Nursery Management of Horticultural Crops

Introduction

The humid tropical climatic conditions of Andaman &

Nicobar Islands facilitate cultivation of wide range of tropical
horticultural crops. Since many years these crops dominated
the agricultural sector are presently considered as key compo-
nents for crop diversification. But their importance has in-
creased in recent years due to increased demand of quality
foods and their economic potential and suitability to the re-
gion. The erratic rainfall pattern and excessive humidity cre-
ated problems for efficient utilization of immense potential of
horticultural crops in Islands. In era of commercial and high
value agriculture, horticultural crops are front runners for bet-
terment of small and marginal farmers in the Islands. There-
fore, utilization of new scientific innovation and intervention
in horticultural sector is become imperative for sustainable
agricultural development of these fragile Islands.

Nursery is a place where plants are cultivated and grown

to usable size. The nursery management gained a status of com-
mercial venture where retailer nurseries sell planting materi-
als to the general public, wholesale nurseries which sell only
to other nurseries and to commercial landscape gardeners, and
private nurseries which supply the needs of institutions or
private estates.

Since most of the horticultural crops are propagated by

the nurseries, the document covers all the related aspects to
nursery for production of quality planting materials.

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Tool and equipments:

Conventional nursery :

Spade, khurpi, watering cane, fork, hoe, garden line,

roller, basket, sirki, polythyne sheet, sprayer, alkathene sheet,
nose-cane, duster, sticks, tags etc.

Hi-tech nursery:

Plug trays, perforated plastic trays, strip peat pots, nurs-

ery stand, sprinklers, protected structures, water pumping
motor, media mixture, rakers, temperature control devices,
humidity control devices, exhausters, media pressure, seed
dibbler, etc.

Location and Layout of Nursery

For selecting an area for establishing nursery it is worth-

while to consider the following points:

z Nursery should be raised in such place where no

water stagnation is experienced, and have good
drainage system.

z Land for nursery should be well drained and lo-

cated at on a high level.

z The soil for nursery should be sandy loam and nor-

mal in PH (around 6.5-7.0).

z The plot for nursery should be selected near to a

water source.

z Nursery plots should be chosen near the farm build-

ing, so that frequent supervision can be made easily.

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 z Nursery plots should be away from the shady
places.

z Nursery plots should be selected at one side of the

field to isolate the other fields for doing cultural
practices easily.

z Site should be safe from stray animals and exces-

sive diseases and pest attacks.
Suitable crops:
Raising nursery from seeds and other planting materi-
als is easy and convenient way for ensuring better germina-
tion and root development. The planting material of horticul-
tural crops is multiplied under nursery conditions with proper
care and management for raising healthy, vigorous and dis-
ease free seedlings.

In general, vegetable crops are divided into three groups

based on their relative ease for transplanting. Crops like Beet
root, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower, tomato
and lettuce are efficient in water absorption and rapidly from
new roots after transplanting.

Vegetable crops that are moderately easy for transplant-

ing are brinjal, onion, sweet pepper, chilli and celery which do
not absorb water as efficiently as crops that are easy to trans-
plant but they form new roots relatively quickly. The vegetable
crops which are difficult to transplant are cucurbits, sweet corn
which requires special care during nursery raising and trans-
planting.

Most of fruits and tree spices are slow growing and

multiplied in nursery for better seed germination and plant
survival. It becomes convenient to utilize various budding and
grafting tools under nursery conditions. Therefore, most of fruit

3
crops are multiplied and propagated under nursery conditions.
Besides, the shrubs and herbs of ornamental nature are multi-
plied under nursery conditions for their faster growth and
development.

Necessity of Nursery:

Seedlings not only reduces the crop span but also in-
creases the uniformity of the crop and thus, harvesting as com-
pared to direct sown crops. Transplanting of seedlings also
eliminates the need for thinning and provides good opportu-
nities for virus free vigorous and off-season nursery, if grown
under protected conditions.

z It is easy and convenient to manage seedlings un-

der small area.
z Effective and timely plant protection measures are
possible with minimal efforts.
z Nursery provide favourable climate to emerging
plants for their better growth and development.
z The effective utilization of unfavourable period by
preparing nursery under protected conditions.
z Effective input utilization for crop production by
reducing initial stage crop infestations and inter-
ferences.
z Seed cost of some crops like hybrid vegetables, or-
namental plants, spices and some fruits can be
economized through nursery.
z Nursery production help in maintaining effective
plant stand in shortest possible time through gap
fillings.

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Requisitions of Nursery Management

z Site for nursery should be selected at such places

where abundant sunshine and proper ventilation
is available.

z Nursery site should be on higher location so that

water stagnation is avoidable.

z In humid and rain prone areas nursery place should

be well protected from heavy rains through pro-
tected structures.

z The site should be nearer to irrigation facilities and

easily accessible.

z It should be protected from stray animals, snails,

rats etc.

z Soil should be sandy loam or loamy with PH range

of 6 to 7 and rich in organic matter and free from
pathogenic inoculums.

z After sowing the seed in nursery, cover the seeds

with mixture of well rotten compost + friable soil +
sand (2:1:1) and mulch with paddy straw /dried
leaves. Mulch is removed as and when seeds just
emerge above ground.

Soil Preparation

Nursery bed preparation is an important step in crop

management because it largely affects crop stand and its per-
formance at field level. Therefore, soil should be worked to a
fine tilth by repeated ploughing and spading. Dead plant parts
which are seem to be dwellers of pathogens and pests should
5
be collected, removed and burnt. Well decomposed organic
manure @ 40-50 kg/10sqm, should be mixed thoroughly in
the soil.

Soil treatment

Soil treatment is an essential step in a successful nurs-

ery management because it the base for seedlings stand, source
of nutrition and pathogens. In humid Islands damping-off
caused by soil borne fungi like Pythium, Rhizoctonia,
Phytophthora etc, is a common disease in the nursery beds.
Besides, pests like snails, cutworms and termite and mites are
also damages young seedlings.

There are various measures for soil treatment like soil

solarization, chemical treatment, biocontrol treatment etc. Soil
solarization can be done with transparent polythene of 25-100
mm thickness during the hot and dry periods. For this soil
should be moist before mulching because it increases latent
heat and thermal sensitivity for resting of soil borne patho-
gens, harmful pests and weeds which can be reduced to a sus-
tainable level. Chemical treatment of nursery beds can be done
by Formalin solution (1:100:: Farmaline: water) @ 5 lt/sqm. The
treated area should be covered with polythene sheets for 7-8
days and after that it should be remained open for next 7-10
days for facilitation of formalin emission. Besides, the nursery
beds and seeds can be treated with some fungicides like
Ceresan or Bavistin @ 2g/litre before sowing. The insect-pests
can be controlled by treating soil with Chlorpyriphos or Sewin
dust powder (20-25g/sqm) before sowing and or at the time
of nursery preparation. Presently a large number of bioagents
like Trichoderma, Pseudomonas and Bacillus formulations are
6
available for soil as well as seed treatment which performs as
antagonist to harmful microorganisms. Some of botanicals like
NSK, Neem cake, Karanj cake etc. also can be used for nursery
bed treatment.

Nursery bed preparation

Before sowing seeds the beds should be leveled and
pressed gently to make it firm. Nearly 15-20 cm raised beds of
45-50 cm width are always preferred for raising nursery. How-
ever, its length should be made according to the requirements
or size of plots but should not exceed 5-6 m. In between beds,
drains of about 30-45 cm width are prepared and connected to
the main drain for removal of excess water during heavy pour.

This space facilitates easy movement during intercultural

operations and acts as physical barrier for inoculums spread.
The drains are flooded during dry period to modify microcli-
mate of nursery beds in favour of seedlings.

In recent years various advancements have been made

in nursery management for bed preparation to avoid possi-
bilities of pathogen spread like use of soil less media, plug tray
technique, perforated poly trays etc.

Input management in nursery production

The rooting media and seed or planting materials are

important inputs for nursery production. The rooting media
should be having appropriate physical and chemical proper-
ties for better germination and root development. The media
should be with constant volume and free from living organ-
isms and firm enough to hold planting material properly.
Abundantly available rooting media are sand, coco peat, per-
lite, vermiculite, leaf mold, sphagnum moss, pumic, sawdust
and wood shavings etc.

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 Seeds are one of the least expensive but most important
factors influencing yield potential. Crop seeds contain all the
genetic information to determine yield potential, adaptation
to environmental conditions, and resistance to insect pests and
disease. One of a farmer's most critical management decisions
is the selection of seed source and variety. The cost of seed
stocks usually is less than 5 to 10 percent of total production
costs. Yet seed stocks can affect the yield potential of a crop
more than any other input factor.

Water Management:

Water is an important resource not only to nursery grow-

ers but to off-farm neighbours. By reducing water use, the pos-
sibility of leaching and loss of nutrients through surface run-
off decreases. Micro, Overhead and pulse irrigation method
are very means of watering larger nursery area. Microirrigation
applies small amounts of water to the root zone area only. It
also promotes compact root development which is important
for subsequent tree survival in the landscape. In container pro-
duction, drip irrigation is often not used because of difficul-
ties of working around and moving containers when drip lines
are present. Drip or trickle system, which uses 60%-70% less
water than overhead systems. Overhead irrigation is designed
to cover a large area, and these systems are the least expensive
to install. However, this method produces uneven water dis-
tribution, which can slow plant growth, encourage disease, and
contribute to runoff.

Pulse irrigation saves water in container production. Tra-

ditional irrigation comes from a long, single application of
water from an overhead sprinkler. In pulse irrigation water is
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applied for about 15 minutes, four or more times and a pause
of 30- 60 minutes occurs between applications. It reduces wa-
ter use by about 30% and also minimizes runoff from contain-
ers. During the pause, water fills the pores and wets hard-to-
wet components of the medium. The medium is saturated be-
fore excess drains from the pots.

Nutrient Management:
Nursery growers should test soils/media each year (mid-
summer to fall) to determine fertilizer/organic manure needs
for nursery beds for the following year. Usually in nursery beds
normal fertilizers like urea, Muraite of Potash and DAP are
applied. Timing of fertilization should be given in two spilt
i.e. basal and top dressing (after 10 days) by broadcasting or
foliar spray @ 0.5-2%. Immediate before transplanting, fertili-
zation should be avoided as it encourages diversion of plant
energy toward root development in nursery which has nega-
tive impact on seedlings during exposure for transplanting.
Common source of nutrients in nursery is FYM, compost,
vermicompost, leaf mold, cakes etc. Besides, primary nutri-
ents like nitrogen and phosphorus are essentially applied
through straight fertilizers as these play an important role in
root and shoot development.

Nutrient deficiency symptoms and their corrections

in plants
A. Older or lower leaves affected:

Nitrogen:

Plants light green light yellow, drying to light brown

colour, stalks short and slender if element is deficient in later
stages of growth. Applying recommended doses of N fertiliz-
ers. If the deficiency is observed during the growth phase, 1%
of urea can be used.

9
Phosphorus:

Plant dark green, often developing red and purple colour,

lower leaves sometime yellow; turning to greenish brown black
colour. Stunted shade plants but have stronger stems. Recom-
mended doses of P and foliar spray of 2% DAP or 1 % super
phosphate extract.

Magnesium:

Lower leaves mottled or chlorotic, without dead spots,

leaves may redden as with cotton, sometimes with dead spot
tips and margin turned or curved upwards, stalks slender. Soil
application of Domolite or Gypsum Salt MgSO4 or 7H2O de-
pending upon the deficiency and 0.5% of Gypsum salt as fo-
liar spray.

Potassium:

Spots of dead tissue small usually at tips and between

veins, more marked at margins of leaves, stalks slender. Stocky
appearance of stem with short internodes is also indicate po-
tassium deficiency. Its deficiency is usually not observed in
Indian soils but if occurs than foliar spray of K @1 % KCl or
1% K2SO4

Zinc:

Spots generalised, rapidly enlarging and generally in-

volving areas between veins eventually involving secondary
and even primary veins, leaves thick, stalks with shortened
inter nodes. Soil application of Zinc Sulphate at 12.5 - 25 kg/
ha and foliar spray @ 0.5% correct its deficiency.

10
B. New or bud leaves affected (symptoms localised)

Calcium:

Young leaves of terminal bud at first typically hooked,

finally dying back at tips and margins so that latter growth is
characterised by a cut out appearance at these points, stalks
finally die at terminal bud. Lime application depending upon
the pH and foliar spray of 1 % calcium nitrate (Fruit crops)

Boron:

Young leaves of terminal bud becoming light green at

bases, with final break down here; in later growth, leaves be-
come twisted, stalk finally dies back at terminal bud.

Copper:

Young leaves permanently wilted or marked chlorosis;

twig or stalk just below tip and seed head often unable to stand
erect in later stage when shortages are acute. Soil application
of Copper Sulphate at 10kg/ha and foliar spray of 0.5% CuSO4
Slender and weak stems with poor lignification spilling or
cracking on the barks

Manganese:

Sports of dead tissue scattered over the leaves smallest

veins tend to remain green producing a checkered or reticu-
lated effect. Soil application of Manganese sulphate at 25 kg/
ha and foliar spray of 0.2-0.4% MnS04

Sulphur:

Young leaves with veins and tissue between veins light

green in colour. It is applied with other fertilizers.

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Iron:

Young leaves chlorosis, principal veins green, stalks short

and slender, thin and erect stems. Soil application of Ferrous
sulphate at 50kg/ha and foliar spray of 0.5% Ferrous sulphate
(for calcerous soil, only foliar spray is recommended).

Weed management:

Weeds are plants unwanted at a place and time. There

presence in nursery increases competition with seedlings for
nutrient, water, light and CO2 results in lanky seedlings. Be-
sides, some weeds harbour pathogens and insects and also
produce allelopathic effect on crop plants. Therefore, weed
control is very essential requirement for successful nursery
production. It should be integrated, combining the use of me-
chanical, cultural and as necessary, chemical controls. The fol-
lowing methods control weeds in either a nursery field or con-
tainer crop:

z Select a weed-free field or media for nursery prepa-

ration.
z Control weeds in perimeter areas (i.e. fence rows
and windbreaks).
z To reduce weed seeds, properly store and compost
manure before applying to the soil.
z Use stallbed technique to avoid initial weed infes-
tation.
z Mow buffer strips to reduce seeds blown into irri-
gation ponds.
z Minimize run-off from weedy fields to ponds.

