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Abstract—Black start, the restoration of a power system after a Black start is defined as the process that a system suffered
complete blackout, is a key issue to the safety of power systems. The from a complete blackout is restarted through reconstructing its
reasonable network reconfiguration is necessary for establishing networks and restoring its service depending on its self-starting
the main network and restoring loads quickly. Based on topological
characteristics of scale-free networks and discrete particle swarm units, without help from other systems [2]. Being an extreme
optimization, a skeleton-network reconfiguration strategy is pro- condition of the system restoration, black start is a complex
posed in this paper. Through calculating node importance degrees, decision-making and control problem for power system oper-
priorities of sources and loads could be scaled quantitatively. Then, ators. It is customary in many electrical utilities to develop dis-
network reconfiguration efficiency, an index represented by net- tinct start schemes to meet their particular needs [2]–[5]. Most
work structure and subjected to restoration constrains, is used to
evaluate the reconfiguration effect. Furthermore, discrete particle of schemes contain general guidelines used to define the re-
swarm optimization is employed in reconstructing skeleton net- quired restoration plans [6]–[8]. Meanwhile, it is incumbent
works that relieve reconfiguration burden considerably. Applica- upon utility operating management to assure that schemes are
tion examples verify that several optimal reconfiguration schemes kept up to date as the system changes. In order to make schemes
achieved from the strategy can provide dispatchers an effective de- automatically, various approaches have been investigated. Typi-
cision support under the uncertain system situation.
cally, knowledge-based expert systems, which rely on the opera-
Index Terms—Black start, network reconfiguration, power tors’ heuristic problem solving experience and technique, have
systems, particle swarm optimization, scale-free networks, system been employed extensively in the process of making schemes
restoration.
[9]–[12]. As a function extension of expert systems, the appli-
cation of decision support technique to restoration is being paid
I. INTRODUCTION more attention in recent years [13]–[15]. Besides, mathematical
programming and intelligent algorithms have shown much po-
tential in the decision support of start schemes because they are
ODERN society is dependent on the power supply
M excessively. The demand for sufficient and reliable
power supply is becoming more and more intensive. Through
advantageous to solving the multi-objective combinatorial op-
timization problems [16], [17]. The main target of black-start
restoration is to effect a transition from a complete blackout
optimizing distribution of generation sources, large-scale power to a maximum feasible load condition in the minimum pos-
systems have improved the efficiency and reliability of power sible amount of time. Among methods proposed so far for de-
supply. However, the possibility of widespread blackout due to veloping start schemes, the operation cost such as operation or
various faults is still existing or even increasing. Since 1960s, switching time is preferred to be chosen as the optimization ob-
several extensive blackouts occurring worldwide, including jective while maintaining a certain level of security. However, it
the well-known 8.14 blackout of 2003 in the parts of U.S. and seems that little work has been done to investigate the restora-
Canada, have raised alarms to power system operation safety [1]. tion process from the point of view of network topological struc-
While the fault possibility could be decreased through improving ture. In general, black-start restoration includes two sequential
the network structure and management measures, widespread steps: the first step is to determine a relative optimal configu-
blackouts are practically inevitable because of the increasing ration as a restoration target and the second to organize a se-
complexity and uncertainty in the deregulated power systems. quence of switching operations to bring the faulted system into
After a blackout occurs in a power system, effective measures the target system state defined in advance while all the restora-
must be taken to restore the system to normal operation as soon tion constrains are satisfied. This paper is concerned with the
as possible. As one of self-rescuing measures of a blackout first step because a reasonable restoration target could locate im-
power system, the black start restoration is of great importance. portance loads and relieve the restoration burden so that it paves
the way for making up operation scenario subsequently.
Manuscript received April 11, 2006; revised December 13, 2006. This work
was supported by a grant from the National Natural Science Foundation of China
Based on topological characteristics of scale-free networks,
(50577017). Paper no. TPWRS-00222-2006. a skeleton-network reconfiguration strategy to determine the
The authors are with the Key Laboratory of Power System Protection and restoration target is proposed in this paper. First, the importance
Dynamic Security Monitoring and Control under Ministry of Education, North of sources and loads could be ranked quantitatively through
China Electric Power University, Baoding 071003, Hebei Province, China
(e-mail: bd_ly@263.net; mexpgu@yahoo.com.cn). calculating node importance degrees. Then, network reconfig-
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPWRS.2007.901486 uration efficiency, which is represented mainly by the network
0885-8950/$25.00 © 2007 IEEE
1268 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 22, NO. 3, AUGUST 2007
the highest or higher priorities are organized together with as IV. REALIZATION OF NETWORK RECONFIGURATION BASED ON
few transmission lines as possible and network achieved is sim- DISCRETE PARTICLE-SWARM OPTIMIZATION
plified furthest.
