditional kaplan turbine is a large diameter, slow turning,
permanent magnet, sloped open flow VLH turbine with efficiencies of 90%.[11]

Water wheel : advanced hydraulic water wheels and hydraulic wheel-part reaction turbine can
have hydraulic efficiencies of 67% and 85% respectively.

Gravitation water vortex power plant : part of the river flow at a weir or natural water fall is
diverted into a round basin with a central bottom exit that creates a vortex. A simple rotor (and
connected generator) is moved by the kinetic energy. Efficiencies of 83% down to 64% at 1/3
part flow.

Use[edit]

Microhydro systems are very flexible and can be deployed in a number of different
environments. They are dependent on how much water flow the source (creek, river, stream)
has and the velocity of the flow of water. Energy can be stored in battery banks at sites that are
far from a facility or used in addition to a system that is directly connected so that in times of
high demand there is additional reserve energy available. These systems can be designed to
minimize community and environmental impact regularly caused by large dams or other mass
hydroelectric generation sites.[12]

Potential for rural development[edit]

In relation to rural development, the simplicity and low relative cost of micro hydro systems
open up new opportunities for some isolated communities in need of electricity. With only a
small stream needed, remote areas can access lighting and communications for homes, medical
clinics, schools, and other facilities.[13] Microhydro can even run a certain level of machinery
supporting small businesses. Regions along the Andes mountains and in Sri Lanka and China
already have similar, active programs.[13] One seemingly unexpected use of such systems in
some areas is to keep young community members from moving into more urban regions in order
to spur economic growth.[13] Also, as the possibility of financial incentives for less carbon
intensive processes grows, the future of microhydro systems may become more appealing.

Micro-hydro installations can also provide multiple uses. For instance, micro-hydro projects in
rural Asia have incorporated agro-processing facilities such as rice mills – alongside standard
electrification – into the project design.
Cost[edit]

The cost of a micro hydro plant can be between 1,000 and 20,000 U.S. dollars[14]

Advantages and disadvantages[edit]

System advantages[edit]

Microhydro power is generated through a process that utilizes the natural flow of water.[15] This
power is most commonly converted into electricity. With no direct emissions resulting from this
conversion process, there are little to no harmful effects on the environment, if planned well,
thus supplying power from a renewable source and in a sustainable manner. Microhydro is
considered a "run-of-river" system meaning that water diverted from the stream or river is
redirected back into the same watercourse.[14] Adding to the potential economic benefits of
microhydro is efficiency, reliability, and cost effectiveness.[14]

System disadvantages[edit]

Microhydro systems are limited mainly by characteristics of the site. The most direct limitation
comes from small sources with minuscule flow. Likewise, flow can fluctuate seasonally in some
areas.[14] Lastly, though perhaps the foremost disadvantage is the distance from the power
source to the site in need of energy.[14] This distributional issue as well as the others are key
when considering using a microhydro system.

A micro hydro power (MHP)'plant' is a type of hydro electric power scheme that produces up to
100 KW of electricity using a flowing steam or a water flow. The electricity from such systems is
used to power up isolated homes or communities and is sometimes connected to the public grid.
[3]

Micro hydro systems are generally used in developing countries to provide electricity to isolated
communities or rural villages where electricity grid is not available. Feeding back into the
national grid when electricity production is in surplus is also evident in some cases. The micro
hydro scheme design can be approached as per household basis or at the village level often
involving local materials and labor.[4]

In 1995, the micro-hydro capacity in the world was estimated at 28 GW, supplying about 115
TWh of electricity. About 60% of this capacity was in the developed world, with 40% in
developing areas.[5]
Micro hydro plants that are found in the developing world are mostly in mountainous regions for
instance in the some places in the Himalayas as well as in Nepal where there are around 2,000
schemes, including both mechanical and electrical power generation. In South America, there
are micro-hydro programs in the countries along the Andes, such as Peru and Bolivia. Smaller
programs have also been set up in the hilly areas of Sri Lanka, Philippines and some parts of
China.[6]

Benefits and Shortcomings of Micro Hydro Power Plants

Small scale hydro power stations like micro hydro schemes combine the advantages of
hydropower with those of decentralized power generation, without the disadvantages of large
scale installations.

Some of the advantages can be identified as:[7]

Efficient energy source: It takes only a small amount of flow to make it work (as small as two
gallons of water or a drop of as low as two feet) to generate electricity with the micro hydro, the
produced electricity can be used as far as a mile away from the production site.

Reliable electricity source: There is a constant and continuous electrical energy supply from a
hydro power plant compared to other small scale renewable energy technologies. There are
however peak energy seasons (mainly during winter) when large quantities of electricity is
required.

