“Mjane”

📸 @abreamjane
“Sam”
📸@samanthamda
“Lorie”
📸@lorielynlee25
“Dane”
“Cy”
▪To be able to discuss the structure and function of DNA
▪To be able to elaborate and discuss the reason and process
of replication and reparation of DNA
▪To be able to explain how proteins are made
Activity
Activity
DNA STRUCTURES AND FUNCTION
DNA REPLICATION AND REPAIR
CENTRAL DOGMA OF DNA
CLONING OF ADULT ANIMALS
 Nucleic Acids
- Large organic compounds found in the
chromosomes of living cells and viruses.
- First discovered by Friedrich Miescher
in 1869 while studying the nuclei of white
blood cells.
DNA
RNA
(Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
 DNA
Structure: Double helix (twisted ladder)
most complex and most important
molecule
 DNA
Function: storage and transfer of genetic
information; basic instructions for all living
organisms to develop, survive, and reproduce.
 DNA

Location: found in the nucleus

 DNA
Every body cell, or somatic cell
in a Human has 46 chromosomes
containing 1 big DNA molecule
(Ribonucleic Acid)
 rNA
Function: synthesis of proteins; it translates
genetic information from DNA into proteins;
molecules carry out the essential cellular
functions.
STRUCTURE
Chromosomes – tightly coiled DNA
structures.

Each chromosome contains a single DNA

molecule. Humans have 23 pairs of
chromosomes, which are found inside the
cell's nucleus.
DNA’s structurally are polymers,
each one is made up of many
small, repeating molecular units
called nucleotides.

Connected or linked together

they now form polynucleotides.
Nucleotides are formed when a
phosphate attaches to the 5' carbon
of the sugar and one of the
nitrogenous bases attaches to the
3' carbon of the sugar.
DNA is not a single polynucleotide
molecule but rather a pair of
molecules are held tightly
together. (Double Helix)
 – composed of:
1. 5-carbon sugar molecule – called
deoxyribose
2. A Phosphate group
3. 1 of 4 nitrogen bases
– A can only bond with T (2 hydrogen
bonds); G ccan only bond with C (has
3 hydrogen bonds) (these are called
base pairs)
- Contains the important genetic
stuff that makes a person himself
Adenine (A)
Thymine (T)
Cytosine (C)
Guanine (G)
Base Pairing
– a physical restriction limit,
the base pairs that can form
hydrogen-bond to one another.
a. Complementary Bases
– pairs of bases in a nucleic acid
structure that can form
hydrogen bond to each other.
Ex. A – T & C – G, and vice versa.
– one strand of DNA in a double helix with base
pairing such that each base is located opposite
of its complementary base.
Ex.
Given:
5’ C-G-A-A-T-C-C-T-A 3’
Complementary Strand:
3’ G-C-T-T-A-G-G-A-T 5’
Base Sequence
– the order of the four nucleobases or
nitrogen bases; creates a particular organism
and determines what biological instructions are
contained in a strand of DNA. The complete
DNA instruction book, or genome, for a human
contains about 3 billion bases and about
20,000 genes on 23 pairs of chromosomes.
DNA's instructions are used
to make proteins in a two-
step process.

First, enzymes read the information in

a DNA molecule and transcribe it into
an intermediary molecule called
messenger ribonucleic acid, or mRNA.
Next, the information contained in the mRNA
molecule is translated into the "language" of
amino acids, which are the building blocks of
proteins. This language tells the cell's protein-
making machinery the precise order in which
to link the amino acids to produce a specific
protein. This is a major task because there
are 20 types of amino acids, which can be
placed in many different orders to form a
wide variety of proteins.
When proteins are being made, the
double helix unwinds to allow a
single strand of DNA to serve as a
template. This template strand is
then transcribed into mRNA, which
is a molecule that conveys vital
instructions to the cell's protein-
making machinery.
- In DNA, the sugar and phosphates
bond together to form twin backbones.
The sugar-phosphate bonds run down
each side of the helix, but chemically in
opposite directions. One appears to be
upside down in relation to the other.
- One strand begins at the top
with the first phosphate connected
to the sugar molecule’s 5th carbon
and then ending where the next
phosphate would go, with a free
end at the sugar’s 3rd carbon.
- Creates a pattern called 5
Prime and 3 Prime construction,
and vice versa for the other side
of the helix.
- The two long chains are
linked by the nitrogenous
bases via relatively weak
hydrogen bonds.
RNA
RNA STRUCTURE
- Basically similar to DNA in that it also
has a:
1. Sugar-phosphate backbone
2.Nucleotide Bases
 RNA STRUCTURE
- The differences are that:
1. RNA is only a single-stranded molecule
2. Its sugar molecule is Ribose rather
than deoxyribose
3. One of its nucleotide bases is Uracil,
not Thymine. It bonds with Adenine.
RNA STRUCTURE