From (2), is also subjected to some inequality operation A. Introduction of Discrete Particle Swarm Optimization
constrains. Where, is the length of transmission line. When
Particle swarm optimization (PSO) is a population-based
energizing empty transmission line, over-voltage is notable
optimization method first proposed by Kennedy and Eberhart
with line’s length increasing. In order to maintain prescribed
in 1995 [22]. PSO is basically developed through simulation
over-voltage limit, the longest distance permitted corresponding
of bird flocking in two-dimensional space. It finds the optimal
to different voltage level, i.e., must be defined. Only
solution using a population of particles. Each particle initial-
lines shorter than could be chosen in reconfiguration.
ized randomly, with current position and current velocity
The other two unequal constrains in (2) are about operation
, represents a candidate solution to the problem. Where,
performance when power flow analysis is made with regard
represents the population of particle swarm,
to reconfiguration network. , as shown in (5), represents
represents the dimension of search space.
the ratio of nodes unsatisfied with voltage limits to total nodes
Each individual particle has a fitness value determined by
in reconfiguration network. as shown in (6), represents
optimization function to justify its performance and retrieve its
the ratio of branches exceeding transmission capacity limits to
direction and distance for updating. Equation (7) shows how
total branches in reconfiguration network. Only when and
each particle pursues the optimal particle and updates itself at
are smaller than their limits and that
time in order to find the optimal solution
vary from different restoration requirements, reconfiguration
network may be feasible in practice and thus be worthy of a
skeleton network (7)
fields of power system research such as power flow computa- 1) Input parameters necessary for reconfiguration, including
tion, reactive power optimization, and etc [24], [25]. Therefore, bus data and line data.
DPSO shown as (8) is used to implement reconfiguration. 2) Calculate node importance degree for all nodes. Then, im-
1) Initialization.Initializationisthebaseforfollowingiteration portance priorities of source nodes and load nodes could
and optimization of DPSO. The key problem is to find the be confirmed respectively according to principles of im-
suitable expression for particle to represent solution space. portance identification.
It is evident that different combinations of power sources, 3) Initialization of an -dimension, -size population of
loads and transmission lines will form different reconfigura- particles. Random positions and velocities are formed si-
tion schemes. Once transmission lines areidentified, sources multaneously. The meaning of is the same as mentioned
and loads connected by these lines are confirmed definitely. in initialization of algorithm summary. Population size
Therefore, we define the particle with the state sequence de- is determined by solution space’s dimension. Larger is
noting which group of lines in original network is selected beneficial to locate the global optimum, but will increase
to take part in reconfiguration. When certain line is selected, calculation time and computer resource expenses. So, it is
corresponding position in state sequence takes 1 value. Oth- an experiential value by means of testing.
erwise, 0 value is taken. Presented with a series of value 0 and 4) Verification of effective particle. If all particles are effec-
value1 whose bit number is (total number of transmis- tive, go to step 5) directly. Otherwise, ineffective particle
sion lines in original network), a state sequence represents should be transformed into effective one, go to step 5).
a reconfiguration scheme. 5) With respect to particle : update the per-
2) Fitness Function. In terms of network reconfiguration sonal best position if the current fitness value is optimal.
efficiency , the aim of reconfiguration is to maximize 6) Update the global best position from all current per-
. When reconfiguration is realized with DPSO, the aim sonal best position and find current optimal particle.
should be represented in the form of fitness function. In 7) If maximum iteration step is satisfied or the global best po-
DPSO, fitness value of each particle is solved according sition doesn’t change in a given iteration generations,
to fitness function so that the performance of each particle iteration terminates and go to step 10). Otherwise, go to
could be evaluated. At the same time, and derived step 8). Note that maximum iteration step or given iteration
in each iteration could direct particles to update through generations are the experiential value, which is determined
tracing the current optimal particle. For DPSO, it is a by testing and vary from different problems.
custom to rank the fitness value in ascending order, which 8) With respect to particle : a) Update particle
means the smaller the fitness value, the better the particle according (8); b) Verification of effective particle.
is. Accordingly, fitness function is defined with the 9) Go back to step 5).
reciprocal of as (9). 10) Output optimal and suboptimal particles in ascending order
of fitness values. Transform them into corresponding re-
(9) configuration schemes. According to (2), check the extent
to which they are satisfied the inequality constrains and
3) Verification of Effective Particle. For practical purpose, identify skeleton networks.
reconfiguration schemes, i.e., state sequences are required It should be noted that main testing items in step 10) include
to be connected totally in topological structure. Otherwise, overvoltage analysis and power flow corresponding to the in-
following load restoration could not be accomplished equality constrains in (2). As a practical method of overvoltage
quickly. In DPSO, some particle’s operations such as analysis, the length of transmission line in reconfiguration
initialization and update are random in nature so that networks must be verified to maintain prescribed over-voltage
topological connection of state sequence could not always limit. As to power flow analysis, the output of unit takes 25%
be satisfied. As a result, verification of effective particle rated power according to boiler’s technical minimum load,
is necessary in order to achieve more feasible particle. which is the basic requirement for boiler’s stable operation.
