Action and response of

structural systems
Dead Loads, superimposed
loads and live loads

Dr. V. Srinivas
srinivas@serc.res.in
voggu.srinivas@gmail.com
 Structural Design

Conceptual Design

Preliminary Design

Estimate Structural Loads

Strength: structural system can
support loads without failure
Structural Analysis
Serviceability: deformations are
within allowable limits

Does the structure Revise

meet strength and serviceability Structural
requirements? Design

No
Yes

Construction Phase
DESIGN PROCESS
Design is the determination of the
general shape and all specific
dimensions of a particular structure
so that it will perform the function
for which it was created.
So , good design must be safe and
economic.

Member
Loads
Dimension

Design
Process

Reinforcement
Strength Ratio
TYPES OF LOADS
Loads are classified as static and dynamic . Static loads are independent from
time but dynamic loads are function of time.

Dead and live

loads are types of
static loads.
Dead loads are
those have
unchangeable
locations in
structure and their
values are certain
and constant .

Live loads are those

movable and their
values are uncertain.
 Types of Loads
• Determination of loads for which a given
structure may be designed for is a difficult
problem.
Questions to be Answered:
• What loads may structure be called upon during
its lifetime?
• In what combinations these loads occur?
• The probability that a specific live load be
exceeded at some time during lifetime of
structure?

5
Dead loads are calculated easily using structure dimensions and material density .
Live loads are movable and their values are uncertain , so they can not be
calculated directly and local or international specifications shall be consulted.
International Building Code IBC 2009 published live load values dependent on
types of building occupancy.

80 psf
100 psf
50 psf
 Loads and Load Paths
• Structural Design
• Design Loads
– Dead Load
– Live Load
– Snow Load
– Lateral Loads
• Load Types
• Load Combinations
• Load Path
• Calculating Beam Loads
 Steps in Structural Design
1. Planning – How will the building be supported?
2. Establishing the loads
3. Designing preliminary structural configuration and
layout
4. Analyzing structural members
5. Selecting preliminary structural members
6. Evaluating the preliminary design
7. Redesigning (if needed) – Repeat the above steps
as necessary to achieve a safe and efficient design
8. Designing and detailing the structural components
 Design Loads

• The load that is assumed for the design of a

structure
• May include one or more of the following:
− Dead Load −Flood Load
− Live Load − Wind Load
− Snow and Ice Load − Earthquake Load
− Rain Load − Earth Pressure Load
 Design Loads
Dead Loads (DL) – fixed loads
−The weight of the building
components
−The weight of fixed service
equipment

Photos courtesy www.constructionphotographs.com

 Design Loads

Live Loads (LL) – transient and

moving loads
−Loads produced by the use
and occupancy of a building
©iStockphoto.com

−Live load may be variable

during a structure’s lifetime
−Specified in building codes

©iStockphoto.com
What exactly are live loads?
Live loads include any temporary or transient forces that act on a building or structural
element. Typically, they include people, furniture, vehicles, and almost everything else
that can be moved throughout a building.

Live loads can be prescribed to any structural element (floors, columns, beams, even
roofs) and will ultimately be factored into a calculation of gravity loads, which we’ll
explain below.

We measure uniform live loads as kN/m2 or pounds per square foot (psf). The
acceptable live load will vary considerably based on the occupancy and expected use of
a structure or structural element. For example, the live load for a room in a single family
residence will be significantly smaller than the live load for an area of equal size at a
movie theatre or sporting event.
How to design for live loads
While actual observed live loads are often lower than the prescribed minimum
code, it may be beneficial to plan for a greater load. This allows the structure to
accommodate unique conditions and/or provide a greater level of safety.

Sometimes the prescribed minimum load is not large enough to account for the
live load concentrated in a specific area. Take, for example, the parking garage of a
residential building. Though the residential structure is prescribed a 2 kN/m2
minimum live load, the parking garage must be capable of supporting a cargo
truck weighing 3 tons. In cases like this, building codes account for the
concentrated load by prescribing a single load that those specific areas must be
designed to resist.