12
 z Pump irrigation water from deep in the pond to
avoid seeds on the water surface.
z Ensure weed-free material is planted.
z Do not move weeds between fields on equipment.
z Cultivate fields when seedlings are small.
z Use shallow tillage (2.5-5.0 cm) if herbicide has been
applied.

A mowed grass strip between nursery rows with a weed-

free strip at the base of the plants 0.5 to 1.0 metre wide can be
maintained by: hand hoeing, mechanical cultivation, mulch-
ing with various organic materials, or herbicide application.
Rodents often overwinter in mulch so, remove it from the base
of plants in the fall and consider appropriate traps. Weed con-
trol with container stock is more difficult than in the field be-
cause there are few effective registered herbicides. In container
stock, the following measures will help:

z By hand or manual weeding.

z Install a weed barrier of old polyethelene or

geotextile fabric under pots. This prevents weed
germination under the pots.
z Keep media components weed-free by covering out-
doors stored components.
z If planning to use field soil, ensure that it comes
from a source known to have few weeds and no
herbicide residues.
z Use weed discs in pots; these reusable barriers are
made of materials that allow water and air move-
ment while reducing seed germination.

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Disease Management:

In nursery beds usually fungal diseases like damping

off and foliar diseases like anthracnose, blight, leaf spot and
mildews are serious problems. Their control is possible only
through adopting an integrated approach of cultural, mechani-
cal, biological and chemical measures right from management
of seed source to final uprooting seedlings. Though all mea-
sures are difficult to apply but some of them should be fol-
lowed like:

Steam Sterilization:

Rooting media sterilisation is essential if it has been ex-

posed or previously used as it may contain undesirable micro-
organisms, insects, and weeds. Steam sterilisation is relatively
expensive but ecofriendly compared to chemical sterilisation

Soil Solarization:

In solar sterilisation, the soil is ploughed thoroughly and

covered with polythene sheet for few days depending on tem-
perature conditions.

Hot Water Treatment:

Nursery beds should be treated with hot/boiling water

before sowing seeds. It will kill most of pathogens and insect
and pests.

Biological Control

(Bacillus, Pseudomonas, and Streptomyces and fungi

such as Trichoderma reduces fungal plant pathogens)

14
Chemical Control:

If above measures are unable to manage the diseases than

chemicals like copper fungicides 0.2% or Bavistin 0.15% should
be sprayed for fungal diseases and Antibiotics like
Streptocycline should be sprayed for their management.

Pest management:

Because of the variety of plants in the nursery, insect

and disease control poses many challenges. Integrated pest
management (IPM) combines chemical, cultural and biologi-
cal control techniques to address pest problems. Good sanita-
tion and plant health reduce pest and disease problems. The
following procedures make up an effective IPM programme:

z Mapping the nursery by identifying plants which

are most susceptible to insects and disease prob-
lems. Note which species and cultivars are affected
first.

z Monitoring nursery at least once a week. Pay par-

ticular attention to sensitive species.

z Identifying pests and beneficial insects, noting life

cycle stages and population levels.

z Making a decision on appropriate control from col-

lected information.

Some selective insect traps are available but yellow sticky

traps can be used to identify pests. Insects should be controlled
at vulnerable stages of their life cycle. When a control is neces-
sary, spot spray permitted chemicals or botanicals only those
plants or species which are infested. Few biological controls
15
are available for use in the nursery but Bacillus thuringiensis
var. kurstaki has been effective against moths. Conserve and
promote beneficial insects by promoting their captive rearing
and releasing in protected area.

It is necessary to maintain vigorous, healthy plants by

using proper culture and management practices to provide
natural resistance to plants. Heavily insect infested or injured
plants should be destroyed as earliest possible. In nurseries
IPM should be plasticized to realize that all culture and man-
agement factors can affect pest population. New concepts like
planting scout plants for pests in border area and use soaps,
oils and botanicals whenever possible are appearing effective
tools for nursery production.

Temperature and humidity regulation:

In humid tropical climatic regions erratic rains create

excess moisture and relative humidity in nursery beds which
is congenial for various diseases and pests. Controlling rain-
fall in not in man's job but it can be managed with protected
structures. But conventional protected structures are not suit-
able for nursery production in humid tropical climatic condi-
tions because inside temperature is much higher than desired
level. The temperature can be controlled with three different
methods i.e. ventilation, shading and intermittent misting or
sprinkling.

Therefore, special structures are required for protection

of young and tender plants from heavy rainfall. So, the struc-
tures with proper ventilation from all side should be con-
structed for natural regulation of excess temperature and hu-

16
midity. It can be constructed with covering top with polythene
(200mm) and sides with shadenet material (30-50 percent) or
insect proof nets (45-55 mesh) materials. The inside tempera-
ture can be maintained with intermittent misting or sprinkling.
The timer and misting volume should be adjusted according
to prerecorded inside temperature, humidity, and air move-
ment. But, usually proper ventilation and partial shading are
commonly suggested approaches for temperature regulating
under humid Island conditions.

Fig.1: Components of nursery management

Modern Nursery Management

Nursery development has great scope for the enhanc-

ing production and profitability of horticultural crops in Bay
Islands because of erratic rainfall pattern, low availability of
quality seed material and high cost of seed material. The mod-
ern era of horticultural sector is known for effective utiliza-
tion of hi-twech interventions for different aspects. Hi-tech
interventions in nursery sector are technological advancements
which are capital intensive, minimally environment depen-
dent and having capacity to increase seed performance. Its
management is a technical and skill oriented jobs which re-
quire proper attention at different stages of growth and de-
velopment.

17
Components of Modern nursery:

a. Technological information:

Right information about nursery management at right

time to right person is basic requirement for its success. This
can be done with adopting on-farm and/or off-farm exten-
sion activities related to nursery production.

b. Training:

Nursery management is highly skilled and technical job

which requires proper attention and expertise of nurseryman.
Therefore, conducting trainings in form of technology pack-
age is better than split trainings. Besides, technologies and
knowledge related to nursery management can be dissemi-
nated through education/communication modules, print/
broadcast media. It can also be done by establishing techno-
demo projects for horticultural crops.

c. Programme Management:

Nursery production is a programme which requires

proper planning and monitoring for obtaining healthy seed-
ling and better crop stand. This can be performed by inter-
agency coordination and linkages with concerned stakehold-
ers.

d. Credit facility:

Nursery production for horticultural crops is capital in-

tensive intervention. Therefore, nursery growers should be
provided with sufficient amount of credit at right time for its
success. It can be provided from Government sponsored

18
schemes like National Horticultural Board, High Value Agri-
culture, National Horticulture Mission or institutions like Na-
tionalized Banks or Cooperatives.

e. Transplanting operations:

Seedlings are uprooted just before transplanting by irri-

gating beds to loose soil for better uprooting. Transplanted
should be in shady part of day probably in evening hours for
their better establishment and root development. Pre-trans-
planting treatments of seedling with urea or insecticide/fun-
gicide by dipping roots in solution is suggested for establish-
ment.

g. Hi-tech interventions:

Hi-tech interventions like protected cultivation,

micropropagation, microirrigation, fertigation, use of growth
regulators, canopy management, organic farming, and auto-
matic climatic controls measures etc. These interventions are
used for efficient utilization of inputs and increasing produc-
tion efficiency.

h. Marketing facility:

The commercialization of nursery production is possible

with efficient and organized marketing structure. This can be
promoted by encouraging participation in Agri-trade fairs, con-
ducting / assisting market linkage activities etc.

i. Seeds and planting material:

Seed/planting material should be of true-to-type with

crop/variety specific standards. The seed/planting material

19
should be collected from well recognized nurseries or institu-
tions like NSC, SSC and institute nurseries. If planting mate-
rial is imported in Islands than it should be with confirmation
of quarantine regulations.

Model Nursery Layout:

Nursery is the place where all kinds of plants like trees,
shrubs, climbers etc. are grown and kept for transporting or
for using them as stock plants for budding, grafting and other
method of propagation or for sale.

The modern nurseries also serve as an area where garden

tools, fertilizers are also offered for sale along with plant mate-
rial. The area for nursery d Models for nursery production are
prepared for effective utilization of inputs and to do things in
proper manner. Various location specific models are designed
by institutions for nursery establishment as per their require-
ments (Fig.2). But their some important components which
should be taken into care and provision should be made for
these during planning and layout preparation for nurseries:

1. Fence:

Prior to the establishment of a nursery, a good fence with

barbed wire must be erected all around the nursery to prevent
tress pass of animals and theft. The fence could be further
strengthened by planting a live hedge with thorny fruit plants
(like Koranda). This also adds beauty in bearing and also pro-
vides additional income through sale of fruits and seedlings
obtained from the seed.

2. Roads and paths:

A proper planning for roads and paths inside the nurs-

ery will not only add beauty, but also make the nursery opera-
tions easy and economical. This could be achieved by divid-

20
ing the nursery into different blocks and various sections. But
at the same time, the land should not be wasted by unneces-
sarily laying out of paths and roads. Each road/ path should
lead the customer to a point of interest in the nursery area.

3. Progeny block/Mother plant block:

The nursery should have a well-maintained progeny

block or mother plant block/scion bank planted with those
varieties in good demand. The grafts/layers/ rooted cuttings/
seedlings should be obtained preferably from the original
breeder /research institute from where it is released or from a
reputed nursery. One should remember that, the success of
any nursery largely depends upon the initial selection of prog-
eny plants or mother plants for further multiplication. Any
mistake made in this aspect will result in loss of the reputation
of the nursery. A well managed progeny block or mother plants
block will not only create confidence among the customers but
also reduces the cost of production and increases the success
rate of grafting/ budding/layering because of availability of
fresh scion material throughout the season within the nursery
itself and there will not be any lag period between separations
of scion and graftage.

4. Irrigation system:

Horticultural nursery plants require abundant supply

of water for irrigation, since they are grown In polybags or
pots with limited quantity of potting mixture. Hence sufficient
number of wells to yield sufficient quantity of irrigation water
is a must in nurseries. In areas with low water yields and fre-
quent power failures, a sump to hold sufficient quantity of

21
water to irrigate the nursery plants is also very much essential
along with appropriate pump for lifting the irrigation water.

In areas where electricity failure is a problem which is

more common, an alternate power supply (generator) is very
essential for smooth running of pumpset. Since water scarcity
is a limiting factor in most of the areas in the country a well
laid out PYC pipeline system will solve the problem to a greater
extent. An experienced agricultural engineer may be consulted
in this regard for layout of pipeline. This facilitates efficient
and economic distribution of irrigation water to various com-
ponents in the nursery.

5. Office cum stores:

An office-cum-stores is needed for effective management

of the nursery. The office building may be constructed in a
place which offers better supervision and also to receive cus-
tomers. The office building may be decorated with attractive
photographs of fruit ornamental varieties propagated in the
nursery with details of it. A store room of suitable size is needed
for storing polybags, tools and implements, packaging mate-
rial, labels, pesticides, fertilizers etc.

6. Seed beds:

In a nursery, this component is essential to raise the seed-

lings and rootstocks. These are to be laid out near the water
source, since they require frequent watering and irrigation.
Beds of 1-meter width of any convenient length are to be made.
A working area of 60cm between the beds is necessary. This
facilitates ease in sowing of seeds, weeding, watering, spray-
ing and lifting of seedlings. Irrigation channels are to be laid
out conveniently.

22
 Alternatively, sprinkler irrigation system may be pro-
vided for watering the beds, which offers uniform germina-
tion and seedling growth.
7. Nursery beds:
Rising of seedlings / rootstocks in polybags requires
more space compared to nursery beds but mortality is greatly
reduced along with uniformity. Nursery beds area should also
have a provision to keep the grafted plants either in trenches
of 30cm deep and 1 m wide so as to accommodate 500 grafts /
layers in each bed. Alternatively, the grafts/ layers can be ar-
ranged on the ground in beds of 1 m wide with 60cm working
place in between the beds. Such beds can be irrigated either
with a rose fitted to a flexible hosepipe or by overhead micro
sprinklers.
8. Potting mixture and potting yard:
For better success of nursery plants, a good potting mix-
ture is necessary. The potting mixtures for different purposes
can be prepared by mixing fertile red soil, well rotten FYM,
leaf mold, oil cakes etc. in different proportions. The potting
mixture may be prepared well in advance by adding sufficient
quantity of superphosphate for better decomposition and solu-
bilization. The potting mixture may be kept near the potting
yard, where potting/pocketing is done. Construction of a pot-
ting yard of suitable size facilitates potting of seedlings or graft-
ing/ budding operations even on a rainy day.
9. Structures for nursery
i Shade houses:
Shade houses in nurseries in tropical and sub-tropical regions
offer many advantages like raising of seedlings in bags directly,
protecting the grafts from hot summer months, effective irri-
gation through upside down overhead microsprinklers. The
shade houses made with shade nets (50% or 75%) for regula-
23
tion of shade are particularly very useful in arid regions where
the humidity is very low during summer months. The details
of shadenets use is given in the chapter of polyhouses.
ii. Green houses/Polyhouses :
Grafting or budding of several fruit species under polyhouses
or low cost green houses with natural ventilation will enhance
the percentage of graft/bud take besides faster growth of grafts
due to favourable micro climatic conditions of polyhouse. In
green house construction, a wood or metal frame work is built
to which wood or metal sash bars are fixed to support panes
of glass embedded in putty. In all polyhouses/ green houses
means of providing air movement and air exchange is neces-
sary to aid in controlling temperature and humidity. It is best,
if possible to have in the green house heating and self opening
ventilators and evaporative cooling systems.
Plastic covered green houses tend to be much lighter than glass
covered ones with a build up of excessive high humidity.
a) Polythene film:
This is the most inexpensive covering material but it is the short
lasting one. However, UV ray resisting polyethylene film of
various thickness is usually recommended which lasts longer.
b) PVC film:
This material is pliable and comes in various thickness and
widths upto 6 ft. It is longer lasting than polythene and is more
expensive PVC surface of film tends to collect dust and lower
the light intensity in due course of time.
c) Polyester film:
This is a strong material with excellent weathering properties
lasting for 3-5 years and is unaffected by extremes of heat or
cold though it is costly than polythene film/PVC film.