Function: synthesis of proteins,

stated another way, it translates
genetic information from DNA into
proteins; molecules carry out the
essential cellular functions.
Why

DNA?
Why replicate DNA?
DNA is the genetic material that
defines every cell. It must be
replicated in order to ensure that
each new cell receives the correct
number of chromosomes.
Preparation for Replication
Step 1: Replication Fork Formation
Step 2: Primer Binding
Step 3: Elongation
Step 4: Termination
Step 1:

Replication
Fork
Formation
Step 2:
Primer Binding
Step 3:
Step 4:
Termination
Enzymes that participate in the
eukaryotic DNA replication process
include:
DNA helicase
DNA primase
DNA polymerases
Topoisomerase or DNA Gyrase
Exonucleases
DNA ligase
DNA helicase - It forms the replication fork
by breaking hydrogen bonds between nucleotide
pairs in DNA.
DNA primase - Primers are short RNA
molecules that act as templates for the starting
point of DNA replication.
DNA polymerases - synthesize new DNA
molecules by adding nucleotides to leading and
lagging DNA strands.
Topoisomerase or DNA Gyrase -
unwinds and rewinds DNA strands to prevent
the DNA from becoming tangled or
supercoiled.
Exonucleases - group of enzymes that
remove nucleotide bases from the end of a
DNA chain.
DNA ligase - joins DNA fragments
together by forming phosphodiester bonds
between nucleotides.
DNA
Repair
DNA Repair
DNA repair seldom involves simply undoing
the change that caused the damage.
Almost always a stretch of DNA containing
the damaged nucleotide(s) is excised and
the gap is filled by re synthesis.
DNA repair mechanisms can be
separated to:
A) Single Strand Repair
B) Double Strand Repair
A) Single Strand Repair
a) Nucleotide excision repair (NER)
b) Base excision repair (BER), and
c) Mismatch repair (MMR)
a) Nucleotide excision repair (NER)
The sequential enzymatic reactions,
initiated by a specific endonuclease
that recognizes the DNA distortion,
are called NER (Nucleotide excision
repair)
b) Base excision repair (BER)
- it is initiated by DNA glycosylases,
which catalyze the hydrolysis of the N-
glycosidic bonds, linking particular types
of chemically altered bases to the
deoxyribose-phosphate backbone.
c) Mismatch repair (MMR)
– it corrects errors made
when DNA is copied.
B) Double Strand Repair
a) Non-homologous end joining, and
b) Homologous Recombination
a) Direct joining of the broken ends. This
requires proteins that recognize and bind
to the exposed ends and bring them
together for ligating. This type of joining
is also called Nonhomologous End-Joining
(NHEJ). A protein called Ku is essential
for NHEJ.
b) Homologous Recombination.
Here the broken ends are repaired using
the information on the intact.
sister chromatid, or on the
homologous chromosome
Figure-7-Showing mechanism of
double strand break repair
 What is the
‘Central Dogma'?
 The ‘Central Dogma’ is the
process by which the
instructions in DNA are
converted into a functional
product. It was first proposed
in 1958 by Francis Crick,
discoverer of the structure of
DNA.
The central dogma of
molecular biology explains the
flow of genetic information,
from DNA to RNA, to make a
functional product, a protein.
The central dogma suggests that
DNA contains the information
needed to make all of our proteins,
and that RNA is a messenger that
carries this information to
the ribosomes.
The ribosomes serve as
factories in the cell where
the information is
‘translated’ from a code into
the functional product.
The process by which the DNA
instructions are converted into
the functional product is
called gene expression.
Gene expression has two key
stages -
transcription and translation.
In transcription, the information
in the DNA of every cell is
converted into small, portable RNA
messages.
During translation, these messages
travel from where the DNA is in the
cell nucleus to the ribosomes where
they are ‘read’ to make specific
proteins.
The central dogma states that the pattern of
information that occurs most frequently in our
cells is:
• From existing DNA to make new DNA
(DNA replication)
• From DNA to make new RNA
(transcription)
• From RNA to make new proteins
(translation)
CLONING
- process of which an exact, identical copy
of the original can be made.
- DNA is the same - an exact copy.
 PROCESS OF CLONING
- Only needs the egg cell.
- Pulls out the DNA from an animal cell and insert it into the egg cell.
- The nucleus or the DNA from the egg cell is removed with the help
of a very fine needle, before the implantation process.
 1.
Cloned animals ages faster
than normal, original animals.
 2.
Catholic religion is against cloning.
 3.
Scientist are trying to save endangered
species with the help of cloning process.
 4.
Japanese scientist are trying to bring back
the Mammoth using the cloning technique.
 5.
Ruppy and five other puppies are dogs that glow in the
dark. They are created by scientist in South Korea. Its
genes are taken from sea anemone, water dwelling
animals and scientist replaced the mother’s dog cell with
special glowing dog stem cell.
Summary
 Summary
DNA RNA
Single-stranded
STRUCTURE Double Helix
molecule
 Summary
DNA RNA
PURPOSE Storage & transfer if genetic information Protein synthesis
 Summary
DNA RNA
NUCLEOTIDES: a. One cyclic 5-carbon sugar
- Consisting of: Deoxyribose Ribose
a. One Phosphate
a. Nitrogen Bases
Adenine Adenine
Thymine Uracil
Guanine Guanine
Cytosine Cytosine
 Summary
Preparation for Replication