As the designer, it’s always up to you to use your own judgment based on the
facility. Be careful to consider the use of the structure and what its common
occupancy will be throughout its lifetime. Is there reason to believe that the live
load will spike? If so, will the prescribed minimum load cover the range of
possibilities?
 Design Loads
Snow Load
– Force of accumulated snow on a roof
– Specified in building codes (or local building
department)
– Depends on
•Location
• Exposure to wind
• Importance of building
• Roof slope

©iStockphoto.com
 Design Loads
Design Snow Load Calculation
p s  0.7C s Ce Ct I s p g
ps  Design snow load
C s  Roof slopefactor
Ce  Exposure factor
Ct  Thermal factor
I s  Importancefactor
p g  Ground snow load
 Design Snow Load
• Find the ground snow
load
• For Springfield, CO
(red dot) the snow
load is 15 psf
Ground Snow Load in psf

Minimum Snow Load

• If , then

• If , then
 Design Loads

Lateral Loads
– Wind Loads
– Earthquake Loads
– Flood Loads
– Earth Pressure Loads
 Design Loads

Wind Load (WL)

− Resulting loads yield:

• Lateral load on walls
• Downward and upward
pressure on roofs
• Overturning of the structure

− Specified in building codes

 Design Loads
Earthquake Loads (EQ) Epicenter

− Vertical and lateral forces

(dynamic)
− Building codes can simplify Seismic Forces at
Base of Building
loading

Hypocenter
 Design Loads
Flood Loads
– Lateral forces resulting from
static and dynamic water
pressure
– Building codes specify that
buildings be constructed above
the flood elevation or flood-
Courtesy FEMA

BFE (Base Flood Elevation) – The

proofed water surface elevation resulting from
• Design requirements dependent a flood with a 1% chance of equaling
on flood zone or exceeding that level in any given
year

Dry flood-proofing: Building must

be designed and constructed to be
watertight to floodwaters
 Design Loads
GRADE
Soil Pressure Loads
– Soil adjacent to a
structure will apply a
lateral force
– Magnitude increases BASEMENT
with depth

SOIL
 Load Types

Uniformly Distributed
Load

Concentrated Load
 Load Combinations
• A building will be subjected to many loads
simultaneously
• Codes specify combinations of loads that
must be considered in the design
• Examples Where D = Dead load
L = Live load
• D + L + (Lr or S or R) Lr = Roof live load
• D+L+W W = Wind load
S = Snow load
• D + L + S + E/1.4 E = Earthquake load
R = Rain load
 Design Loads
• The building dead load is the only known
load.
• All other forces will vary in magnitude,
duration, and location.
• The building is designed for design load
possibilities that may never occur.
 Load Path
• The path that a load travels HVAC
through the structural system
• “Tracing” or “chasing” the
loads
• Each structural element must
be designed for all loads that
pass through it
 Load Path
Every load applied to the building will travel through
the structural system until it is transferred to the
supporting soil.

APPLIED LOAD
 Structural Elements
• Within the structural systems, individual
structural elements must work together to
carry and transfer the applied loads to the
ground.
• Examples of structural elements include:
o Roof Decking o Beams
o Elevated Slabs o Girders
o Load Bearing Walls o Columns
o Connections o Footing
 “Load Chasing” for Structural Design

The structural design is performed by “chasing

the loads” of the dead and live load from slabs
to beams to girders, then on to the columns or
walls. The loads are then carried down to the
footing or foundation walls and finally to the
earth below.
 Girder

Beam

Column
Footing

Partial View of 2nd Floor Framing

For clarity the ground floor slab, 2nd floor slab, roof framing, and roof
deck are not shown.
 Beam

Design Area

Girder

Partial 2nd FLOOR FRAMING PLAN Girder

 Tributary Area 3’- 4” Half the distance
to each adjacent beam

Beam B.3
6’-8”
Tributary
Width

Partial 2nd FLOOR FRAMING PLAN

Tributary Area = Beam Span (length) x Tributary Width

 Beam B.3
6'-8''
Tributary
Width

Beam Uniform Load = Floor Loading (psf) x Tributary Width (ft)

 Beam B.3
6'-8''
Tributary
Width

Tributary Area = Beam Span (length) x Tributary Width

Tributary Area = (18 ft) ∙ (6.67 ft) = 120 ft2

 Calculating Beam Loading
Assume that the floor system must support its
own weight of 40 psf (dead load) and a live
load of 100 psf. What is the uniform load
applied to the beam?