24
d) Fiberglass:
Rigid panels, corrugated or flat fiber glass sheets embedded in
plastic are widely used for green house construction. Fibre glass
is strong, long lasting, light weight and easily applied which is
coming in a variety of widths, lengths and thickness. It is cost-
lier than poly thin film/pvc film.
iii. Hotbeds:
The hot bed is often used for the same purpose as a green house
but in a smaller scale. Amateur operations and seedlings can
be started and leafy cuttings root early in the season in such
structures. Heat is provided artificially below the propagating
medium by electric heating cables, pot water, steam pipes or
hot air blows. As in the green house, in the hot beds attention
must be paid for shading and ventilation as well as tempera-
ture and humidity control.
iv. Lathhouses:
These structures are very useful in providing protection from the
sun for container grown nursery stock in areas of high summer
temperatures and high light intensity. Well established plants also
can require lath house protection including shade loving plants
Lathhouses construction varies widely depending on the mate-
rial used. Aluminium pre-fabricated lathhouses are available but
may be more costly than wood structures. Shade is provided by
appropriate structures and use of shade nets of different densi-
ties allows various intensities of light in the lathhouses.
Miscellaneous propagating structures
i. Mist beds:
These are valuable propagating units both in the green house
and out doors and are useful mainly in rooting of leafy cuttings.
ii. Mist chamber:
This is a structure used to propagate soft wood cuttings, diffi-

25
cult to root plants and shrubs. Here the principle is to spray
the cuttings with a minimum quantity of water. This is
achieved by providing the cuttings a series of intermittent
sprayings rather than a continuous spray. The intermittent
spraying can be done easily by means of a high pressure pump
and a time switch. The pump leads to a pipeline system inside
the propagating structure. The mist nozzles are fitted to these
pipelines and suitably spaced over the propagating material.
iii.Nursery bed:
These are raised beds or boxes made of brick and mortar, pro-
vided with drainage holes at the bottom. The dimensions of
the boxes are 60 cm high, 120 cm broad and length as required
preferably not exceeding 10 m. Roof structures for planting on
both sides and forming ridges at the centre are constructed on
the top of the nursery beds. These structures may be made
permanent with angle iron or may be made of wood. Move-
able bamboo mats, palm leaf mats are placed over these struc-
tures to protect the seedlin"g from hot sun and heavy rains.
Even shade roofing can be used for this purpose for raising
see dings.
iv. Fluorescent light boxes:
Young plants of many species grow satisfactorily under artifi-
cial light from fluorescent lamp units. Although adequate
growth of many plant species may be obtained under fluores-
cent lamps but not up to the mark compared to good green
house conditions.
v. Propagating cases:
Even in green house, humidity conditions are often not suffi-
ciently high for rooting. The use of enclosed frames or cases
covered with glass or plastic materials may be necessary for suc-
cessful rooting. In using such structures, care is necessary to
avoid the build up of disease organisms due to high humidity.

26
Fig.2: Layout of a model ornamental Nursery (By IIHR, Bangalore)

Protected structures
C= Perennial Legume; X= Passion fruit; N=Neem
Fig.3: Proposed layout of commercial nursery for horticulture crops
(CARI, Port Blair)

27
Developments in Nursery production:

Some of the important developments made by Indian

institutions in nursery sector are mentioned here under. These
approaches can be tested under Island conditions for devel-
opment of nursery sector of horticultural crops.

Low cost poly-house technology to raise off-season nurser-

ies of cucurbits and solanaceous vegetables for higher profit
(IARI, New Delhi)

Poly-house is a zero-energy chamber of polythene sheet

(200 gauge) supported on bamboo with sutli and nails, the size
of which depends on the requirement and availability of space.
The sun rays raise the temperature inside the poly-house by 6-
100C through transparent polythene sheet which makes the
environment inside poly-house congenial in December and
January for growing nursery of solanaceous and
cucurbitaceous vegetables for early planting in the open field
during first week of February, when chances of frost are over.
By this technology, the harvesting can be advanced by one to
one and a half months and farmers can get the bonus price by
catching the early market in spring-summer season.

Use of insect proof nylon nets for quality vegetable seedling

production (IIHR, Bangalore)

Leaf curl is a serious viral disease in tomato especially

during hot/summer months. The virus spreads through a vec-
tor- whitefly. To control whitefly feeding on growing seed-
lings in nursery area, a 40-mesh nylon net is used to cover the
nursery area. Thus viral infection is avoided till transplanting
of seedlings in the main field. Viral diseases in chili and capsi-

28
cums like chilly mosaic and leaf curl can also be controlled
during nursery stage by providing nylon net coverage. This
technology can also be used, with 40 mesh nylon nets, to con-
trol Spotted Wilt Virus of watermelon transmitted by thrips.
The technology involves:

Twelve raised beds of 1.2m x 7.5m dimensions are to be

prepared for getting the seedlings for one hectare area of main
field (for tomato). Later the seeds started to germinate in the
beds, 50 mesh nylon nets have to be covered over the beds.
Nylon nets have to be stitched in the dimension of 1.2m width,
8.0m in length and 1.5m in height resulting in a box shape. For
support of the net, Casuarinas or bamboo pads have to be used.
While stitching a net, provision for entry in to the net have to
be made. This entry point should be closable either with straps
or clips, so that entire structure becomes insect proof. The bot-
tom edge of the net have to be buried the soil. A non-walk in
type net coverings can also be prepared with 1-2 feet height
net covering. A movable support system can also be prepared
with ¾" GI pipe or a-iron.

Nursery under shade net:

The Nursery is fully covered with nets, plastic paper,

raised nursery beds, covered with mulching paper. The Ger-
mination trays are filled with coconut fiber mulched fertile
organic manure. The Hybrid seed is shown in the trays and
will be regularly watered and sprayed with pesticides as and
when required. Due to the covering of nursery with shade nets
and paper, the incidence of virus can be minimized, which
can cause major damage to the vegetable crops.

29
 Conclusion

The nursery is the place for rearing and multiplying

plants with minimal damage and maximum success. It need
in present era of high value agriculture has increased to a great
extent because it only approach for effective and efficient
utilization of inputs at initial phase of crop plants. Hi-tech
interventions like protected structures, mircoirrigation, plant
growth regulators, soilless media, automatic control devices,
robotics etc have made nursery industry a viable venture. Best
management practices for nursery production address
concerns about soil conservation, pesticide use and water
conservation and protection. But still it is facing a number of
challenges in an effort to produce high-quality nursery stocks
particularly in geographically isolated Islands where timely
input supply is great challenge. However, proper planning and
monitoring have solution for such problems. For this, various
engaged agencies like Department of Agriculture, Central
Agricultural Research Institute, Self Help Groups, and Farmers
needs to work in proper coordination. Thus, nursery sector
have many solutions for horticultural problems of these Islands
but need proper care and attention.

30
Hi tech nursery for plantation and spice crops
The Andaman and Nicobar islands come under the hu-
mid tropics with average rainfall of about 3000 mm annually.
About 86% of the total geographical area is under forest cover.
Out of the total geographical area of 82, 49,000 ha, only 6% i.e.,
around 50,000 ha prior to tsunami was under agriculture
whereas at present only about 46000 ha is under Agriculture.
In fact the agro climatic conditions of these islands are very
much congenial for cultivation of plantation, horticulture and
spices crops. The distribution of agricultural land under dif-
ferent crops are given in table-1

Table 1 Distribution of agriculture land various crops and

production (2005-06)

CROP AREA(HA) PRODUCTION (M/T)

Paddy 7658.47 17255.36

Pulses 430.05 279.85
Oilseeds 53.55 34.20
Vegetables 3668.90 19917.98
Roots crops 1308.44 8845.40
Coconut 20927.02 78.46(in million nut)
Arecanut 4046.44 3058.46
Fruits 2925.20 18564.96
Rubber 1500.0 -
Red oil palm 1593.0 -
Cashew nut 568.50 86.02
Pepper 697.45 36.05

31
 Clove 199.61 7.84
Nutmeg 82.62 870000 nos
Cinnamon 152.59 18.03
Ginger 517.30 1019.12
Chilli 387.7 877.6
Turmeric 91.7 102.28

Coconut and arecanut is the major plantation crop of

Andaman & Nicobar Islands and has been associated with
socio cultural facts of people of these islands. Topography of
these islands are characterized by hilly and mountain terrain
coupled with heavy rainfall and undulating nature of soil,
which are ideally suitable for growing coconut and arecanut.

COCONUT
The coconut palm, Cocos nucifera L., is one of the im-
portant and useful palm in the world. It provides a variety of
useful products like food, fuel and timber. Since every part of
the tree is being utilized in one or other way and hence it is
called the "tree of heaven"-the tree that provide all the necessi-
ties of life. Coconut is grown in more than 93 countries in the
world. Asia and Pacific countries share is about 80% of the
area and production. India ranks third in the world, with an
area of about 1,935 thousand hectares with a production of
12,832.9 million nuts. The productivity is 6,632 nuts per ha
(2004-05)
Though the agro- bio diversity of coconut is unique in
these islands, the production and productivity is very poor and
stagnating since last two decades. In Andaman and Nicobar
Islands coconut is grown in an area of about 25,600 ha with a

32
production of 87.10 million nuts annually with the productiv-
ity of 3402 nuts per hectare. The average yield of the palm in
the islands are very low (20 nuts/ palm/ year) as compared to
the national average of 44 nuts/ palm/ year prior tsunami
while at present the area under coconut has declined to
20927.02 ha with a production of 78.46 million nuts. The ma-
jor reasons for the low yield of coconut is due to

a) Poor genetic makeup and unselected seedling popu-

lations of existing plantation.

b) Overcrowding / dense planting (400 - 500 palms /

ha)

c) Planting on hill slopes having shallow / eroded soil.

d) Inadequate plant protection measures.

e) Inadequate soil and nutrient management.

f) Inadequate knowledge and poor adoption of tech-

nologies

Planting of high yielding varieties and adopting mod-

ern production technologies can increase the productivity.

Soil and Climate

The coconut palm is found to grow under varying climatic

and soil conditions. The average temperature in the range of
27o-32oC is optimum for a good crop. Heavy and wide spread
rainfall ranging from 1000 to 3000 mm is required by the palm.
It can be grown on wide range of soil, however deltaic alluvial
soil and red sandy loam soil is ideal for its growth. Well-drained
soil, rich in organic matter is highly suitable. Coastal sandy
and reclaimed soils with a pH ranging from 5.2 to 8.0 are also

33
suitable. The palms on the sea coast benefit from the humid
climate which is less subject to wide fluctuation of tempera-
ture. They are also benefited by the better supplies of sub soil
moisture due to continuous seepage of fresh water from the
higher inland areas to the sea.

Varieties of Coconut

Coconut can be broadly classified into two varieties

based on stature as the talls and the dwarfs.

Tall palms

Tall palms grow to a height of more than 20 m and flow-

ering starts after 6-7 year of planting. The talls are long-lived
and may attain an age of 80-100 years. The fruits are medium
to large in size and copra content is usually above 150g per nut
and oil content varies from 66 to 70 percent.

Recommended tall varieties are:

1) Andaman Ordinary tall

2) Andaman Giant.
3) Katchal tall

Recommended dwarf cultivars are

1) Andaman orange dwarf

2) Andaman yellow dwarf
3) Andaman green dwarf
4) Niu lekha dwarf (exotic variety)

34
Production of planting material

Selection of seed nuts and seedlings plays an important

role in coconut as the performance can be evaluated only sev-
eral years after planting. If seedlings happen to be of poor qual-
ity, the new plantation will prove to be uneconomic, causing
considerable loss of time and money to the grower.

Criteria for selection of mother palms

™ Select palms having straight stout trunk with even

growth and closely spaced leaf scars.
™ Select palms having circular or semi-circular crown
shape with short fronds.
™ Palms must have a minimum of 30 leaves in the
crown. A higher rate of leaf production is reliable
indication of early flowering and high yield.
™ Short and stout bunch stalks without the tendency
to drooping
™ Select palms, which produces more than 12 bunches
in a year with more number of female flowers (25
or more) and highest setting percentage.
™ The age of the mother palm should be of 25-60 years
for tall variety and 15-25 years for dwarf variety.
Avoid very old palms of above 60 years age.
™ Palm must be regular bearer with annual yield of
more than 80 nuts and copra content not less than
150 g/nut.
™ Palms must have reach full bearing stage and have
been providing consistently high yield for at least
five years.

35
 ™ Select the palms, which are free from pest and dis-
ease incidence.
™ Do not select palms growing near the houses, cattle
shed, compost pits etc as it is not possible to differ-
entiate inherently superior palms from those whose
performance is due to favorable environment.
™ Avoid palms producing excessive barren nuts or
shedding large number of immature nuts.
Criteria for selection of seed nuts
‹ Select fully matured nuts i.e. about 12-month-old
nuts should be harvested.
‹ Collect seed nuts from January to May from the se-
lected mother palms.
‹ Select nuts from heavy bunch (> 12 nuts) which ger-
minate much quicker than those from light bunch
(< 6 nuts).
‹ Select medium size nuts of round or spherical shape
having a husked nut weight of at least 680 grams
‹ Do not select nuts having irregular shape and size.
‹ Rope harvest of seed nuts from the trees that are
very tall and in places where the ground is hard.
‹ Select the nuts from the center of the bunch.
‹ Harvested seed nuts are stored in shade to prevent
drying of nut water. The seed nuts are generally
stored till their husks become completely dry. Seed
nuts of the tall variety can be stored for two months
whereas the seed nuts of dwarfs should be sown
with 15 days of harvest.

36
Raising nursery

Select well-drained, coarse-textured soil near water

source for irrigation. Soil may be treated with chlordane 5%
dust @ 120 kg/ha in place where nursery is raised for the first
time to prevent white grubs and termites infestation. Nursery
can be raised in the open place with artificial shade or in gar-
dens where the palms are tall and the ground is not completely
shaded.

The seed nuts should be planted in long and narrow beds

at a spacing of 40 x 30 cm during May- June either vertically or
horizontally in 20-25 cm deep trenches. Irrigate the nursery
once in 3 or 4 days during summer. In areas having high inci-
dence of insect pests and diseases, the seeds can also be treated
with insecticides/pesticides prior to sowing. The seed nuts are
soaked in water for one hour and then kept in a fungicidal
solution (Mancozeb @ 3%) for two hours. In the case of insec-
ticide treatment, the seed nuts are soaked in water for one hour
and then kept in an insecticide solution (Chlorpyriphos @
0.05%) for two hours. To prevent bud rot/dry rot in the seed-
lings, the nursery can be drenched with Mancozeb @ 3%.