Step 1: Replication Fork Formation

Step 2: Primer Binding
Step 3: Elongation
Step 4: Termination
 Summary
Enzymes that participate in the eukaryotic
DNA replication process include:
DNA helicase
DNA primase
DNA polymerases
Topoisomerase or DNA Gyrase
Exonucleases
DNA ligase
 Summary
DNA repair can be grouped into
two major functional categories:

A) Direct Damage reversal

B) Excision of DNA damage
 Summary
Major polypeptide involved in Direct
Damage Reversal

a.DNA photolyases
b.O6-methylguanine-DNA
methyltransferase I and II (MGMT)
 Summary
B) Excision of DNA damage – includes
a) Base excision repair (BER)
b) Nucleotide excision repair (NER),
c) Mismatch repair (MMR) and
d) Strand break repairs.
 Summary
CENTRAL DOGMA OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
“DNA makes RNA, which makes protein.”
Gene expression
2 Stages:
(1) Transcription
(2) Translation
 Summary
Cloning
It is the process where an identical copy of the original can be made.
How does cloning work?
- Only needs the egg cell.
- Pulls out the DNA from an animal cell and insert it into the
egg cell.
- The nucleus or the DNA from the egg cell is removed with
the help of a very fine needle, before the implantation
process.
(1&2) What are the two types of nucleic acids? Write down
their full names.
(3-6) Give the 4 nitrogen bases.
(7) The process by which the instructions in DNA are converted
into functional product.
(8) The process by which a double-stranded DNA molecule is
copied to produce two identical DNA molecules.
(9&10) Two stages of gene expression.
gracias
References:
https://www.livescience.com/37247-dna.html
https://www.britannica.com/science/DNA
https://www.genome.gov/25520880/deoxyribonucleic-acid-dna-fact-
sheet/
HTTPS://WWW.THOUGHTCO.COM/DNA-373454
https://www.thoughtco.com/dna-replication-3981005
http://www.biologydiscussion.com/dna/dna-damage-types-and-repair-
mechanisms-with-diagram/16332
https://www.yourgenome.org/facts/what-is-the-central-dogma