Total Floor Load = 40 + 100 = 140psf

Uniform Load = Floor Load ∙ Tributary Width

 140 ftlb2  6.67 ft  934 plf
 Calculating Girder Loading
ExteriorG
irder

Beam

DESIGN AREA

Interior
Girder

Partial 2nd FLOOR FRAMING PLAN

 Calculating Column Loads
Calculating Column LoadsBeam

Girder
 Calculating Column Loads

1
2
(20 ft)  10 ft

Tributary Area = (18 ft)(20 ft) = 360 ft2

 Calculating Column Loads
Assume that the floor system must support its
own weight of 40 psf (dead load) and a live
load of 100 psf. What is the column load for
column B3?

Total Floor Load = 40 + 100 = 140psf

Column Load = Tributary Area ∙ Total Floor Load

 (360 ft 2 )(140 ft1b2 )  50,400 lb

 Loads and Load Paths
• Structural Design
• Design Loads
– Dead Load
– Live Load
– Snow Load
– Lateral Loads
• Load Types
• Load Combinations
• Load Path
• Calculating Beam Loads
Partial Roof FLOOR FRAMING PLAN
Dynamic loads
The other group of loads is the dynamic loads , and the following are types of such loads:

Wind load Blast load

Impact load Seismic load Flood load

 Environmental Loads
Environmental loads include wind load,
snow load, rain load, earthquake load, and
flood load.

42
 Wind load
• Bernoulli’s equation for stream flow is used to
determine local pressure at stagnation point,
considering air to be non-viscous &
incompressible.
q: pressure
q = (ρv2/2) ρ: mass density of air
v: velocity

• This pressure is called velocity pressure, dynamic pressure, stagnation pressure.

• This equation is based on steady flow.
• It does not account for dynamic effects of gusts or dynamic response of body.

43
 Wind load
• Resultant wind pressure on body depends upon
pattern of flow around it.
• Pressure vary from point to point on surface, which
depends on shape & size of body.
• Resultant wind pressure is expressed as:

PD = CDA(ρv2/2) PL= CLA(ρv2/2)

CD : Drag coefficient
CL : Lift coefficient

44
 Wind load
• For buildings bridges and the like pressure is
expressed in terms of Shape Factor CS (pressure
coefficient)

P = CSq = CS(ρv2/2)

•Air at 15C weighs 0.0765pcf

P=0.00256CSV2 V: mph

45
 Wind load
• Measured wind velocities are averages of fluctuating
velocities encountered during a finite time.
• In US average of velocities recorded during the time it
takes a horizontal column of air 1 mile long to pass a
fixed point.
• Fastest mile is highest velocity in 1 day.
• Annual extreme mile is the largest of the daily
maximums.

46
 Wind load
• Wind pressure to be used in design should be
based on a wind velocity having a specific mean
recurrence interval.
• The flow of air close to ground is slowed by surface
roughness, which depends on density, size and
height of buildings, trees, vegetation etc.
• Velocity at 33ft (UBC: Sec 1616) above ground is
used as the basic values for design purpose.

47
Wind load

48
 Wind load
• Shape factor varies considerably with proportion of
structure & horizontal angle of incidence of the wind.

• CS for windward face of flat roofed rectangular building is 0.9

• CS for negative pressure on rear face varies from -0.3 to -0.6
• For such building resultant pressure be determined by shape factor 1.2 to 1.5
• Commonly used is 1.3
• CS for Side walls -0.4 to –0.8
• CS for roof –0.5 to –0.8

49
 Wind load
• Wind forces on trussed structures e.g. bridges, transmission
towers, beam bridges, girder bridges etc. difficult to assess
because of leeward parts of structure.
• Recommended coefficients for walls of buildings, gabled roofs,
arched roofs, roofs over unenclosed structures(stadium),
chimneys, tanks, signs, transmission towers etc. are given in
ASCE 7-02
• Wind pressures specified by building codes include allowance
for gust and shape factors.

50
 Wind load
• Pressure acts on the windward face of the building
• Suction acts on the leeward face of the building
• Suction acts on the sides of the building so a person
standing in The window may be thrown outside
• Suction acts on the floor so that GI sheet floors are
blown away During strong wind storms

The revolving restaurant supported by a concrete column will

Experience suction which will cause tension in the column and as
Concrete is weak in tension so it may crack. As a result the lateral
Wind load may collapse the restaurant.