Poly bag nursery

Poly bag nursery can be adopted for producing seed-

lings with greater vigour. As a result of the intensive care and
better maintenance of the polybag nursery, vigourous seed-
lings with better root system are obtained, which attain rapid
reproductive development. Compared to the nursery in the
field, watering, weeding and culling operations for the elimi-
nation of unwanted seedlings are easier in poly bag nursery.

37
The seeds can be sown in black polythene bags of 500- gauge
thickness, 45 x 45 cm size for bigger nuts and 30 x 30 cm for
smaller nuts. The bottom of the bags is to be provided with 8-
10 holes for draining the excess water. To fill bigger bags
around 10-12 kg and for smaller bags around 7-8 kg of potting
mixture will be required. The commonly recommended pot-
ting media are top soil mixed with sand in 3:1 ratio or fertile
top soil, sand or coir dust and well rotten and powdered cattle
manure in the ratio of 3: 1: 1. red earth, well rotten and pow-
dered cattle manure and sand in 1: 1 : 1 can also be used. In
order to produce poly bag seedlings, initially the seed nuts are
sown very closely and allowed to germinate in a pre nursery
bed. The seed nuts start germinating about three months after
sowing. The germinated nuts are picked out from nursery once
a week till 80 % of nut germination or 5 months from sowing,
whichever is earlier. The germinated nuts are then placed in
the half filled bags with the sprout positioned upwards in the
centre of the bag and sufficient potting mixture is added to fill
the bags up to two-third portion and the sides slightly pressed
to keep the nut firm. Usually the poly bag seedlings are main-
tained for about 8 to 10 months. The size of the poly bag nurs-
ery bed can be 6 x 3 m with about 115 cm spacing between
beds for hose irrigation and other cultural operations.

Germination percentage

The seeds can be sown in sand/potting

mixture.Germination generally starts from the second month
of sowing and continues till the sixth month of sowing, de-
pending on the variety. Generally, germination is recorded till
the fifth month of sowing and good seed lot will give more

38
than 80% germination. However, in the case of Dwarf variet-
ies such as the Chowghat Orange Dwarf a lower percentage of
germination of around 65% is acceptable.

Seed nuts of tall palms will begin germination within

90-130 days after sowing and 80-85% of seed nuts must have
germinated within five months after sowing. Seed nuts of
dwarf palms germinate 60-95 days after sowing

Criteria for selection of seedling in the nursery

a Select seedlings, which have germinated early, i.e.

germination within 3 months after sowing, are suit-
able for planting and it is advisable to reject all the
sprouts which germinated after 5 months of sow-
ing.
a From one-year-old nursery, select vigorous seed-
lings having minimum of six leaves and girth of 10
cm at the collar.
a Select seedlings which have early splitted the
unexpanded leaf into leaf lets.
a Select only healthy seedlings free from pest and dis-
ease.

Establishment of a plantation
Planting systems

Mostly coconuts are planted in square system of plant-

ing with a spacing of 7.5 m x 7.5m. This will accommodate 177
palms per ha. Pits of 1.0 x 1.0 x 1.0m size are dug out and filled
with topsoil, powdered cow dung up to 60 cm depth during
summer season and seedlings are planted in the pits with the
onset of monsoon. In water-logged soils, mounds are made

39
and seedlings are planted in the center of the mound.

Time of planting

Planting is generally done during the beginning of mon-

soon season. i.e., from June to September. In areas subject to
water logged condition planting can be done after the cessa-
tion of the monsoon.

Care of young palms

Sufficient attention and care must be taken to the young

palms in the initial growth period. The seedlings must be prop-
erly shaded during summer. Irrigation with 45 litres of water
once in 4 days must be provided during summer months. The
pits should be cleared of weeds periodically.

ARECANUT
Arecanut palm (Areca catechu L.) is another important
plantation crops of India. The crop occupies a prominent place
among the cultivated crops in India especially in the states of
Karnataka, Assam, Kerala, Maharashtra, Goa, Tamil Nadu,
Meghalaya and Andaman & Nicobar group of Islands. India
is the largest producer and consumer of arecanut and it con-
tinues to dominate world in area under cultivation and pro-
duction and productivity. In A&N Islands in an area of 4046.44
hecatares with a production of 3058.46 tonnes.

Climate and Soil

Arecanut requires abundant and well distributed rain-
fall. It can be grown upto 1000m altitude in deep and well
drained soils without high water table. Laterite, redlloam and
alluvial soils are most suited.
40
Varieties
Variety Growth Shape Yield-Chali Recommended
habit & Size (kg/palm) for
of nut
Mangala semi Round, 3.0 Costal Karnataka
Talll Small islands and Kerala
early
Sumangala Tall Oval, 3.28 Karnataka, Kerela
Medium
Sreemangala Tall Round 3.18 Karnataka and
Bold Kerala
Mohitnagar Tall Oval to 3.67 West Bengal,
Round, Karnataka,
Medium Kerala
Samrudhi Tall Oval to 4.34 Andaman &
Round Nicobar islands
Bold

Method of Propagation

Arecanut is an exclusively seed propagated crop. Being

a perennial and cross pollinated, it is essential that adequate
care is taken in the selection of proper planting material.

Method of seed production

Open pollinated nuts can be collected from the compact

blocks established by inter se material of respective varieties.
Inter se mating is recommended in order to produce geneti-
cally superior pure planting materials and also to achieve
greater homogeneity and allow completely random mating.
Crossing is suggested to produce hybrids between desired
parents. Selection of typical hybrid seedlings in the nursery is
must.

41
Mother palm selection

The selected mother palm should be more than 12 years

old with early bearing nature and with high fruit set. Palm
should be regular bearer and consistent yielder. Presence of
more number of leaves on crown is also a desirable trait and
palms should be free from diseases and pest incidences.

Seed propagation

Fully ripened nuts having weight of above 35 g should

be selected depending upon the varieties/cultivars. The nuts
selected should float vertically with calyx-end pointing
upwards when allowed to float on water. These nuts produce
the seedlings of greater vigour. The germination should be
more than 80 %.

Method of seedling production

Primary nursery

Selected seed nuts are sown 5cm apart in sand beds of

1.5m width and convenient length with their stalk ends point-
ing upwards. Thick mulching is to be done with straw. Beds
are to be watered daily. The nuts usually commence germina-
tion by 43 days and complete by 94 days. The seedlings are
retained in primary nursery for about six months.

Secondary nursery

For raising the seedlings in secondary nursery, beds of

about 150cm width and 15 cm height is suitable. A spacing of
30-45 cm is considered optimum for planting three month old
sprouts in secondary nursery. The secondary nursery should

42
be given a basal dose of decomposed farmyard manure @ about
5 tonnes per ha. The sprouts from primary nursery can also be
raised in polythene bags (25 x 15 cm, 150 gauge) filled with
potting mixture (Top soil:FYM:sand=7:3:2). The nursery should
be partially shaded for obtaining the quality seedlings.

Standards of the planting material

The seedlings selected should have maximum number of

leaves (five or more) and minimum of 90 cm height with maxi-
mum girth at collar region. 12 to 18 month old seedlings are
preferred for transplanting to obtain more vigorous palms with
early flowering. The seedling should have well established root
system with 5-8 main fibrous roots intact and active while trans-
planting.

Planting time

Planting should be done in May-June in well drained

soild, and August-September in clay soils prone to water log-
ging. May-June planting should be preferred in North-East.

Diseases and pest incidences

The major diseases noticed in the nursery or the trans-

planted seedlings are collar rot, leaf blight and leaf spot.

Collar rot

This is common in secondary nurseries and field planted

seedlings. Infection by the pathogen is through collar region
or root. Infection through collar region cause rotting of the
growing bud while root infection leads to seedling wilt. Pro-
viding good drainage and soil drenching with I % Bordeaux
mixture will reduce the incidence.

43
SPICES

The major spices grown in these islands are black pepper,

cinnamon, nutmeg and clove. Besides the chilly, ginger and
turmeric are also cultivated. Spices are mainly grown under
multistoried cropping system. The average yield of spices is
low in comparison to mainland due to lack of proven
technology under these islands situation. Previously planting
materials of spices crop were imported from mainland (Kerala)
which costs more.

More constraints in spices production

z In Nicobar District major area under coconut

plantation. Though there is great scope for spices
cultivation but tribals are reluctant to take up spices
cultivation.

z Lack of quality planting material in appropriate

time.

z In nutmeg, identification of female plants is difficult

in early stages by farmers, as a result farmers suffer
a lot. By the time plants attain maturity, there is
possibility of more male plants.

z The season for harvest of ginger in these islands is

January/ February and planting season is May/ is
June which results in heavy losses due to decay.
There is no processing unit and marketing facility
for ginger and turmeric. So farmers do not get
remunerative price due to over flooding in the
market.

44
 z In the humid climate of Andaman and Nicobar
islands, the incidence of pest and disease is very
common e.g. black pepper suffers heavily due to
slow wilt and leaf spot disease. Similarly clove
suffers from stem borer and leaf spot. Considerable
damage is caused to young pepper vines due to
damage by giant african snails also.

To protect seedling damage from direct sunlight and

high rainfall it is desirable to raise the spices seedlings either
in poly houses/ shade net houses made of polysheets/ shade
nets. These structures also protect the seedlings from pest and
disease occurrence and also minimize the mortality of the
seedlings compared to the open field conditions.

BLACK PEPPER
Black pepper (Piper nigrum L.), the king of spices, is
obtained from the perennial climbing vine. It is native to
Malabar, a region in the Western Coast of South India (Kerala).
Pepper is cultivated since millennia. In Andaman & Nicobar
Islands, the settlers of Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka
introduced the spices from South India. Initially it was adopted
for own consumption and then slowly expanded for
commercial purpose. Presently pepper is grown in about 697.45
ha land with an annual production of 36.05 tonnes. The
productivity of pepper (51.68 kg/ ha) in these islands is very
low when compared with the other pepper growing areas of
the country. It is mainly grown in home garden and as mixed
crop in coconut and arecanut plantations.

45
Climate and Soil
Pepper is a plant of humid tropics, which requires ad-
equate rainfall and humidity. The crop performs well in tem-
perature ranging between 10-40 0C. A well distributed annual
rainfall of 1250- 2000 mm is ideal. It can be grown in a wide
range of soils such as clay loam, red loam, sandy loam and
lateritic soils with a pH of 4.5 to 6.0. However it thrives best on
virgin soil rich in organic matter.

Varieties Suitable For the Islands Condition

Among seven varieties screened, the varieties like
Panniyur-1, Panniyur- 2 and Panniyur 5 are found suitable for
Andaman conditions.
Varieties Special features
Panniyur -1 More adaptable to open conditions, sensitive
to excess shade
Panniyur -2 Shade tolerant.
Panniyur - 4 Stable in yield, performs well even in adverse
condition.
Panniyur - 5 Suitable for intercropping in arecanut &
coconut gardens.
Sreekara Tolerant to drought condition.
Pournami Tolerant to root knot nematode.
Subbakara Selection from karimunda

Propagation
Black pepper can be propagated through seeds and vegetative
means. Owing to its heterozygous nature, seedlings will not
breed to true to types. Hence black pepper is propagated
vegetatively mainly from cuttings. Runner shoots are ideal for
making cuttings.

46
Section of mother vines

The runner shoots for making cuttings should be selected

from uniformly established gardens free from pest and
diseases. While selecting elite mother vines, following points
should be kept in mind.

a) Age of the elite mother vines should 7 years and

above.

b) The vine should have given a stable yield of at least

2 kg dry pepper /vine/year for 4 consecutive years
and above.

c) Runner vines may be collected from a particular va-

riety, in which purity may be maintained.

Black pepper can be multiplied by following methods;

i) Conventional method (through cutting)

ii) Serpentine method

iii) Bamboo split/ Rapid multiplication method

iv) Air layering

Conventional Method (through cuttings)

Pepper is propagated mainly by cuttings raised form

runner shoots. Runner shoots from high yielding ad healthy
vines are separated from the main vine during February- March
and after trimming the leaves, cuttings of 2-3 nodes each are
planted in polythene bags filled with potting mixture contain-
ing soil, sand and now dung at 1:1:1 ratio. Cutting from middle
1/3rd of the shoots are desirable as they are high yielding.

47
Adequate shade must for planting and irrigated frequently.
The cuttings will strike roots and become ready for planting in
May- June. For early initiation of the root, the basal end of the
cutting can be dipped in rooting power viz., Seradix which is
readily available.

Serpentine Method

It is a rapid method of producing rooted cuttings. In

this method polythene bags are filled with rooting medium
(oil, sand and cow dung at 1:1:1 ratio) and 20 polythene bags
are arranged in a row. Rooted cutting of black pepper is placed
in the initial/ first poly bag in a row and the vine is allowed to
grow in a serpentine manner. When the growing vine passes
from the poly bag tow filled with rooting medium the vine is
pressed into the rooting medium with the help of coconut leaf-
let stick, which provides physical support to strike roots on
each of polythene bag. For rapid growth each vine is fed at 15
days interval with, 500g muriate of potash and 250g magne-
sium sulphate in 250 litres of water.

48
 After 2-3 months the vine reaches the other end of the
polythene bag kept in a row. Then, the terminal bud is nipped
off and a light pinch of pressure should be given in the first
vine. Later, the vine is crushed at each polythene bag, in order
to activate the axillary buds. After 10 days, each vine is sepa-
rated from the crushed point and the polythene bag with single
node cutting are kept in cool humid place for about 10 days
thereafter the rooted cuttings can be used for main field plant-
ing.

Rapid Multiplication Method

The method has been developed by the Indian Institute
of Spice Research, Calicut. Here a trench of 0.75 m deep and
0.3 m wide having convenient length is made and then filled
with rooting medium (soil, sand and cow dung at 1:1:1 ratio).
Split halves of bamboo with 8-10 cm diameter and 1.25 to 1.50
m length are fixed at 450 angle on a strong support touching
one another.

One rooted cutting can be planted in each of the bam-

boo split. The lower portion of the bamboo split are filled with
a rooting medium (coir dust and FYM 1:2) and the growing
vine is tied to the bamboo with dried banana sheath fiber in
such a way as to keep the nodes pressed in to the rooting me-
dium. The vines are irrigated regularly. As the growth of vines
progress the bamboo splits are filled with rooting medium and
each nodes are tied regularly.

