Overhead Line Conductor and Technical Specifications 657

18.5.1.4 Equivalent span

The equivalent span is defined as a fictitious single span in which tension vari-
ations due to load or temperature changes are nearly the same as in the actual
spans in a section. The mathematical treatment to obtain the equivalent span is
based on parabolic theory and there is no similar concept using full catenary
equations. For sagging the overhead line conductors the tension appropriate to
the equivalent span and the erection temperature as shown in Fig. 18.8c is used.
Erection tensions are calculated from final tensions making an allowance for
creep. This is equated to a temperature shift which is applied to final tensions.

18.5.1.5 Creep

Creep is a phenomenon which affects most materials subjected to stress. It

manifests itself by an inelastic stretch (or permanent elongation) of the mate-
rial in the direction of the stress. Certain materials such as aluminium are
more susceptible than others. For example steel suffers only a limited amount
of creep. The increase in conductor length resulting from inelastic stretch pro-
duces increased sags which must be taken into account in the overhead line
design and installation process so as not to infringe clearances.
Some mathematical models have now been evolved to help the engineer
assess the effects of creep and examples are given here (see also IEC techni-
cal report 61597 – calculation methods for stranded bare conductors):

e
K s b e fu t m  s mm/km
d
Formula 1

and,

e
K s b e f t m mm/km Formula 2

where 
permanent inelastic elongation (creep)

K
constant
␴
average stress in conductor
␤, ␾, ␮, ␦
creep indices obtained by test
e
natural logarithm base
2.7182818…
t
time in hours
␪
temperature in °C

Since the total inelastic strain can be considered as the result of geometric
settlement of the strands and of the metallurgical creep thereafter, the deriva-
tion of the constants and of the indices is of prime importance. In the UK it
has been decided that tests should be carried out in such a way that the geo-
metric settlement would be taken into account in the constants and indices and
that the formulae above would give the total creep. Typical values for the con-
stants involved in the above equations are given in Tables 18.10a to d.
658 Overhead Line Conductor and Technical Specifications

Table 18.10a Creep coefficients for ACSR conductors (Formula 1)

Conductor Al/steel
stranding Al/steel area ratio Process K ␾ ␤ ␮ ␦

54 7 7.71 HR 1.1 0.0175 2.155 0.342 0.212 7

EP 1.6 0.0171 1.418 0.377 0.1876
48 7 11.4 HR 3.0 0.0100 1.887 0.165 0.011 6
30 7 4.28 EP 2.2 0.0107 1.375 0.183 0.036 5
26 7 6.16 HR 1.9 0.0235 1.830 0.229 0.080 21
24 7 7.74 HR 1.6 0.0235 1.882 0.186 0.007 71
18 1 18.0 EP 1.2 0.0230 1.502 0.332 0.133 1
12 7 1.71 HR 0.66 0.0115 1.884 0.273 0.147 4

Note: Industrial processing of aluminium rod: HR
hot rolled; EP
extruded or Properzi.

Table 18.10b Creep coefficients for AAAC conductors (Formula 2)

K ␾ ␤ ␮

0.15 1.4 1.3 0.16

Not available Not available Not available Not available

Table 18.10c Creep coefficients for AAC conductors (Formula 2)

Number of make up wires

Process 7 19 37 61 ␾ ␤ ␮

Hot rolled 0.27 0.28 0.26 0.25 1.4 1.3 0.16

Extruded or Properzi 0.18 0.18 0.16 0.15 1.4 1.3 0.16

Table 18.10d Creep coefficients for ACAR conductors (Formula 2)

Process K ␾ ␤ ␮

Extruded or Properzi 0.04  {0.24 m/(m  1)} 1.4 1.3 0.16

Notes: m
aluminium area/aluminium alloy area.

When applying the technique of creep evaluation the designer must forecast
reasonable conductor history. Typical conditions might be as shown in Table
18.11 where tIII and tIV represent the periods for which compensation should
be made. Figure 18.9 illustrates an acceptable procedure for creep assessment.
As an illustration of the steps to be followed consider the following example.

1. The EDS is to be 20% of the UTS of the conductor at 20°C.

2. The maximum stress occurs when the conductor is subjected to a wind of
50 kg/m2 at 0°C, no ice.
3. The maximum operating temperature is 70°C.
 Overhead Line Conductor and Technical Specifications 659

Table 18.11 Typical conditions

Stage Stress Temperature Time

I Running out Average ambient Time for running out

II Pretension (if provided) Average ambient As decided by design office
III Stress at given Mean yearly temperature tIII
temperature  5°C
IV Stress at given Maximum operating tIV
temperature conductor temperature
V Maximum stress Temperature corresponding tIV
to maximum stress condition

Figure 18.9 Creep assessment procedure

4. Accept a span length of 400 m. (In practice, three values should be taken:
a maximum and a minimum span both deduced from the profile, and a
basic span. The span which gives the highest value of creep strain is
selected as a basis for creep compensation.)
5. Creep strain to be calculated for a period of 30 years.
6. Conductor is manufactured from aluminium rod obtained by the Properzi
method.

Some decisions based on experience are then necessary regarding the dur-
ation of the maximum and minimum stresses, and values may then be inserted
in a tabular format as shown in Table 18.12a.
If we consider the general change-of-state sag/tension equation the influ-
ence of creep strain and temperature are both linear (see Section 18.5.2.5).
660 Overhead Line Conductor and Technical Specifications

Table 18.12a

Stage Stress Temperature Time

I 20% UTS 20°C 1 hour

II Nil (no pretension) Not applicable Not applicable (no
(no pretension) pretension)
III Calculate by program 25°C 257  544 hours(a)
IV Calculate by program 70°C 2628 hours(a)
V Calculate by program 0°C 2628 hours(a)

Notes: (a) The period for which compensation should be made.

Table 18.12b Typical creep values of stranded conductors (IEC report 61597)

Type of Estimated creep after 10 years Equivalent temperature difference

conductor Mm/m °C

A1 800 35
A2, A3 500 22
A1/A2, A1/A3 700 30
A1/Sxy 500 25

W 2  L2/24  (1/T 22  1/T 1 2)
1/EA(T2  T1)  (␪2  ␪1)

 (2  1)  106

It is therefore possible to express creep strain, , by an equivalent tempera-

ture change, i.e.


␣␪e  106
where is the coefficient of thermal expansion per °C. This simplifies the
conductor sag calculation, because the elongation due to creep can be simu-
lated by a temperature difference using the appropriate coefficient of linear
expansion, as illustrated in Table 18.12b.
This concept is equally applicable if lifetime creep is predicted using other
techniques. For example:

• Using creep values from conductor creep tests made at actual mechanical
and temperature conditions over a long time(normally more than 2 months)
and extrapolating the creep curve up to 10, 30 or 50 years. Normally the
final sag calculation is made using the 10 year figure, because the add-
itional creep between 10 to 50 years is relatively small and a reasonable part
of that may have elapsed from the time of stringing up to the time of clamp-
ing the conductor.
• Using creep values from accelerated conductor creep tests made at higher
mechanical tension. The creep value at a certain time will then correspond
to what is known to apply under real conditions after (say) 30 years.