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Neil E. Johnson Department of Geology, Appalachian State University, Boone, NC 28608, Johnsonne@appstate.edu
Johnson - X-Ray Diffraction Simulation Using Laser Pointers and Printers 347
Figure 3. The geometry for Fraunhofer diffraction ver-
sus that for Bragg diffraction. The equation resulting
from the Fraunhofer case is nl = d sin f, whereas in the
Bragg case is nl = 2d sin q. Modified from Lisensky et
al. (1991).
strate structural modulations and their effect; satellite re- modification, changing the size or darkness of the periods,
flections that are symmetrically offset from the layer lines. can lead to a consideration of structure factors.
The use of a benchtop laser in this case will allow the satel-
lites to be resolved more clearly. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Johnson - X-Ray Diffraction Simulation Using Laser Pointers and Printers 349
apertures: Journal of Applied Crystallography, v.7, p. Johnson, N.E., 1999, Optical transforms redux: Creating
36-37. diffraction gratings on a laser printer for X-ray
Harburn, G. and Ranniko, J.K., 1972, An improved optical diffraction simulation: Geological Society of America,
diffractometer: Journal of Physics E: Scientific Abstracts with Programs, v. 25, A-347.
Instrumentation, v. 5, p. 757-762. Lisensky, G.C., Kelly, T.F., Neu, D.R., and Ellis, A. B., 1991,
Harburn, G., Taylor, C.A., and Welberry, T.R., 1975, Atlas The optical transform, simulating diffraction
of optical transforms: London, G. Bell & Sons, 32 p. experiments in introductory courses: Journal of
Hill, A.E. and Rigby, P.A., 1969, The precision Chemical Education, v. 68, p. 91-96.
manufacture and registration of masks for vacuum Neder, R.B. and Proffen, T.H., 1996, Teaching diffraction
evaporation. Journal of Physics E: Scientific with the aid of computer simulations: Journal of
Instrumentation, v. 2, p. 1084-1086. Applied Crystallography, v.29, p. 727-735.
Hluchy, M.M., 1999, The value of teaching X-ray Putnis, A., 1992, Introduction to mineral sciences:
techniques and clay mineralogy to undergraduates: Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 457 p.
Journal of Geological Education, v. 47, p. 236 - 240. Taylor, C.A. and Lipson, H., 1965, Optical transforms.
Horton, R.A., Jr., 1994, X-ray diffraction as an instructional Their preparation and application to X-ray diffraction
tool at all levels of the geology curriculum: Journal of problems: Ithaca, Cornell University Press, 182 p.
Geological Education, v. 42, p. 452 - 454.
Goals
Demonstrate the process of diffraction and the important features: basic trigonometric relationships, reciprocal re-
lationships of distances between scattering points and diffraction spots, effect of wavelength on diffraction pattern.
Procedures
Introduce the concept of the diffraction of light (introductory physics texts usually contain a useful discussion). Ex-
plain the process, with emphasis on constructive versus destructive interference and introduce the Fraunhofer
equation. Set up a laser (bench laser or inexpensive pointer of wavelength 650 nm) and a primitive square scattering
array printed on clear overhead transparency at one end of classroom. Place a target at other end of classroom
(square ruled graph paper is convenient). Make certain that students do not look down direct laser beam. Have stu-
dents measure distance from scattering array to target (Floor Distance or FD) and horizontal or vertical distance
from direct beam spot to diffracted spot (Spot Distance or SD), then use this data and simple trigonometry to calcu-
late the diffraction angle (phi). Note that for FD >> SD, f = sin f. Using the Fraunhofer equation and known laser
wavelength, calculate the separation between scattering points (d). Measure several spot distances in this manner
and calculate and average value for d. Compare this measured d with value of d used to create scattering ray.
Change the wavelength of the light source (different color laser) and repeat experiment, which will demonstrate
that the results are independent of wavelength used to make the measurements. Repeat the experiment using a
primitive square array of different d, to demonstrate the reciprocal relationship between the diffraction pattern and
actual scattering array. Introduce the Bragg equation and compare and contrast this with the Fraunhofer equation.
Provide students with precession photographs, known camera distance (CD to replace FD) and x-ray wavelength.
Have students calculate d-spacings for crystal.
Further Directions
Using the concepts of Miller indices, have the students index the spots on the primitive diffraction pattern. Provide
the students with a centered square array to index and determine d-spacings for the crystal. Discuss the effects of
centering on diffraction patterns.
In a computer lab, provide students with the graphics software used to create the scattering arrays, a sample array
(or two) to edit, and blank overhead transparencies. Direct students to edit the arrays as they see fit, print them out,
and describe the effects the changes have on the diffraction patterns. Students may also be organized into groups for
this exercise, with each group required to present their results to the class.