Fig 2. Arrangement of Bamboos in rapid multiplication

technique

49
 For rapid growth each vine is fed at 15 days interval
with 250ml of nutrient solution prepared by dissolving 1 kg
urea, 750g supper phosphate, 500g muriate of potash and 250
g magnesium sulphate in 250 liters of water.

When the vine reaches the top of the bamboo in 3 to 4

months, the terminal bud is nipped off and the vine is crushed
at about three nodes above the base, in order to activate the
axillary buds. After 10 days each vine is cut at the crushed
point, removed from the rooting medium and separated. The
separated single node cutting with bunch of roots are planted
in the poly bag filled with pot mixture and kept in cool humid
condition. When the buds starts developing in about 3 weeks
the poly bags are shifted to semi shade condition.

The main advantages of this method are

1. Multiplication rapid (1.40)

2. Root system is well developed
3. Better establishment
Air Layering
In the conventional system of raising rooted cuttings,
rapid multiplication and simple method of nursery raising of
black pepper is accepted but adoption is not becoming popular
by the growers and commercial nurserymen because of the
prohibitive cost in the system. Hence, a new system has been
developed by the CARI, Port Blair, which is a very simple,
cheaper and will produce better quality seedlings.

A trench of 30 cm wide and 30 cm deep is dug at

convenient length with sufficient drainage. The trenches are
filled with sand, garden topsoil and dry cow dung in 1:1:1
proportion. Adequate over - head shade is provided in the
area by erecting pandals covered with coconut leaves or agro-
shade net. Then, the rooted cuttings ate planted in the trench,

50
keeping adequate distance between the plants so as to facilitate
the coiling of the trailing vine. When the vines starts trailing,
exposing the adventitious root in each nodes, air layering
should be carried out after leaving 2-3 nodes from the base.
The leaves with petiole are removed by using a sharp knife.
About 10-15g weight of sphagnum moss and dry cow dung
slightly moistened are placed around the stem to enclose the
node. A piece of polythene (4 sq.cm) is wrapped carefully
around the node so that the soil mixture is completely covered
and tied firmly at both the ends. The same procedure is
repeated by leaving alternate nodes and continued till 70-80
days, so that 9-10 rooted cutting are produced from a single
vine. The suitable time for removal of the layer from the parent
plant is determined by observing root formation through the
transparent film of the polythene. When the vines are ready
for separation, the tip of the vine is nipped off and a crushed
at the base of the third node. After a week the vines are
separated at every lower base of the air- layered portion.

To facilitate rapid growth of vines, a nutrient solution

consisting of 1 kg urea, 1 kg rock phosphate, 1 kg muriate of
potash and 250 g of magnesium sulphate dissolved in 300 litre
of water is applied to the vine at the rate of 2510 ml per vine.
In this method, 10 cuttings can be produced from a single vine
within a period of three months. Thus in a year we can produce
40 cuttings.

Test for vigour of seedlings

i) The age of the rooted cutting should be 3 months from
the date of planting in the polythene bags.
ii) The rooted cutting should be of minimum height of
25 cm with 5 with vigorous growth without
exhibiting any nutrient deficiency symptoms, pest
and disease infection.

51
 iii) Varietal purity should be maintained.

Disease Management in Nursery.

The two important nursery disease viz., leaf rot caused

by Rhizoctionia solani and basal wilt caused by Sclerotium
rolfsi can be minimum if solarised soil is inoculated with VAM
and Trichoderma. However, if isolated incidence of these
disease is noticed, timely adoption of phytosanitary measures
and spot application Bordeaux mixture (1%) may be done. In
areas where nematode problems occur, addition of crushed
neem kernal or neem cake is recommended.

CLOVE
Clove (Syzygium aromaticum L), the dried unopened
flower buds of the evergreen tree is an important spice,
popular for its flavor and medicinal values. Clove oil is used
in perfumeries, pharmaceuticals and flavouring industries. In
India, it is cultivated in 3430 ha with a production of 3270
tonnes, whereas in Andaman of it is cultivated in an area of
199.61 ha with a production of 7.84 tonnes and the productivity
of 39.28 kg/ha.

Soil and Climate

Clove is a tropical tree, requires warm humid climate,
with a temperature of 20 to 300 C, and annual rainfall of 1500
to 2500 mm. deep black loam soil with high humus content is
ideal for its growth. It grows satisfactory on laterite soils, clay
loams and black soil having good drainage. However sandy
soil is not suitable.

52
Propagation
Clove is propagated through seed, which is called
mother clove. Fruits are allowed to ripe on the tree and drop
down naturally. Such fruits are collected from the ground and
sown directly in nursery or soaked in water overnight before
sowing. In the later case the pericarp is removed before sowing.
Since the viability is lost within a week after harvest sowing
must be done immediately after collection.

Nursery Practices
Seedbed of 15-20 cm height, one meter width and
convenient length are prepared. The beds are made with loose
soil over which a layer of 5-8 cm thick sand is spread. Seeds
are sown in a depth of 2 cm 2 to 3 spacing. The seed bed should
be protected from direct sunlight. Germination starts from 10
to 15 days last for about 40 days. The germinated seedlings
are transplanted in polythene bags (30 x 15cm) containing soil,
sand and FYM in 1:1: 1 ration. Seedling of 18 to 24 months old
transplanted the main field.

NUTMEG
Nutmegs (Myristica fragrans) play an important role in
confectionary pharmaceutical industries. In A&N Islands
nutmug is grown in an area of 82.62 ha with annual production
of 8, 70,000 no's nuts. Nutmeg and mace also yields 7 to 16
and 4 to 15 percent of oil respectively. The oil is used for
flavouring food products, liquors and in perfumery industries.
The pericarp is used for making jams, jellies and pickles.

Climate and Soil

Nutmeg prefers warm humid climate with an annual
rainfall of 1500mm. areas with soils of clay loam, sandy loam
and red laterite are ideal for its growth. Both dry climate and
waterlogged condition are not suitable for nutmeg cultivation.

53
Varieties

There is no named variety of nutmeg in India.

Propagation and Nursery Techniques

Nutmegs are usually propagated through seed. Large

sized fully ripe fruits are collected as and when they fall. The
fleshy rind of the fruit and mace covering the seeds are
removed and sown immediately in nursery beds or poly bags.
Regular watering is essential for better germination. The
germination starts from the 30th days and lasts up to 90 days
after sowing. About 18 to 24 months old seedlings are used
for transplanting in the main field.

Epicotyl Grafting Technique

Nutmeg seedlings (20-25 days old) having 10-12 cm in

height with 3-4 coppery colour leaves are used as rootstocks.
A transverse cut is given at 4-5 cm above the cotyledon and
the succulent slender stem is cut off thereafter a vertical cut
(cleft) of 4-5 cm length is made in the middle with a sharp
knife. The procured scion stick is prepared into a wedge shape
by giving a slating cut of 4-5 cm length on either side at the
basal portion. It is then inserted into the cleft of the rootstock
carefully in such a way that the cambial layers of both the
rootstock and the scion are matching. The joint portion is
wrapped with a plastic film tightly for further healing. The
scion is protected from desiccation by capping/ covering it
with a narrow polythene bag. The grafted plants are kept under
the shade for 10 to 15 days. Then the cap/cover is removed
and the grafts are shifted to open condition.

54
 CINNAMON
Cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum) also called as Ceylon
cinnamon or 'sweet wood' is one of the oldest known spices is
the dried bark of cinnamon verum. In A&N Islands cinnamon
is grown in an area of 152.59 ha with annual production of
18.03tonnes. Leaf oil and bark oil of cinnamon can be distilled
from the dried leaves and bark respectively. The oil has a
pungent odour and hot taste and contains 70 to 80% of eugenol.
The leaf oil and bark oil are used commercially in many
pharmacement of about 2000 to 2500 mm.

Climate and Soil

Cinnamon is hardly plant, which tolerates a wide range

of soil and climatic condition. It comes up well form sea level
up to an elevation of about 1000m. Mostly grown as a rainfed
crop with an annual rainfall requirement of about 2000 to 2500
mm.

Nursery Techniques

It is commonly propagated through seeds. However

cutting as well as layers can be used for propagation.
Cinnamon generally flowers in January and fruits ripen during
June- August. The fully ripened fruits are either picked up
from the tree or the fallen ones are collected from the ground.
Seeds are removed from the fruits, washed and sown
immediately in nursery beds or polythene bags containing a
mixture of sand, FYM and soil (2:1:1). Germination starts
within 15 to 20 days.

55
 Vegetables and Tubers crops Seedling
raising and their management

Introduction

The climatic conditions of A & N islands are warm

humid with the temperature ranging between 22-32oC. The
mean relative humidity is about 82% with an average annual
rainfall varying between 3000-3500 mm. The Andaman and
Nicobar Islands have long been facing a chronic shortage of
vegetables, although these islands have potential land
resources to meet the local demand. In A & N Islands
vegetables are cultivated over an area of 3803.58ha with a total
production of 25682.30MT with a productivity of 7t/ha. The
vegetables like potato, onion, garlic and other non-perishables
can be imported from mainland for local consumption. The
production of other vegetables in the islands is inhibited by
the pest and diseases, over saturation of soil due to heavy rains,
constraints of sunlight during rainy season and pollination
problems due to less movement of the bees and other insects.
Because of above constraints, common vegetables like brinjal,
cowpea, gourds are also sold very costly. After December,
when the first crop of rice is harvested, vegetables are grown
as rice fallow and very cheap for a period of 1-2months. With
the onset of rains, all these low lying areas are filled with rain
water and suddenly there will be scarcity of vegetables and
the cost goes very high. Even though it has been proved that
suitable crops and their varieties can perform very well under
these islands, lack of suitable land, cost of labor, attack of
pests/lack of planting materials and poor transport facilities,
make vegetable production a challenging job. In solanaceous
56
vegetable crops, some of the bacterial wilt resistant varieties
of brinjal, chilli and tomato are performing with 80-90 per cent
survival but in the next season becomes susceptible. Similarly,
cucurbitaceous crops like cucumber, ridge gourd and bitter
gourd performs well in these islands. Some of the non-
traditional vegetables like French bean, cauliflower, knol khol,
capsicum etc. also come up well during dry season (December
- April). Hence, the production and supply of healthy seedlings
is very important for getting higher yield and quality. In most
of the advanced countries vegetable seedling production is
taken up by specialized companies or as a capital venture. In
India, vegetable seedling production is gradually changing
from open field nurseries to protected raised bed or seedling
tray productions in some of the intensive vegetables growing
areas. Seedling production as a specialized practice is also fast
catching up in several states of India.

Benefits nursery raising:

z The soil is well prepared and all operations

required to raise seedlings are carried out in most
efficient manner.
z Large number of seedlings can be produced from
an unit area
z Sowing seeds in nursery allows additional time for
preparatory tillage in the main field and if needed,
the harvesting of previous crop can be prolonged
z Off season sowing of seeds becomes possible which
ultimately fetches more return.
z Over crowding of plants in the main plot can be
checked or thinning operation can be avoided

57
 z Discarding of week seedlings become possible
z It reduces the seed rate and cost of cultivation
Types of nursery beds:
There are 3 types of beds, viz., flat bed, raised bed and
hot bed.

i) Flat bed:

This is an old but popular type of bed commonly used

by the farmers in villages. The width of the bed is adjusted to
approach its centre conveniently. This types of bed is prone to
over watering and thus decaying of seedlings. It is not
recommended specially during rainy season.

ii) Raised bed:

This is the most common type of nursery bed which has

been widely accepted by the vegetable growers. The height of
the bed is kept to 20 cm and width from 80-100 cm with the
convenient length as the requirement of the main field. In
raised bed, the remain loose over watering is avoided and root
growth gets intensified. It also facilitates the air and light
penetration, intercultural operations, pests and diseases
managements.

Hot bed:

This is not very common.

Protected structure for seedling raising

The seedling trays are commonly kept under nylon net
house or poly house. Net house is cost effective and feasible
to grow vegetable seedlings. It is commonly built using granite
stone pillars of size 10' x 6" x 4". These stone pillars are spaced
at Sm x Sm and grouted to a depth of 2 feet. The stone pillars

58
all along the periphery of the net house should be tied to a
peg stone using guy wire. The height of the structure should
be 8 feet. On top of each stone pillar used rubber tube is tied
so that sharp edges of the pillars do not damage the nylon
mesh and shade net. Wire grid is provided at the top of the
structure as support for the nylon mesh. Normally farmers
cover the sides with 40 mesh UV stabilized nylon insect proof
net and in the top 50% UV stabilized HDPE shade net is used
to cover the net house. It is recommended to cover the sides
and top of the net house with 40 mesh UV stabilized nylon
insect proof net. During summer and hot sunny days 25 % or
35% UV stabilized HDPE shade net is spread over the nylon
mesh on the top of the net house to maintain ambient
temperatures suitable for crop growth. Provision should be
made to pull polythene sheet over the pro-trays in the event
of rainfall by way of making low tunnel structure. For
preparing low tunnel structure, 3/4" HDPE pipes or bamboo
stick and 400-gauge polyethylene sheet can be used. The
approximate cost for building stone pillar net house will be
Rs. 80 to Rs. 100 per square meter depending on the locality.

Solarization of nursery beds:

It is a method of heating soil through sunlight by

covering it with clear /transparent polythene sheet to control
soil borne diseases including nematodes. Other additional
beneficial effects include control of weeds, insect pests and
release of plant nutrients resulting in increased crop growth.
Solarization is a non-chemical alternative for disease, insect
pest and weed control. It can be successfully used for
disinfection of any seedbed to produce healthy seedlings of
vegetable.

59
Method of soil solarization:

Prepare the raised bed, add organic manure and make

the bed ready for sowing.

Bring the bed to field capacity by irrigating. Cover the

nursery beds with 200 gauge transparent polyethylene film as
tightly and closely to the ground as possible.

Leave the beds covered for 30-40 days. The soil

temperature of the nursery bed thus covered can go up to 52°C
in summer.

Care should be taken to see that sheets do not tear off.