No reservoir required: Micro hydro are considered to run as a 'run-of-river' system , this means
that when the water passes through the turbines it is diverted back to the river/ stream with
relatively low impact on the surrounding ecology.

Cost effective energy solution: A small hydro- power system can cost in the range of $1,000-
$20,000 depending on the site electricity requirements and location. The operation and
maintenance costs are relatively low as well compared to other technologies.

Power for developing countries: Having low-cost versatility and long life span, micro hydro can
be used by developing countries in supplying electricity to small villages and communities.

Integrate with the local power grid: If there is a surplus production of electricity, some
companies can buy the electricity from you and integrate it to the grid. There could also be a
possibility of supplementing your level of micro power with intake from the grid.

Environmental impact: The impact on the environment is minimized as compared to the

traditional power stations that use fossil fuels.

Disadvantages / Shortcomings:[7]

Suitable site characteristics required:

Energy expansion not possible:

Low-power in the summer months: Since streams will reduce their flow rates depending on the
season, summer months are likely to have less flow leading to less power output. However
advanced planning and research can ensure adequate energy requirements are met.

Environmental impact: There is a low ecological impact from small-scale hydro systems, however
the low-level environmental effects must be taken into consideration before construction begins.
Stream water will be diverted away from a portion of the stream, and proper caution must be
exercised to ensure there will be no damaging impact on the local ecology or civil infrastructure.

Application: Use of Micro Hydro Power Plants

Power produced from a small hydro station can be used for various purposes, some of the uses
have been classified as follows:

Productive Use: This is where the electricity generated is used to perform activities where
money is exchanged for a service. Most of this scenarios take place in small businesses.

Consumptive Use: All the other used that the electricity can be used for are called consumptive
use. they include using the electricity at the household or close to the household.
Besides the productive and consumptive use, a distinction can also be made between the use of
power in a mechanical way or in the form of electricity:[8]

mechanic

electricity

productive use

agro processing

timber sawing

textile fabrication

cooling

drying

mechanical uses with electricity as intermediate

heating

lighting

fertiliser production

consumptive use

domestic lighting

cooking

cooling

radio and television

As the above illustration shows power that is generated by MPH is a convenient source of
electricity to fuel anything from workshop machines to domestic lighting as the power can also
be supplied to villages via portable rechargeable batteries and thus there are no expensive
connection costs. Batteries can as well be charged and used to provide the local community with
power. For industrial use however, the turbine shaft can be used directly as mechanical power as
opposed to converting it into electricity via generator or batteries. This is suitable for agro-
processing activities such as milling, oil extraction and carpentry.[9]

Technology

Scheme Components

Most micro-hydro systems are ‘run-of-river’ which means that they don’t need large dams to
store water. However, they do need some water-management systems.[5]

Components Micro Hydro Power Plant

► More information and picture in the Micro hydro power scout guide.

The illustration above shows just how a micro-hydro system can be setup. For water diversion
the river water level has to be raised by a barrier, the weir [1]. The water is diverted at the intake
[2] and conveyed by the channel [3] along the landscape´s contour lines. The spillways [4]
protect against damage from excessive water flow. Water is slowed down and collected in the
fore bay [5], from where it enters into the penstock [7]; the pressure pipe conveys the water to
the power house [6] where the power conversion turbine, mill or generating equipment is
installed. The turbine is the core of a MHP, which is rotated by the moving water. Different types
of turbines are used depending on the head and the flow of the site, the turbines are used to
rotate a shaft which is then used to drive the generator.[5] The water is then discharged via the
draft tube [8] or a tail race channel in case of cross flow or Pelton turbines.[10]

Due to the nature of the micro-hydro schemed to be remote; a local grid is constructed to
distribute the electricity to the different users. The demand output must match the capacity of
the generator otherwise the voltage and frequency can vary suddenly, which can result in the
damage of certain electrical equipment. The power demand in an off-grid is often variable since
people switch lights and machines on and off, so the supply from the micro-hydro system must
be varied to keep close control. This can be done by varying the water flow, or by using an
electronic load controller.[5]

► find more information here: Hydro Power Basics - Micro Hydro Power Schemes

Turbine Types

► find more information here: Micro Hydro Power (MHP) Plant - Turbine Types

Suitable Conditions for Micro Hydro Power Plants

The ideal geographical areas for exploiting small scale hydro schemes is where there are steep
rivers flowing all year round. Islands with moist marine climates are also suitable. Low-head
turbines have been developed for small-scale exploitation of rivers or irrigation canals where
there is a small head but sufficient flow to provide adequate power.