AASHTO specification for Bridge Truss

The pressure face is taken as a solid without openings
and suction on the leeward face is neglected (its still quiet
Conservative)

51
 Wind Pressure UBC 97
• Design Wind Pressure:
P  CeCqqsIw UBC (20-1)

Ce: combined height, exposure and gust factor (Table 16-G)

Cq (or Cs): Pressure coefficient for the structure or portion of
structure under consideration (Table 16-H)
qs : wind stagnation pressure at the standard height of
33ft (Table 16-F)
Iw: importance factor (Table 16-k)

52
Wind Load Example

53
 Wind Load Example
• Example: Calculate the wind pressure exerted by a wind
blowing at 100mph on the civil engineering department old
building.
Sol: According the formula given above:

P=0.00256CSV2 V: mph

For windward face: Cs = .8 inward (UBC97 Table 16-H)

For Leeward face: Cs = .5 outward (UBC97 Table 16-H)

• Pwindward = 20.48 psf

• Pleeward = 12.80 psf
• Ptotal = 33.28 psf
 Wind Load Example
• Alternate Method:

P  CeCqqsIw UBC (20-1)

• Ce = 0.76 ( For 30ft height & Exposure B, Table 16-G)

• Cq = 0.8 ( For windward wall, Table 16-H)

= 0.5 ( For leeward wall, Table 16-H)

• qs = 25.6 psf (For 100mph velocity, Table 16-F)

• Iw = 1.0 (According to occupancy category, Table16-K)

• Pwindward = 15.56 psf

• Pleeward = 9.73 psf

• Ptotal = 25.29 psf

55
 Earthquake Load
Earthquake Waves

• Earthquake loads are necessary to

consider in earthquake prone regions.
• Earthquake waves are of two types:
– Body waves
– Surface waves

• Body waves consists of P-waves & S-waves

• These waves cause the ground beneath the structure to move back and
forth and impart accelerations into the base of structure.
• Period and intensity of these acceleration pulses change rapidly & their
magnitude vary from small values to more than that of gravity.

56
 Earthquake Load
Earthquake Waves

Body waves reach the A linear increase in magnitude

buildings first, followed by of EQ causes approximately cubic
the more Dangerous increase in the corresponding
surface waves amount of energy released

Shallow EQ of depth, say, 15-20km are far more dangerous than

deep EQ of depth, say, 150-200km.

57
SEISMIC LOADS
Seismic loads on buildings are caused by movement in foundations . The acceleration of this
movement is very rapid and its value
is highly increased with height.
Estimate a similar
seismic zone between
Iraq and USA…
 Earthquake Load
Factors effecting earthquake response of structures
Structure response to an earthquake primarily depends upon:
• Mass
• stiffness
• natural period of vibration
• damping characteristics of structure
• location from epicenter
• topography & geological formation.

Natural Time period of structures

EQ generally have short periods which may match the natural

period of the low rise buildings, say 10 to 20 stories which causes
resonance results in serious damages. The possibility of
resonance for high rise buildings is low due to longer time periods.
61
Seismic load is applied as horizontal shear at the building base. The shear force is
proportional to the building weight (W) and calculated from :

V = Cs . W

Cs is the seismic response coefficient which is found from :

Cs = SDS / ( R/I)
R is the response modification factor , which is dependent on the type of structure and
can be found from the table below.
I is the importance factor ,which is dependent on the occupancy category and is taken
1.25 for building designed for more than 300 person and 1.0 for ordinary building.
Different types of failure are found in the same earthquake , because of different modes
of movement.
 Mean Return Period
The average Time Period (in years) based on geological and historical records
in which there is a good statistical probability that an earthquake of a certain
magnitude or a hurricane will recur is called Mean Return Period or
Recurrence Interval R.
Probability of Exceedence of the event in any one year is the inverse of the
Mean Return Period = 1/R

Probability that an event will be exceeded at least once in the n years is

Pn= 1-( 1-1/R)n

Considering 150mph with a return period of, say, 100years

is Reasonable as compared to 500mph with a return period of,
say, 1000 years.

64
 Mean Return Period
Example:- A structure expected to have a life of 50 years built in locality where mean
recurrence interval of an windstorm of 150mph is 95 yrs. The probability that
structure will encounter an windstorm exceeding 150mph during its life is?