Types of Containers

i) Seedling Trays or Punnets :

Seedling trays and punnets are shallow so the seed

raising mix stays warm. Shallow seed trays also a have a better
surface/depth ratio to improve aeration. Seed can be sown
directly into seedling trays or the seedling tray used as a tray
to hold punnets, jiffy pots, jiffy starters or 48 cell growing trays.
48 cell growing trays are made of a soft plastic that allows you
to squeeze the entire seedling out without damage to the root
ball. Seedling trays are designed to fit bottom heat propagators
and Mini Propagators. Sowing seed directly into a seedling
tray gives you a good surface to work from in order to 'prick
out' or just thin your seedlings. Small tree seeds should first
be sown in a seedling tray and later transplanted at the 4-6-
leaf stage, into individual tree tubes, before planting out into
their final position. This is because pots are too deep and stay
too cold and wet for good germination. Tree seeds can take 3-

60
6 months to germinate, depending on factors like soil
temperature so they should be labelled with the name and
date of sowing and left alone in a seed tray. Seedling trays are
also called as pro-trays (propagation tray) or flats, plug trays
or jiffy trays. The most commonly used are 98 celled trays for
tomato, capsicum, cabbage, cauliflower, chilli, yellow wax,
brinjal and bitter gourd. The dimension is 54 cm in length and
27 cm in breadth with a cavity depth of 4 cm. Trays are made
of polypropylene and reusable. Life of the tray depends on
the handling. Seedling trays have been designed in such a way
that each seedling gets appropriate quantity of growing media
and the right amount of moisture. Trays have pre punched
holes to each cavity for proper drainage of excess water and
also have right spacing. These trays are readily available with
nursery input suppliers in Bangalore

ii) Plantable Pots:

These include Jiffy Pots, Jiffy Plant Starters and Pot

maker Pots. These allow you to sow individual seeds in
controlled conditions, without the need for pricking out. A
big advantage is they reduce transplanting shock as the whole
container is planted. The Jiffy Plant Starters are particularly
useful for starting tomatoes, capsicums and eggplants. The
Jiffy Pots are great for starting larger seeds such as zucchini,
corn, melon and cucumber. A Potmaker is used to make your
own small pots out of newspaper. Jiffy Pots and handmade
Potmaker pots need to be filled with a seed raising mix, while
the Jiffy Plant Starters are a container and mix combined.

61
Growing media for seedling trays
Sterilized commercial growing media is better as the
incidence of seedling diseases is less or nil and it contains right
amount of moisture in it. The most common growing media
used is coco peat, a by-product of coir industry and it has high
water holding capacity. It should be well decomposed,
sterilized and supplemented with major and minor nutrients
before using as it is low in nutrients and high in lignin content.
Other growing media which have given good result are
cocopeat:vermicompost and vermicompost:sand in equal
proportions

Seedling production using seedling trays

In the past, the farmers themselves used to produce the

seedlings required for transplanting at lower cost, as most of
varieties were open pollinated types. Nowadays, many
progressive farmers and entrepreneurs are taking up quality
seedling production using seedling trays as a commercial
activity mostly for F1 hybrids as the cost of seeds is quite high.
Seedling production of tomato, capsicum, cauliflower, brinjal
and cabbage F1 hybrids using seedling trays and protective
structure such as insect proof net houses, shade houses and
low cost naturally ventilated greenhouses are already a
commercial venture.

Advantages
z Provides independent area for each seed to
germinate and grow
z Improve germination and minimises wastage of
expensive seeds
z Reduces seedling mortality or damping off because
of sterilized growing media.

62
 z Uniform, healthy growth and early maturity. .

z Ease in handling and cheaper transportation.

z Better root development and less damage while

transplanting .

z Good main-field establishment and crop stand

Method of seedling raising in seedling trays

z Fill the seedling tray with the appropriate growing

medium.

z Make a small depression (0.5 cm) with fingertip, in

the center of the cell sowing. Alternatively,
depression can be created by stacking 10 trays one
over other and pressing the trays together.

z Sow one seed per cell and cover with medium.

z No irrigation is required before or after sowing if

coco peat having 300-400 percent moisture is used.

z Keep 10 trays one over other for 3 to 6 days,

depending on the crops. Cover the entire stack with
polyethylene sheet. This ensures conservation of
moisture until germination. No irrigation is
required till seedling emergence. Care must be
taken for spreading the trays when the seedling is
just emerging, otherwise seedlings will get
etiolated.

z Seeds start emerging after about 3-6 days of sowing

depending upon the crops. Shift the trays to poly
or net house and spread over a bed covered with
polyethylene sheet.

63
 z The trays should be irrigated lightly every day
depending upon the prevailing weather conditions
by using a fine sprinkling rose can or with hose
pipe fitted with rose. Never over irrigate trays, as
it results in leaching of nutrients and building up
of diseases.

z Drench the trays fungicides as a precautionary

measure against seedling mortality.

z The media may need supplementation of nutrients

if the seedlings show deficiency symptoms. Spray
0.3 per cent (3g/ litre) of 100 percent water soluble
fertilizer (19 all with trace elements) twice ( 12 and
20 days after sowing).

z Protect the trays from rain by covering with

polyethylene sheets in the form of low tunnel.

z Harden the seedlings by withholding irrigation and

reducing the shade before transplanting.

z Spray systemic insecticides like lmidacloprid (0.2

ml/litre) 7 - 10 days after germination and before
transplanting, for managing the insect vectors.

z The seedlings will be ready in about 21-42 days for

transplanting to the main field depending upon the
crop.

Mechanization of vegetable seedling production

As more and more vegetable farmers are resorting to buy

their seedlings from the commercial vegetable nurseries, there
is a need to go for the mechanization for mass-production of

64
vegetable seedlings. To address this, IIHR, Bangalore has
developed the following machinery to facilitate mechanization
of vegetable seedling production by the interested nurseries:
a) Media Siever, b) Batch Type Media Mixer, c) Protray Filling
Machine, d) Plate Type Dibbler, e) Handle Operated Protray
Dibbler, Plate Type Vacuum Seeder, g) Handle Operated
Vacuum Seeder for Portrays, h) Automatic Protray Seeding
Machine. Using this machine about 200 seedling trays per hour
can be filled and seeds sown.

Seedling raising by raised bed method

z Prepare 10 m x 15 m area of land by finely tilling or

digging to raise seedling for one hectare area.

z Prepare beds of 9 m long 1 m wide and 15-20 cm

high and number of beds require depends on the
crop.

z Break the clods and bring the bed to a fine tilth.

z Apply 15 kg well decomposed FYM to each of this

bed. Add chemical fertilizers @ 100 g each of
nitrogen, phosphorus and potash to each bed.

z Mix 3 g Trichoderma culture in 100 g neem cake/

sq mt of nursey area and prepare nursery beds. Sow
the seeds on lines with a spacing of 8 cm X 2 cm
and cover with a thin layer of a manure.

z Cover the bed with dry grass or straw until

germination.

z Sprinkle 50 to 100 g of insecticide dust formulations

around the nursery beds to prevent ants from eating
the seeds.

65
 z As soon as seeds germinate, drench the nursery
with copper oxy chloride (at 3gilitre).
z Cover the beds with 40 or 50 mesh nylon net to
protect against vectors like whitefly and thrips and
aphids.
z Seedlings have to be hardened before transplanting
by withholding the irrigation and removing the
nylon net.
z Spray systemic insecticides like Imidacloprid (0.2
ml/litre) 7 -10 days after germination and before
transplanting, for managing the insect vectors.
z The seedlings will be ready in 25-42 days after
sowing for transplanting depending on the crops.
Use of Nylon net

It is important to have vegetable seedlings that are free

of insect pests and disease problems. The earlier the plants
are infected with pests or diseases, the more severe the effect
on the field crop growth and yield. Hence, growing vegetable
seedling under cover using insect proof nylon net (40-50 mesh)
is a good practice. Use Casurina or bamboo poles or GI pipes
to support the net. To raise seedlings sufficient for one hectare,
a net covered area of about 150 square meter is required, which
will require one time expenditure of Rs. 5000 for procuring
inputs and stitching the net.

Raising off-season nurseries:

Plug-tray nursery raising technology
The cucurbits are warm season crops. They are sown in
last week of February or in first week of March when night
temperature is around 18-200C. But in polyhouse their
seedlings can be raised during December and January in

66
polythene bags protected from cold winds and frost. By
planting these seedlings during January-end or first week of
February, their yield could be taken in one and one-and a half
months in advance than the normal method of direct sowing.
This technology fetches the bonus price due to marketing of
produce in the off-season. Mostly the farmers are growing
cucurbits during their normal growing season by sowing of
seeds and when such vegetables are harvested for marketing,
the markets are flooded with these vegetables and the growers
sometimes are even not getting back their cost of production.
But the same vegetables are fetching very high price during
their off-season availability. Seedlings of these vegetables can
not be raised through the traditional system of nursery
growing in soil media because these vegetables can not tolerate
slight damage to their root and shoot system. But few years
back a technology was developed for off-season cultivation
of these crops under which seedlings of these cucurbits were
raised in poly bags by using soil and compost as media, but
this technology is expensive, needs lot of protected space and
labour, and the plastic of the polyethylene bags is a problem
for the environment. At the Indo-Israel Project of the Indian
Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, plug-tray nursery
raising technology by using cocopeat, vermiculite and perlite
as soilless media has been standardized for raising off-season
seedlings of almost all the cucurbitaceous vegetables. This
technique is capable of vigorous root development, suitable
for nursery raising without any damage to the seedlings. This
technology is quite economical for the vegetable growers of
the northern plains of India, because with the introduction of
this technique, farmers can grow a large number of seedlings
as per requirement for off-season cultivation of these cucurbits
for fetching high price of the off-season produce. The plug-
tray nursery raising technology by using soilless media can
be extended to the growers in various parts of northern India
for growing off-season cucurbitaceous vegetables.

67
 Similarly, in plains as well as in temperate regions of
the country, the seedlings of tomato, Chilli, capsicum and
brinjal can be grown under plastic cover protecting them
against frost and severe cold. The environmental condition
particularly increase in temperature inside polyhouse, may
have hastened the germination and early growth of warm
season vegetable seedlings for raising early crops in spring-
summer.

Asparagus, sweet potato, pointed-gourd and ivy gourd

are sensitive to low temperature. The propagating materials
of these vegetables can be well-maintained under polyhouse
in winter season before planting their cuttings in early spring-
summer season for higher profit.

Basic requirements:
Selection of seeds:

It is imperative to have better quality seed possessing

genetic characters suited to the environment in which it is
grown. Good vegetable seed must be true-to name, viable,
disease- and pest-free, free from weeds, dirt and other foreign
materials.

Selection of cultivars:

Cultivars suitable for open field condition are usually

suitable for polyhouse cultivation. But relatively rapid-
maturing cultivars and high-yielding hybrids are ideal. The
selection of cultivars and hybrids depend on plant type and
their growth behaviour. Tomato cultivars and hybrids should
be indeterminate type. The plants are grown upright as a single
stem rather than bush. The cucumber cultivars should be
unique. They should have only female flowering habit, with
dark green parthenocarpic (seedless) fruits free of bitterness.

68
Some of the important vegetables and tuber crops seed rate
and time of transplanting are being given in Table 1 and 2.

Table.1 Seed rate and transplanting time of vegetables crops

Crops Seed rate/ha Days to transplanting

Tomato 350g 25-30
Brinjal 350g 35-40
Chillies 1.00 kg 35-40
Capsicum 500g 30-35
Cabbage 325 25-30
Cauliflower 325 25-30
Knol-Khol 1.00g 25-30
Broccoli 325 25-30

Table2.Tuber crops propagation materials and requirement

Crops Propagation Size of the propagation material

material
Cassava Setts/ stem 20-25 cm with 8-10 nodes
cutting
Sweet potato Terminal 20-25 cm with 8-10 nodes
vine
cuttings
Taro Corms 50g size
Swam taro Runners/ 20-25 cm
Stolons
Greater yam Cut tubers 500g
Lesser yam Cut tubers 500g
Elephant foot
yam Setts/ whole 500g
seed corm/
cut pieces

69
 Conclusion

The solanaceous and crucifer vegetables are

commonly grown in nursery and then transplanted to the main
field. It is possible to minimize the seed cost and cost of
seedling production if the farmers are well educated on the
use of poly tubes/ plastic trays for raising the vegetables
seedlings. In case of tuber crops the role of nursery is very
less known because the all those crops are being propagated
through the asexually/ vegetative propagation. Hence, the
farmers have to choose the right variety and time method of
multiplication of seedlings and production of vegetables and
tuber crops.

70
 Establishment of nursery and production of
quality planting material of Fruit crops

Introduction

The Andaman and Nicobar Islands comes under the

humid tropics with an average rainfall of about 3000 mm. Out
of the total geographical area of 8249 km2, only 6 % i.e. 50,000
ha at present is under agriculture. The climatic conditions are
highly suited for cultivation of horticultural crops. Presently
they are grown in an area of about 37,160 ha. The important
horticultural crops grown widely in these islands are coconut,
arecanut, banana, mango, guava, papaya, black pepper clove,
cinnamon, ginger and nutmeg, brinjal, chillies, cowpea,
bhendi, and all cucurbitaceous vegetables. The long history
of cultivation of fruit crops in the Bay islands, large number
of cultivars of banana, mango, papaya cultivars existing.
Inspite of the conducive and favourable agro-climatic
conditions, the production of fruits in these islands is very
low. About 18564 metric tones of fruits are produced with a
productivity of 6.34 tones /ha respectively. The productivity
of the fruits can be increased to the extant of 10.0 t /ha if proper
management and advanced scientific techniques are integrated
in cultivation. Due to the scarcity of the land the only option
is to increase the productivity of these fruits.

In view of growing importance of fruit crops, the

demand for quality planting material has increased manifold
throughout the country in the recent past. However, the
greatest bottleneck in the expansion of area under fruits is the
non-availability of genuine and quality planting material in

71
adequate quantity from reliable government nurseries. More
often than not, the farmers have to get the fruit plants from
unreliable sources and this practice is causing great harm to
the fruit industry. Starting planting material production from
own needs lot of planning and expertise. The plan should show
allocation of plots/area to different components of the nursery
such as mother plants of different fruits/cultivars, rootstocks,
roads/paths, water channels, drainage system, buildings/other.

Preliminary considerations:

1. Identify the potential for planting material production

and to set realistic production targets based on the
resource availability. Availability of sufficient resources,
particularly the genuine and certified scion / budwood
and rootstock according to the scientific
recommendations in vogue as well as that of skilled
manpower for the propagation methods to be followed
should be the major considerations for setting realistic
targets, from a quality control point of view.