The details of verification are described as follow. After Undoubtedly, electromechanical transient analysis is necessary
a particle’s initialization or update, sources nodes and for adequate reconfiguration schemes. The accurate analysis
load nodes should be under merge application through method is to formulate the state equations of the reconfiguration
checking topological relation of transmission lines. An systems and determine the stability by eigenvalue analysis or
effective particle means that all source nodes and all load time domain simulation. However, the stability of reconfigura-
nodes selected by state sequence belong to same topology tion systems is closely related to the units’ operation sequences
set. Otherwise, it is an ineffective particle and could be in restoration. As mentioned in Section I, the purpose of this
also transformed into an effective one through changing paper is to find the restoration target instead of switching
the value of one or several bits in state sequence. In a sequences so that electromechanical transient analysis will be
sense, the transformation is analogous to interconnection investigated in further research work.
of several islands through additional lines in real systems.
V. APPLICATION EXAMPLES AND DISCUSSIONS
C. Algorithm Flow To test the validity of strategy proposed in this paper, the algo-
The steps of skeleton-network reconfiguration realized with rithm has been programmed with MATLAB. The IEEE 30-bus
DPSO are as follows. test system and a practical power system, the southern power
1272 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 22, NO. 3, AUGUST 2007
TABLE IV
IMPORTANCE RANK OF LOAD NODES IN IEEE 30-BUS SYSTEM
TABLE II
NODE IMPORTANCE DEGREE OF NODES IN IEEE 30-BUS SYSTEM
TABLE V
RECONFIGURATION SCHEMES FOR IEEE 30-BUS SYSTEM
TABLE III
IMPORTANCE RANK OF SOURCE NODES IN IEEE 30-BUS SYSTEM
A. Example I
To show the process of skeleton-network reconfiguration in take value of 10 and 30, respectively. Several relative optimal
detail, IEEE 30-bus system is tested firstly. Its diagram is shown schemes obtained from DPSO, namely skeleton networks are
as Fig. 2, in which total 41 branches are included. Through shown in Table V and the first is illustrated with Fig. 3 further.
node contraction, node importance degree of all nodes could be Because no transmission line is longer than and no ex-
solved, as shown in Table II. To show the relative importance of ceeding transmission capacity happens, only is shown in
sources or loads, values in Table II should be normalized further Table V.
in terms of maximum of source nodes or load nodes respec- According to the definition of , the smaller is, the better
tively. Results are shown in Tables III and IV. Note that source the schemes is. As skeleton network 1 shown in Fig. 3, though
1 is supposed as crank power in initial stage of black start, so not all loads are involved, power sources and loads with higher
its importance rank is regulated to 1 from 0.85. In other word, rank are connected through fewer transmission lines and un-
source 1 has the highest priority as same as source 27 though its equal constrains are satisfied ( is set to 0.1). Because
original is smaller. the skeleton network is a subnet of original network, the burden
DPSO is employed to reconfigure network skeleton. The pop- of reconstructing a network frame in short time could be relieved
ulation of particle swarm, i.e., and maximum iteration step considerably.
LIU AND GU: SKELETON-NETWORK RECONFIGURATION 1273
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[13] Z. Yunhai, M. Yong, and Y. bin, “Decision support system for black- Yan Liu was born in Tianjin, China, on November 1, 1973. She received the
start,” Automat. Elect. Power Syst., vol. 25, no. 15, pp. 43–46, 2001, (in B.Sc. and M.Sc. degrees in power system and automation in 1994 and 1997,
Chinese). respectively, from North China Electric Power University (NCEPU), Hebei
[14] W. Hongtao and L. Yutian, “Hierarchical case-based decision support Province, China, where she is currently pursuing the Ph.D. degree NCEPU.
system for power system restoration,” presented at the IEEE PES Gen- Her areas of interest include power system restoration, control, and applica-
eral Meeting, Denver, CO, 2004, unpublished. tion of intelligent technology.
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by joint usage of expert system and mathematical programming ap- M.Sc. degree in 1988 from Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, China, and
proach,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 1473–1479, Aug. the Ph.D. degree in 1996 from from North China Electric Power University
1995. (NCEPU), Hebei Province, China, both in electrical engineering.
[17] H.-C. Chin and Y.-S. Su, “Application of the ant-based network for He is currently a Professor of Electrical Engineering at NCEPU. He has pub-
power system restoration,” presented at the IEEE/PES Transmission lished more than 60 technical papers on domestic and international conferences
and Distribution Conf. & Exhib., Dalian, China, 2005. and journals. His areas of interest include application of intelligent technology
[18] D. J. Watts and S. H. Strogatz, “Collective dynamics of small-world in power system, power system security and stability, and power system restora-
networks,” Nature, vol. 393, no. 4, pp. 440–442, 1998. tion.