P50=1-( 1-1/95)50
=1- 0.589
= 0.41 or 41%

There is 41 percent chances that the structure will be exposed to a windstorm

exceeding 150mph.

65
 Mean Return Period
Example:- A structure expected to have a life of 50 years built in locality where mean
recurrence interval of an earthquake of 0.4g is 95 yrs. The probability that structure
will encounter an earthquake exceeding 0.4g during its life is?

P50=1-( 1-1/95)50
=1- 0.589
= 0.41 or 41%

There is 41 percent chances that the structure will be exposed to an earthquake

exceeding 0.4g

66
 Mean Return Period
Uniform Building Code specifies that the earthquake for which a building has to be
designed should correspond to an earthquake with a return period of 475 years.
Assuming that a building has service life of 50 years. The probability that it will
experience and earthquake of mean return period 475 in its design life would be:

P50=1 - ( 1 - 1/475)50
=1- 0.90
= 0.01 or 10%

67
 Impact Load
• Spring Example
• It is customary to express Impact load as percentage
of static force.
• Effect of impact load is taken into account in
calculation of loads.
• If impact is 25 %, Live load is multiplied by 1.25
• According to AISC live load on hangers supporting
floor and balcony construction should be increased by
one-third for impact.

68
BLAST LOADS
Blast loads are an increase in atmosphere pressure which make buildings applied to
uniform pressure . Blast pressures increases with increasing TNT weight and vice versa
if the explosion distance is increased.
Example1
If a building is designed to
carry 0.5 psi overpressure
safely, evaluate the required
stand-off distance for small
cars.

Example2
Can the same building
withstand an explosion
of a truck carrying
10000 pounds of TNT
at a distance 1500
foots ?
Staged construction is a static modeling, analysis, and design
application which enables the definition of a sequence of
construction stages in which structural systems and load
patterns are added or removed, and time-dependent
behaviors are evaluated, including creep, shrinkage, aging
(change in elastic modulus with age), and tendon relaxation.
Material and geometric nonlinearity may be applied to staged
construction. Further, staged construction may be part of a
sequence of nonlinear static or direct-integration time-history
analysis load cases. For linear load cases, the structural
stiffness at a given construction stage may serve as the basis
for analysis.
Types of Boundary Elements
Selecting the proper boundary condition has an
important role in structural analysis. Effective
modeling of support conditions at bearings and
expansion joints requires a careful consideration of
continuity of each translational and rotational
component of displacement. For a static analysis, it is
common to use a simpler assumption of supports (i.e.
fixed, pinned, roller) without considering the soil/
foundation system stiffness. However for dynamic
analysis, representing the soil/foundation stiffness is
essential. In most cases choosing a [6×6] stiffness
matrix is adequate.
For specific projects, the nonlinear modeling of the
system can be achieved by using nonlinear
spring/damper.
Boundary Conditions

The boundary condition is the application of a force and/or constraint.

Concentrated load (at a point or single node)
Applying forces to single nodes may cause irritating effects, especially concentrated
loads (i.e. forces on a single node) impose high stress Applied to an infinitesimal small
area) one needs to ask whether real-life loading scenario is represented in the model?
Therefore, forces are commonly applied as distributed loads, namely
line loads, and surface loads which are “closer” to reality.
Force On Line Or Edge
In the above figure, a plate subjected to 10.000 N. The force is equally applied to all (11)
nodes at the model edge. Note that the forces at the corner will act only on ½ of the
element edge.

The figure above is a displacement contour plot. Note the red “hotspots” located in the
corners of the plate. The local displacement maximas are imposed by boundary effects (i.e.
the forces applied to the corner nodes act only on ½ of the element edge), however we
applied a constant magnitude along the plates edge.
In the example below, the plate is also subjected to 10.000 N. This time the
forces at the corners are just ½ the magnitude of the other applied forces.
The figure above is the displacement contour plot. The displacements are
more evenly distributed.
Traction (or “oblique” pressure)
Traction is a force acting on an area in any direction other than the normal direction. A
force acting normal to an area is known as pressure.
 Distributed load (Force varying as equation)

Distributed loads (varying with respects to the coordinates of the nodes or elements) can be
applied by means of an equation. In the displayed example, the magnitude of the applied
forces varies with respect to the nodal y-coordinate (i.e. the force is acting in negative z-
direction and increases along positive y-direction by a factor of 10 respectively).
Pressure and Vacuum