2. Location of targeted planting material production as

selection of an ideal location can also serve to improve
production quality considerably. In general, it should
be located at a site with access to modern communication
and transport facilities, good water source, electricity,
skilled and unskilled labour availability throughout the
season as well as professionally qualified and competent
manpower to oversee the production and quality
control. Places with a mild climate, long growing season
and even distribution of rainfall is most suitable for
planting material production while areas with extremes

72
 of temperature or commonly subjected to dry winds,
frequent flooding, hail, storms or are known to be frost
pockets are better avoided as they adversely affect the
quality of planting material. Soil should preferably be
light to medium in texture with good fertility, water
holding capacity and drainage, ideally with a pH range
of 6.0 to 7.0. Topography should preferably be plain with
gentle slope (1 to 2 %); and in very sloppy areas terracing
need to be done.

3. The major considerations would be propagation method

and its seasonal variations for success and quality of
the final produce, rootstock to be used, and
specifications for the scion / bud wood including its
genuineness and seasonality of availability.

4. Identify the inputs necessary for each stage of

production and develop specifications and requirements
for each input. These generally include containers,
growing medium, fertilizer (liquid feed or granular; if
granular, regular release or control release), irrigation
water, plant growth regulators, pesticides, herbicides,
etc. The specifications for each input should be two or
three features critical to the production of quality
planting material and should be quantitative (that can
be measured and verified, Example: container - black
polybags 300 gauge thickness, 24 cm x 18cm size with 4
to 6 holes 5 cm above the bottom; irrigation water - less
than 0.5 dsm-1 EC, less than 100 ppm CaCO3 content;
etc). The specifications for size and durability of
containers should be based on the duration the planting

73
material has to retained in them without becoming pot-
bound and without any bending or twisting of the
taproot. Containers should have provision for drainage
of excess water. The widely used growing medium in
fruit crop nurseries at present is a mixture of sand, FYM
and red earth in equal proportions. This medium needs
sterilization by treatment with heat (steam or
solarization) or chemicals (such as formaldehyde) to get
rid of inherent soil borne pathogens such as Fusarium,
Phytophthora etc and pests such as nematodes.
Afterwards, the sterilized medium has to be inoculated
with beneficial soil microorganisms such as Vesicular
Arbuscular Mycorrhizae (VAM) and Phosphate
Solubilizing Bacteria (PSB), supplemented with rock
phosphate / super phosphate, filled into the containers
and planted with the seed / seedling / cutting.
Colonization of the beneficial microbes in the root zone
can be verified forty-five days after the inoculation. Use
of commercial sterile potting mixes can avoid
sterilization of growing medium. Coco-peat, a byproduct
of coir industry, has high water holding capacity and
good texture, but is low in mineral nutrients.

Organic materials such as leaf mold can also be

used for preparing growing media, but its composition
can vary widely making quality control difficult. The
points to be considered for growing medium of nursery
plants are proper drainage and water holding capacity,
ability to supply requisite plant nutrients, freedom from
pests and disease inoculums and proper texture to
facilitate root growth. Handling and storing the media
74
 inside potting sheds helps to prevent their quality
deterioration. The quality of irrigation water with respect
to its pH, EC, and dissolved salts has to be defined based
on the sensitivity of the plant species under
consideration to these and has to be checked at frequent
intervals, especially during summer.

5. An appropriate procedure might call for periodic

measurement of microbial load, soluble salts and pH of
the water and media prior to use in production while
container label of fertilizers and pesticides may be
checked for content and active ingredient concentration
while procuring and the composition of the fertilizer /
pesticide solution should be verified prior to use.

6. Proper nursery records may be maintained

incorporating all the above information either in the
registers and / or in the computer for monitoring. This
would be also useful in identifying probable flaws and
to rectify them subsequently. At every step, continuous
and effective coordination with research organizations
on the latest technology development regarding the
nursery management aspects would be helpful to
upgrade and perfect the quality control measures.

Seedling Production using Seedling Trays:

In the past, the farmers themselves use to produce all

seedlings used for transplanting. Now a days many
progressive farmers are coming forward to take up quality
seedling production using seedling trays and supply to the
individual farmers. Fruit crops like papaya bigger sized trays

75
can be used for raising the seedlings. This method is mostly
adopted for raising seedlings of F1 hybrids since the cost of
the seed is quite high.

Method of soil solarization in nursery bed

1. Prepare the raised bed, add organic manure and make
the bed ready for sowing in every respect.

2. Bring the bed to field capacity by irrigating. Cover the

nursery beds with 200 gauge transparent polyethylene
film as tightly and closely to the ground as possible.

3. Leave the beds covered for 30-40 days. The soil

temperature of the nursery bed thus covered can go up
to 52oC in summer months.

4. Check the sheets for the tear and if found torn out, seal
with transparent tapes.

5. After 30-40 days, remove the polyethylene cover. Sow

the seed with least disturbance to the top soil in the bed.

Methods of Vegetative Propagation:

Budding:

For budding, the thickness of the rootstock should be

near to that of a pencil. It is better to take well swollen and
unsprouted buds from leaf axils of mature one-year-old twigs
of the scion variety. 'Forkert' or 'patch' methods can be used
and the size of the bud wood may be nearly 2x1 cm and
budded at a height of nearly 15cm above the ground level.
Polythene tape can be used for keeping the buds close to the
stock, about 2 weeks after budding the tape can be opened up

76
to examine the success of the budding. After the bud starts
sprouting the top portion can be cut. Depending on the type
of crop 'T' or 'Inverted T' budding can also be adopted for
some of the ornamental crops.

Grafting:

The common method of grafting is 'inarching' or

'approach grafting'. 'Veneer' grafting has also been found to
simple and successful method. For 'Veneer' grafting the scion
must be taken from one-month-old shoot duly defoliated for
forcing the buds. About 3-5 cm long shoot with one or two
buds is used for grafting. The percentage success during July
has been recorded as 80%. In places where humidity is more
than 70% or where mist chamber facility is there soft wood
grafting and stone grafting can be practiced.

Points to be remembered while grafting:

1. The scions and rootstock should be preferably of

the same diameter (for veneer)

2. The scions should be pre-cured

3. Grafting should be taken up when there is high

humidity

4. Grafted plants are to be kept in mist if possible

5. Grafts should be labeled after grafting so that

varieties are not mixed

6. Rootstock portion should be cut off after the leaves

of the scion turns green.

77
Stooling:

This method can be used for quick multiplication of

desired varieties. In this method 3-4 years old plants are cut
down near to the ground. When the new shoots emerge, IBA
(5000ppm) is applied in lanolin in ring during July. After about
10 days soil is earthed up to cover the ringed part. By
September, the rooted shoots can be separated. This method
is easy and plot of 4-5 m square can yield 300 rooted shoots
each year.

Air layering:

In this method, limbs of 1/2 inch or more in diameter

are girdled by removing a strip of bark about one and half
times the thickness of the limb. The girdled area is bound with
a ball of moistened sphagnum moss several inches in diameter
and 4.5 inches long which is then wrapped with a sheet of
polythene paper and tied securely at each end with rubber
bands or string. Usually roots begin to form in 3-5 weeks. When
the roots grow through the ball of moss, the stem may be
severed below the girdled area gradually. The polythene film
is then removed from the rooted stem, which is then severed,
potted and kept in the shade until new leaves appear. When
the new growth is 6-8 inches long the plant can be hardened
in full sunlight, preparatory to transplanting in the field.

Management of plants after propagation:

The propagated plants need to be hardened. It is always

better to harden them in the shade net houses or climate
controlled houses. If these are not available then they need to
be kept in semi-shade conditions, so that there is no mortality

78
of plants when they are taken to the main field. Timely sprays
for insects and diseases need to be given after ascertaining the
cause. To maintain the plants in healthy condition, it is better
to given micro-nutrient sprays. However, it is also of
paramount importance that the plants need to be labeled
properly so that the variety is not mixed up.

Points to be remembered while labeling:

1. The material taken for labeling should be long lasting

2. Generic or species name should not mentioned

3. Common name of the variety needs to be written

without spelling mistake

4. Label should be written with permanent markers

5. For the identification of the plants, labels in local

languages can be written in addition to English.

BANANA AND PLANTAIN

Botanical Name: Musa spp.

Information regarding mother plants:

The mother plants should be true to type, healthy, high

yielding, free from viral (BBTV, BSV, BBMV and CMV), fungal
(Fusarium wilt) and bacterial (Erwinia/Tip over) diseases and
nematodes and corm weevil infestation.

Method of Propagation:

Vegetative propagation by Suckers

79
Planting material standards for propagation by suckers:'

Sword Suckers' having broad corm with narrow leaves

are recommended. The suckers should be 3 months old,
uniform in size, weighing 1-1.5 kg for Rasthali, Poovan
Nendran, Ney Poovan, and Cavendish banana varieties. For
varieties like Karpuravalli, Red Banana and Monthan, 4
months old, uniform suckers weighing 1.5-2.0 kg should be
used.

Tissue culture plants

Standards of the planting material for propagation by tissue
culture:

The secondary hardened plant should be of true to type,

> 30 cm in height, 5 cm in girth with at least five fully opened,
healthy, green leaves. The randomly tested plants should have
healthy root system and free from nematode, Erwinia and F
oC infestation. Plants exhibiting symptoms of somaclonal
variations of unusual foliage characteristics should be
discarded.

Mango (Mangifera indica L.)

Commercial cultivars

Neelum, Banglora, Mulgoa, Suvaranarekha,

Banganpalli, Rumani, Raspuri, Badami, Malda, Fazli,
Himsagar, Kishenbhog, Gulabkhas, Jardalu

Improved varieties

Amrapali, Mallika, Ambika, Arka AnmolArka Aruna,

Arka Neelkiran, Arka Puneet, Alfazli, AU Rumani, Ratna,
Sindhu

80
Raising of rootstocks

Mango seedlings grown from stones of seedling trees

are used as rootstocks. Stones should be collected from
vigorous, disease free and high yielding trees of seedling
mangoes during July-August. Mango seeds are recalcitrant
and lose viability very soon on desiccation. If the mango stones
are not sown within a few days of their removal from the fruit,
they can be stored under moist condition in shade, covering
with moist soil, sand or sawdust, etc. Before sowing stones
should be immersed in water and floating stones should be
discarded as they are not considered viable Stones are sown
during in June to August, depending upon the ripening season
of the mango, in beds mixed with well decomposed farm yard
manure at the rate of 8-10 tonnes per hectare. When the
seedlings attain the age of 2-3 months, they should be
transplanted in well prepared beds or polybags. After
transplanting, proper care should be exercised in irrigating
the young transplanted seedlings. Attack of leaf cutting insects
is common during rainy season, which may affect the growth
of the seedlings adversely. Care should be taken well in
advance for their control before damage. In frost prone areas,
the rootstocks should also be protected from frost by thatching.
Plant is allowed to grow as a single stem for six to eight months.
When the plantt attains pencil thickness or a little more, it is
ready for grafting.

Methods of propagation :

Nurserymen in many of the mango growing areas still

use inarching , traditional method of propagation. During past
few decades, experimental results have shown that veneer

81
grafting technique can be used with high success rate in
Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
Stone (epicotyl) grafting is suitable for Konkan region of
Maharashtra and Coastal regions. Now-a-days softwood
grafting is being used commercially for mango propagation
in several parts of south India. Veneer grafting and soft wood
grafting techniques can be used for large scale multiplication
of mango in north India. With the use of polyhouse and
nethouse structures, period of propagation can be extended
easily under north Indian conditions.

Softwood grafting

The technique of softwood grafting is similar to that of

cleft or wedge grafting. In this case, grafting is done on 3 month
to 8 month old rootstocks. In south India, the rootstocks attain
graftable thickness within 3-6 months due mild winter. In the
past , this technique has been in use in situ orchard
establishment under adverse soil and climatic conditions as
the grafting operation is performed using cleft/wedge method
on the newly grown top portion of the plant one year after the
rootstock establishment in the field . The scion shoots of the
thickness equal to that of rootstocks are defoliated 7-10 days
prior to grafting. The graft should be secured firmly using 1.5
cm wide, 200-gauge polyethylene strip. July and August
months with high humidity and moderate temperature are
the best for the success of softwood grafting.

Veneer grafting
This method of propagation holds promise for mass
scale commercial propagation. The method is simple and can
be adopted with success. Eight month to one year old seedling
rootstocks are suitable for this method. For conducting this

82
grafting operation, a downward and inward 3-4 cm long cut
is made in the smooth area of the stock at a height of about 20
cm. At the base of cut, a small shorter cut is given to intersect
the first so as to remove the piece of wood and bark. The scion
stick is given a long slanting cut on one side and a small short
cut on the other so as to match the cuts of the stock. The scion
is inserted in the stock so that the cambium layers come on
the longer side. The graft union is then tied with polythene
strip as recommended for inarching. After the scion takes and
remains green for more than 10 days, the rootstock should be
clipped in stages. The scion wood to be used for veneer grafting
requires similar preparation. The desired shoots should be
defoliated at least one week prior to grafting so that the
dormant buds in the leaf axils become swollen.

Stone or epicotyl grafting

Mango is generally propagated by inarching and veneer

grafting in north India. These methods are time consuming.
Stone/ epicotyl grafting is a technique of faster multiplication
of mango. This method is simple, economic and fast. Fresh
mango stones are sown in the nursery beds. After germination,
10-15 day old seedlings with tender stems and coppery leaves
are lifted with along with stones. The roots and stones are
dipped into 0.1 per cent Carbendazim solution for 5 minutes
after washing the soil. The seedling stems are headed back
leaving 6-8 cm long stem. A 3-4.5 cm longitudinal cut is made
into the middle portion of the cut stem. A wedge shaped cut
starting on both sides is made on the lower part of scion stick.
The scion stick should be 4-5 months old and 10-15 cm long
containing plumpy terminal buds. The scion stick is then

83
inserted in the cleft of the seedlings and tied with polythene
strip. The grafts are then planted in polyethylene bags
containing potting mixture. The bags are then kept in the shade
protecting from heavy rain. When the scion sprouts and the
leaves become green, the grafted plants should be planted in
nursery beds. July is the most suitable month for stone grafting.

Care of nursery plants

Mango plants at nursery stage are likely to be damaged
by frost under north Indian conditions. So, the nursery beds
should be covered with thatches made of sarkanda, etc. The
beds should be irrigated shenever there is danger of frost.
During summer, the irrigation should be given at 4-5 day
intervals depending upon the soil condition. A light
application of Calcium Ammonium Nitrate or Ammonium
sulphate is also recommended to encourage the growth of
plants. The beds/polybags should be kept free from weeds by
regular weeding/hoeing.