To understand more about a suitable potential site, the hydrology of the site needs to be known
and a site survey carried out so as to determine the actual flow and head data. Hydrological
information is easily accessible from the metrological or irrigation department of the particular
national government. Site surveys usually give a more detailed information of the site conditions
to allow power calculation to be done and design work to begin. Flow data should however be
collected over a period of one year where possible, this is to ascertain on the fluctuation in the
river flow over the various seasons.[2]

Costs

The cost of investing in a MHP varies depending on the location and thus it is impossible to give
accurate figures without knowing the specifics of the site.

An estimation from GIZ indicates that in 2010 the installation cost ranged from from USD 1,000
to more than USD 10,000 per kW.[11]

On the other hand Practical action cites from their experience, that the cost varies from
approximately £1,200 to £4,000 (USD 1831.32 - USD 6104.40[12]) per installed kW, when using
appropriate technologies, which are much cheaper than using conventional approaches and
technologies.[13]

Costs depend on the site conditions, availability and quality of equipment and construction and
the mode of operation (off-grid or grid-connected). Local contributions can reduce these costs
significantly.

Financing

MHP schemes require a high investment cost that are mostly acquired through public or donor
funding. There is however a need to increase private sector involvement due to the high demand
of public funds and the need to attain a long-term sustainability. Public and especially donor-
based funding of entire MHP schemes should be complemented by creating conditions which
make MHP projects attractive to private investors, including financial incentives and smart
subsidies, and through this, the public funds can develop a leverage effect for private
investment. However development of MHP depends on a certain degree of public support. With
the current experience with off-grid MHP systems show that it is very difficult to develop
schemes with less than at least 50% public funding.[14]

There can various options for funding that can be used to bring down the cost of MHS, they
include[14]:

Public Funding which should be used in the support of primary investment in non local
components of mini-grids and infrastructure, while costs for local material, labor and all
operation and maintenance costs should be covered by a local business model.

Imposing a levy on on-grid electrification prices for large consumers can as well be a form of
increasing the availability of government funds since extra funds that are collected can be used
for rural electrification.

Bringing down costs is another option of making MHP projects more attractive for private
investors. One good practice could be to set up the MHP model with an integrated ownership
model, this means that a private investor is responsible for the upfront-capital, the set up and
the technical Operation and Maintenance of the MHP plant; the community is, however,
involved in collecting payments, dealing with payment delay, theft and in organizing community
contributions. A community committee responsible for tariff setting can also help to ensure that
a tariff system is set up which allows for enough income to cover costs, maintenance and repairs,
to offer reliable revenues for the private investor and to ensure that tariffs are still within the
local range of willingness and ability to pay. If MHP systems are grid-connected, a reliable and
attractive feed-in-tariff is the best option to ensure the long-term financial viability of a MHP
system.

Micro Hydro Power Plant Development - Barriers

There are various barriers that hinder the dissemination of MHP, some of them have been
identified as[14]:

Policy and regulatory framework: In most cases there exists no sufficient policies and
frameworks that govern MHP schemes, this is because the MHP is either not regulated at all or is
combined with a broader framework made for rural electrification which may be unclear and in
transparent. Such challenges causes the MHP project developers not to know which
requirements apply and work in an unreliable grey area of regulation.

Financing: Lack of sufficient funding to be used in development is a common challenge as most

MHP rely on donor funding which in most cases is only available in funding a small portion of the
hydro power potential. One of the ways that such an case can be addressed is if there can be an
option of exploring other sources of funding especially from private venture capitalists and local
banks.

Capacity to plan, build and operate MHP plants: Lack of knowledge and awareness on MHP
potential posses a great challenge for rural electrification, hydro power schemes still dominate
as political decision makers still tend to go for them as a more "modern" approach. Combined
with that there is minimal capacity to design, implement and revise the MHP supportive policies
and regulations. And at the technical level, local capacity is often missing to plan, build and run
MHP projects. The is also a problem in the lack of a ready supply of affordable turbine parts and
the lack of domestic manufacturing capacity for hydro systems of all sizes also poses a barrier to
a swift and cost-effective MHP project development.

Data on hydro resources: There is usually a lack of interest in MHP deployment from the
politicians and power utilities companied by the lack appropriate capacities and budgets, as well
as unavailability of pubic data on MHP sites. Such a lack of sound basic data (e.g. on mid-to long-
term hydrological, geographic, geologic data and figures on the current and future demand for
electricity and social infrastructure, but especially on effects of seasonal and long-term river flow
variations), poses a major barrier for private investors in MHP. This causes a bottleneck for
investment in hydropower systems as there is an increase in climate variability accompanied
with the destruction of rainfall catchment areas.