In the image above, a distributed load (pressure) is shown. The origin of the plate is
located at the highlighted node in the left upper corner.
How to apply a pressure with “variable” magnitude?
In the example above, the magnitude of the applied pressure depends on the x- and z-
direction of the elements centroid.
Bending moments
The convention for representing a force is a single
arrow (), pointed towards the direction of the force .
A moment is represented by a double arrow, where the
direction of the moment is decided by the right hand
rule.
The nodes along the plates edge are subjected to
moments. As a consequence, the nodes will tend to
rotate with respect to the y-axis (dof 5).
The moment applied to the nodes in the "gure above can also be modeled by adding rigid
elements (RBE2) to each node which are then subjected to corresponding forces. In this
example, the RBE2 would be oriented in the z-direction and subjected to a force acting in x-
direction as shown in the figures below.

While postprocessing the

results make sure that
the RBE2 results (i.e.
nodal position) are not
postprocessed (just
display the displacements
of the shell elements).
 Torque
What is torque? Are torque and bending moments different?
Torque is a bending moment applied parallel to the axis of a shaft (Mx).
Torque or Mx causes shear stresses and angular deformation, while the effect of the
other two moments (My , Mz) is the normal stress and longitudinal deformation.

How to decide the direction of torque (clockwise or anticlockwise)

It is based on the right hand rule. Point the thumb of your right hand towards the arrow
direction. The direction of your fingers indicate the direction of torque.
How to apply torque for solid elements (brick /tetra) :
As solid elements have no rotational stiffness at the grid points (only 3 translational
dofs), a common mistake is to apply torques and moments to the grid points of solid
elements directly.
The correct way to apply a moment to a solid model is to use an rigid-body element.
The rigid-body element distributes an applied moment into the solid element model
as forces.

Rigid element connection

A center node is connected to the outer edge nodes using a rigid element. The torque
is then applied at the center node.
Temperature loading
Suppose a metallic ruler is lying on the ground freely as shown in the figure below. If the
temperature of the room is increased to 50 degrees, would there be any stress in the ruler due
to temperature?
There will be no stress in the ruler. It will
just expand (thermal strain) due to the
higher temperature.
Stress is caused only when there is a
hindrance or resistance to deformation.
Consider another case, this time one end of the metallic object is fixed on a rigid wall
(non conductive material). Now if the temperature is increased, it will produce thermal
stress (at the fixed end) as shown below.

For thermal stress calculations, the input data needed is the temperature value on nodes,
the ambient temperature, thermal conductivity, and the coefficient of linear thermal
expansion.
Gravity loading
Specify direction of gravity and material density.
Symmetry
Condition for using any type of symmetry

Symmetric conditions could be used only when

both the following conditions are fulfilled.
1) Geometry is symmetric
2) Boundary conditions (forces and constraints) are
symmetric.

Advantages: Half, quarter or a portion of the

model could be used for analysis, resulting in fewer
dofs and computational cost.
Which dof must be constrained at the symmetry
level?

In the figure , the dark vertically oriented plane represents the plane of symmetry. The finite
elements nodes are colored gray, whereas possible nodal rotations are shown by means of
blue, green and red arrows. Nodal rotations with respect to the green and red axis/arrows
would “move/rotate” the node out of the plane of symmetry (just imagine the arrows
would be glued to the nodes).
Hence these degree of freedoms (dof) must be constrained. In contrast, nodal rotations with
respect to the blue axis/arrow are not needed to be constrained. As the nodes of solid
elements do only allow translational displacements, one just need to constrain any out of
symmetry plane motions.
 The figure is considered the full model.
The beam ends are constrained with
respect to any translational
displacements (dof 123). A vertical load
of 200 N is applied at its center.
If the symmetry plane is in the x-y plane
then the translational displacements in
its normal direction i.e. z-direction (dof
3) need to be constrained. On the other
hand, we don’t need to fix/delete
rotations with respect to z-axis as solid
elements do not allow nodal rotations.
Remember, the nodes at the symmetry
plane are not allowed to move (or
The figure above is considered
rotate) out of the plane of symmetry.
the half model . At the plane
of symmetry, the z-
displacements (dof 3) are
constrained. In addition, the
original force is divided by two
(as it acts only on half of the
structure).
Let us consider a symmetrical plate with a hole subjected to symmetrical loads on the two
opposing edges.

full plate model and serves as a

reference model

contour plot of the element stresses

(von Mises).
In the next step, a quarter segment of the plate is investigated. The
corresponding loads and constraints are depicted in the figure below.
Limitations: Symmetric boundary conditions should not be used for dynamic analysis
(natural frequency and modal superposition solver). A symmetric model (half or portion
of part) would miss some of the modes (anti nodes or out of phase modes) as shown
below:

Natural Frequency comparison for Full and Half symmetric model

 Design Manuals and Standards

• Technical standards which establish requirements for the

actual structural design.
(a) Type of Structure (b) Type of Material

Standard Specifications for Highway Manual of Steel Construction,

Bridges, American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC)
American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO)

Building Code Requirements for

Reinforced Concrete (ACI 318),
American Concrete Institute (ACI)
 Building Codes
• Account for influence of local conditions on building
construction (e.g., building codes specify minimum
design loads for structures)

International Building Code, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings

International Code Council (ICC) and Other Structures, ASCE/SEI 7-05
 Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and
Other Structures
American Society of Civil Engineers
Standards ASCE/SEI 7-10 - 2013
Provides requirements for general structural design
and includes means for determining dead, live, soil,
flood, snow, rain, atmospheric ice, earthquake, and
wind loads, as well as their combinations, which are
suitable for inclusion in building codes and other
documents.

The Standard contains new ultimate event wind maps

with corresponding reductions in load factors, so that
the loads are not affected, and updates the seismic
loads with new risk-targeted seismic maps.

In addition, the Standard includes a detailed

Commentary with explanatory and supplementary
information designed to assist building code
committees and regulatory authorities.
Golden Gate Bridge, San Francisco, CA, USA
On its 50th Anniversary in May 1987
A classic example of live loads overload
BS 6399-1:1996
Loading for buildings. Code of practice for dead and imposed loads
September 1996 Replaced By : BS EN 1991-1-1:2002, BS EN 1991-1-7:2006+A1:2014
BS EN 1991-1-1:2002
Eurocode 1. Actions on structures. General actions. Densities, self-weight, imposed loads
for buildings
BS EN 1991-1-7:2006+A1:2014
Eurocode 1. Actions on structures. General actions. Accidental actions
BS EN 1991-1-7:2006+A1:2014 covers accidental actions. It provides strategies and rules for
safeguarding buildings and other civil engineering works against identifiable and
unidentifiable accidental actions. This includes:
• Impact forces from vehicles, rail traffic, ships and helicopters
• Actions due to internal explosions
• Actions due to local failure from an unspecified cause
It is recommended that the three documents are used together:
BS EN 1991-1-7:2006+A1:2014 Eurocode 1. Actions on structures. General actions.
Accidental actions
NA+A1:2014 to BS EN 1991-1-7:2006+A1:2014 National Annex to Eurocode 1. Actions on
structures. Accidental actions

PD 6688-1-7:2009+A1:2014 Recommendations for the design of structures to BS EN 1991-

1-7
The International Code Council (ICC) was established in 1994 as a non-profit organization
dedicated to developing a single set of comprehensive and coordinated national model
construction codes. The founders of the ICC are Building Officials and Code Administrators
International, Inc. (BOCA), International Conference of Building Officials (ICBO), and Southern
Building Code Congress International, Inc. (SBCCI). Since the early part of the last century,
these non-profit organizations developed three separate sets of model codes used
throughout the United States. Although regional code development has been effective and
responsive to our country’s needs, the time came for a single set of codes. The nation’s three
model code groups responded by creating the International Code Council and by developing
codes without regional limitations; the International Codes.
 fib Model Code for Concrete Structures 2010
The International Federation for Structural Concrete (fib) is a pre-
normative organization. 'Pre-normative' implies pioneering work in
codification. This work has now been realized with the fib Model Code
2010. The objectives of the fib Model Code 2010 are to serve as a basis
for future codes for concrete structures, and present new
developments with regard to concrete structures, structural materials
and new ideas in order to achieve optimum behaviour.
The fib Model Code 2010 is now the most comprehensive code on
concrete structures, including their complete life cycle: conceptual
design, dimensioning, construction, conservation and dismantlement. It
is expected to become an important document for both national and
international code committees, practitioners and researchers.

CEB-FIP MODEL CODE 1990: DESIGN CODE

This document is a comprehensive design code for concrete. It is the result of a comprehensive
revision to the original model code of 1978, which was produced jointly by the Comit� Euro-
International du Beton (CEB) and the Federation International de la Pr�contrainte (FIP).

The original CEB-FIP Model Code of 1978 has had a considerable impact on the national design
codes in many countries. In particular, it has been used extensively for the harmonisation of
national design codes.
HISTORY OF STRUCTURAL EUROCODES

The idea to develop models for an international set of Codes for structural design for the
different materials used in construction and applicable to all kinds of structures was born in
1974 based on an agreement between several technical-scientific organisations.

In May 1990 the European Committee for Standardization (CEN) created a new Technical
Committee, CEN/TC 250 “Structural Eurocodes”. This Committee was given the mandate to
elaborate Codes of Practice within the following scope:

“Standardization of structural design rules for building and civil engineering works taking into
account the relationship between design rules and the assumptions to be made for materials,
execution and control.”

In the first step, the individual Codes and their relevant parts are published as European
prestandards (ENV). After a test period, their transposition into EN standards is planned.
Final publication will depend to a great extent on CEN internal methods of proceeding.
EUROCODE PROGRAMME
The following structural Eurocodes, each generally consisting of a number of parts, will be
released as ENs between 2000 and 2004. All exist at present as ENVs:
ENV 1990 Basis of Design
ENV 1991 Eurocode 1: Actions on structures
ENV 1992 Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures
ENV 1993 Eurocode 3 : Design of steel structures
ENV 1994 Eurocode 4 : Design of composite steel and concrete structures
ENV 1995 Eurocode 5 : Design of timber structures
ENV 1996 Eurocode 6 : Design of masonry structures
ENV 1997 Eurocode 7 : Geotechnical design
ENV 1998 Eurocode 8 : Design of structures for earthquake resistance
ENV 1999 Eurocode 9 : Design of aluminium structures
Co-existence between Eurocodes & National Codes
After a Eurocode becomes an EN, under CEN rules there will be a period of co-existence, with
the appropriate National Code (possibly five years) following which the National Code will
cease to be maintained.
INFORMATION ON EUROCODE 2

Eurocode 2 is for the design of buildings and civil engineering works in plain, reinforced and
prestressed concrete. It is concerned with the essential requirements for resistance,
serviceability and durability of concrete structures.

The work on EC2 started in 1979 and was originally based on the CEB/FIP Model Code 1978. A
first important step was the publication of a first draft for EC2 in 1984, issued in form of a
Technical Report. EC2 was issued in form of a European Pre-Standard ENV at the end of 1991.
The due date for EN status appears to be 2002/03 for Common rules for buildings, whilst
structural fire design extends to 2012. Part of EC 2 should become mandatory by 2008.
UNUSUAL DEFINITIONS

BS 8110 differ from EC2 in that they contain a considerable amount of material which
those drafting EC2 would have considered to belong more properly in a manual. E.g.
bending moment coefficients for beams and slabs, design charts, etc.

One area where the EC2 terminology differs is its use of the word ‘actions’. This is a logical
term used to describe all the things that can act on a structure. The definition states that it
includes ‘direct actions’ (loads) and ‘ indirect actions’ (imposed deformations).
Self weight and dead loads are permanent actions normally represented by a unique
value.

Superimposed loads are variable actions having different values depending on

combination value , rare load combination o, frequent value 1 , and quasi-permanent
value 2, found in EC1.

An accidental action normally has a unique value.

LOADING CODES FOR THE USE OF EC2 WITH THE UK NAD
BS 648 : 1964 Schedule of weights of building

materials
BS 6399 Loading for buildings
BS 6399: Part 1: 1984 Code of practice for

dead and imposed loads

BS 6399: Part 3: 1988 Code of practice for

imposed roof loads

CP 3 Code of basic data for the design of

buildings
CP 3: Chapter V Loading
CP 3: Chapter V: Part 2: 1972 Wind loads

The wind loading should be taken as 90% of the value obtained from CP3: Chapter V: Part
2: 1972