Plant Protection Measures

Insect pests

Mango hopper (Idioscopus spp. and Amritodus

atkinsoni) : It is active in February -March. The nymphs and
adults such the juice from tender leaves. For control, 2-3 sprays
of 0.04 % monocrotophos is recommended.

Diseases
Mango malformation (Bunchy top): On seedlings, over
three months old, swellings appears in the axils of leaves. The
affected plants should immediately be uprooted and
destroyed. Such seedlings should not be used for rootstocks.

84
Standards for veneer grafting in mango.

Characters Standards

Method of propagation: Veneer grafting

Type of rootstock: Straight & vigorous growth

Raising rootstock: In polyethylene bag

Size of polyethylene bag: 20 x 10 cm / 10 x 25 cm

Age of rootstock: One year old

Diameter of rootstock: 0.5 - 0.7 cm

Age of scion shoots: 3 - 4 months old

Diameter of scion: 0.5 - 0.7 cm

Length of scion stick: 15 - 18 cm

Plant height: 60 - 70 cm

Stem girth: 2.5 - 3.5 cm

Root type / Architecture: Tap root, Root should not be

overgrown, Coiling of root should not be there

Uniformity of grafting: Smooth, and union of graft 15 - 20

cm, above ground level/upper surface of polyethylene bag

Foliage: Healthy and green green

Precautions: Regular watering for long transportation. In the

absence of polyethylene bag, the earth ball should not develop
cracks. Ball of earth should be properly covered with grasses

Standards of soft wood grafting in mango

Characters Standards

85
Method of propagation: Wedge grafting

Type of rootstock: Straight & vigorous growth

Raising rootstock: In polyethylene bag

Size of polyethylene bag: 20 x 10 cm / 10 x 25 cm

Age of rootstock: 7 to 9 months

Diameter of rootstock: 0.5 - 0.9 cm

Age of scion shoots: 3 - 4 months old

Diameter of scion: 0.5 - 0.9 cm

Length of scion sticks: 15 - 18 cm

Plant height: 60 - 65 cm

Stem girth: 2.5- 3.0 cm

Union height (grafting height): Union of graft 18 - 20 cm above
ground level
Foliage: Healthy and Green

Precautions: When grafts are set out in the nursery, always handle
them by holding the rootstock. Do not bump the scion, because
this may disturb the callus tissue, causing the graft to die.
Papaya (Carica papaya L.)
Botanical Name: Carica papaya L.

Information regarding mother plants: True to type plants

producing high yields and quality fruits

Commercial cultivars: Pusa Delicious, Pusa Majesty, Pusa

Nanha, Pusa Dwarf, Pusa Giant, Coorg Honey Dew, Co. 1,
Co. 2, Co. 3, Co. 4, Co. 5, Co. 6, Co. 7, Sunrise Solo, Washington,
Surya

86
Method of Propagation: Papaya is propagated by seed. Seed
should be fresh as its viability is lost in about 45 days.

Method of seed production: Sib Mating

Method of Sib Mating:

To maintain the purity of papaya seeds, sib-mating is

necessary ie., mating of sister and brother plants from the same
parent. In this method, seeds from the fruits of a tree which
show the typical parental qualities of the tree, i.e. leaves and
fruits are first selected. The seeds of these fruits are sown and
the seedlings transplanted in the main field and when these
plants put forth flowers, progenies conforming to the
characters which formed the basis for the original selection
are marked among the female as well as male plants. Pollens
from the male plant is taken and put on the stigma of female
flowers one day ahead of opening of the flowers. The female
flowers are then covered with butter paper bags to prevent
their contamination with other flowers. It is marked with a
tag. The fruit sets in about five to seven days when the bag is
removed. When these sib-mated fruits mature, they are
harvested and the seeds are extracted from raising second
generation of plants. This process is continued from generation
to generation while the entire 28 population raised from the
in-breds show uniformity of characters for which selections
were originally made.

Seed rate: 250-300 g per hectare

Soil treatment: Formaldehyde treatment followed by covering

with polythene sheet for 4-5 days and leaving it further
exposed for 3-4 days

87
Seed treatment: Seed treated with captan @ 3g/kg seed

Seed bed size 3 m (length)X 1m (Width) X 10-15 cm (Height)

Polythene size 20 X 15 cm or 25 X 10 cm

Polythene mixture Soil: sand : FYM in 1 : 1 : 1 ratio , Depth of

sowing - 1-2 cm, Spacing between row to row 10-15cm

Time of sowing: August-September

Irrigation: Frequent light irrigations as per requirement

Standards of the planting material

Height of the plant: 15-30 cm

Age of the plant: One month

Growth of the plant: Vigorous

Root system of the plant: Well developed without coiling of

roots

Disease incidence

Damping off

Serious disease in nursery, causes both pre and post emergence

death of seedlings in nursery

Control:

Seed treatment with thiram or captan, Drenching of nursery

with formaldehyde, 0.4 % thiram or captan

Guava (Psidium guajava L.)

Commercial cultivars : Allahabad Safeda, Sardar (L-49)

Improved cultivars : Lalit, Shweta, Arka Mridula, Arka

Amulya, Dharidar, Kohir Safeda, Pant Prabhat, Safed Jam

88
Raising of rootstocks

Raising rootstocks in polyethylene bags is recommended

as this give better establishment of plants in the field on
account of undisturbed tap root system. Moreover, nursery
raising in polyethylene bags saves labour in weeding,
watering, shifting and lifting of plants. The chief advantage
of using polyethylene bags is that, the seedlings can be raised
almost round the year under controlled conditions. Guava
seeds have a hard coating over the endocarp as a result of
which usually long time is required for germination. Fresh
seeds should be extracted from dpe fruits and washed
thoroughly to remove the pulpy materialclinging to the seeds.
It should be treated with fungicide (copper oxychloride) to
prevent damping-off of seedling before sowing in the
polyethylene bag. If the damping-off occurs as the seedlings
emerge, both the seedlings and the media should be treated
with a fungicide. A group of fungi is responsible for
dampingoff of the seedlings. For controlling damping off,
treatment with 0.3% copper oxychloride has been found very
effective. Seeds of guava are sown in polyethylene bags (20x10
cm or 18x27cm) at any time (JanuaryDecember). Polyethylene
bags are filled with soil, sand and farmyard manures in 3:1:1
ratio. All the polyethylene bags are covered with 100 micron
(400 gauge) white polyethylene sheet soon after sowing of
seed. During winter months, the polyethylene mulch
conserves heat and create conducive environment
(microclimate) for rapid germination and early establishment
of seedlings. Seed covered with polyethylene sheet gives as
high as 97 per cent success within three weeks.

89
Patch Budding

Seedlings of about one-year- age, pencil thick, uniform

and active in growth are selected. This method is most
satisfactory when vigorously growing plants with 1.25-2.5 cm
in stem diameter, are used as stock. The trees from which buds
are taken should be highly vegetative with lush succulent
growth to permit easy separation of buds from the stem. It is
better to take swollen and unsprouted dormant buds from leaf
axil of mature twigs of the scion variety. A patch,
approximately 1 cm (0.5 inch) to 1.5 cm (0.75 inch) with a bud
seems to be taken for better success. Similarly, 1-1.5 cm long
patch is removed from the rootstock and bud is fitted into the
remaining portion on the stock seedling. Bud should be fitted
at a height of nearly 15 cm above the ground level.
Polyethylene strip is used for keeping the buds close to the
stock. When the bark adheres tightly to the wood, budding is
usually successful. After about 2-3 weeks of budding the
polyethylene strip can be opened to examine the success. In
successful cases, about one-third shoot of the rootstock can be
removed for forcing the growth of buds. The remaining two-
thirds can be removed after three weeks of the first cutting,
leaving about 2-3 em above the bud. The best time for budding
is from May to August in different parts of the country.

Stooling
Stooling is the easiest and cheapest method of guava
propagation. This method can be used for quick multiplication
of desired varieties and also rootstocks. In this method, self-
rooted plants (cuttings and layers) are planted 0.5 m apart in
the stooling bed. These are allowed to grow for about three

90
years. Then these are cut down at the ground level in March.
New shoots emerge on the beheaded stumps. A 30-cm wide
ring of bark is removed from the base of each shoot rubbing
the cambium of the exposed portion in May. All the shoots
are mounted with the soil to a height of 30 cm. The soil is
covered with mulch to conserve the moisture. After a period
of two months of the onset of monsoon, the shoots are detached
from the mother plant at ringed portion and planted in the
nursery. The shoots are headed back to maintain the root and
shoot balance before planting in the nursery by following the
technique of ringing and mounding of the shoots, second time
stooling is done on the same mother shoot in the first week of
September. The rooted shoot layers are detached in the first
week of November. Thus, stooling is done twice on the same
mother stool in a year. The stooling of a mother stool can be
done for many years. With the advancement of its age, the
number of stool layers also increases every year. The growth
and development of a stool layers are better than seedlings.
The application of rooting hormone is not required.

Airlayering

Air layering is one of the most important commercial

method in practice for guava propagation. Rainy season
(preferably July-August) is the most suitable period for air
layering. In this method, limbs of about 1.2cm or more in
diameter are girdled by removing a strip of bark with a width
of about 2cm. The girdled area is bound with a ball of
moistened sphagnum moss of about 7 em in diameter and 10-
13cm long, which is then wrapped with polyethylene film and
tied loosely over the wrap to prevent bird damage and also to

91
prevent the moistened moss from overheating. Roots usually
start developing in three to five weeks. When they grow
through the ball of moss, the stem may be detached from the
mother plant below the girdled area. The polyethylene film is
removed and the new plant is potted in manured soil in pot/
polyethylene bags and kept in the shade until new leaves
appear. When the new growth is about 15-20cm long, the plant
is hardened in full sunlight before transplanting in the field.

Soft-wood /Wedge grafting

Soft-wood /Wedge grafting, a technique for rapid

multiplication has been perfected at Central Institute for
Subtropical Horticulture (CISH), Lucknow. This technique has
a tremendous potential for multiplying guava plants rapidly
throughout the year both in greenhouse and under open
conditions. Presently, the institute is producing quality
materials of guava through wedge grafting technique round
the year in greenhouse as well as in open conditions. The
technique involves growing of seedlings in polyethylene bags,
grafting, capping and hardening of grafts. Seedlings are raised
for rootstocks in the nursery for approximately 6 to 8 months.
When the stem diameter of seedling is of pencil thickness (0.5-
1.0 cm) they are chosen for wedge grafting. In this technique,
proper selection and preparation of scion sticks is very
important for obtaining higher success. Shoot with growing
apical portion (terminal growth) which is 3 to 4 months old is
ideal for this technique. The scion shoot of pencil thickness,
with 3 to 4 healthy buds of 15-18 cm long is used for grafting.
Selected scion shoots are defoliated on the mother plant, about
5-7 days prior to detaching. At the same time, the apical

92
growing portion of selected shoot is also beheaded. This helps
in forcing the dormant buds to swell. In this way, the buds on
the scion are ready to start sprouting at the time of grafting.
This treatment is essential for high success of grafts.

After selection of the scion, rootstock (seedling) is

headed back by retaining 15-18 cm long stem above the soil
level in the polyethylene bag. The beheaded rootstock is split
to about 4.0 - 4.5 cm deep through the centre of the stem with
grafting knife. A wedge shaped cut, slanting from both the
sides (4.0 - 4.5 cm long) is made on the lower side of the scion
shoot. The scion stick is then inserted into the split of the stock
and pressed properly so that cambium tissues of rootstock and
scion stick should come in contact with each other. Care must
be exercised to match the cambium layer of the stock and scion
along with full length of each component. The union is then
tied with the help of 150 gauge polyethylene strip, 2 cm in
width and 25 - 30 cm in length. Immediately after grafting,
the graft is covered by 2.5 x 18.0 cm long white polyethylene
cap which is tied with rubber band at the lower end. The scion
starts sprouting after 9 to 12 days which is visible from out
side. The cap is removed after 25 days in the evening hours.
The grafts are transferred to net house for hardening.

Standards of soft wood/wedge grafting in guava

Characters Standards

Method of propagation: Soft wood/Wedge grafting

Type of rootstock: Straight & active growth stage

Size of polyethylene bag: 20 x 10 cm / 10 x 25 cm

93
Age of rootstock: 6 to 8 months

Diameter of rootstock: 0.5 - 1.0 cm

Age of scion shoots: 3 - 4 months old

Diameter of scion: 0.5 - 1.0 cm

Length of scion sticks: 12 - 15 cm

No of buds on the scion stick: 3-4 buds

Union height (grafting height): 15-20 cm above the soil

Root type/ Architecture: Well developed root system without

coiling

Plant height: 45-60 cm

Stem girth: 1.5-2.5cm

Foliage: Healthy and green foliage having 3 to 4 branches

Precautions: When grafts are set out in the nursery, always

handle them by holding the rootstock. Do not bump the scion,
because this may disturb the callus tissue, causing the graft to
die

Standards of patch budding in Guava

Characters Standards

Method of propagation: Patch budding

Type of rootstock: Straight & active growth stage

Raising rootstock: In polyethylene bag

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Size of polyethylene bag: 20 x 10 cm / 10 x 25 cm

Age of rootstock: 10 to 12 month old

Diameter of rootstock: 1.25 - 2.50 cm

Age of scion shoots: 4 - 5 months old

Diameter of scion: 1.25 - 2.50 cm

Size of patch: 1 X 1.5 cm

Budding height: 15-20 cm above the soil/ground

Stem girth: 3.5-4.5 cm

Bud union: Smooth

Plant height: 40-60 cm

Root type/ Architecture: Well developed root system without

coiling

Foliage: Healthy and green foliage having 3 to 4branches

Precautions: When grafts are set out in the nursery, always

handle them by holding the rootstock. Do not bump the scion,
because this may disturb the callus tissue, causing the graft to
die.

95
 Establishment of nursery and production of
quality planting material of Flower crops

Introduction
Floriculture in India is growing at the rate of 7-10% per
annum. The area under flowers is around 1, 16,000 ha
concentrated mostly in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
Maharashtra, Tamilnadu, and West Bengal. The success of
floriculture industry mainly depends on the quality of seed
and planting materials. Because of the diversity in floriculture
products, production and distribution of both vegetatively
propagated plant material and also seed propagated plant
materials have emerged as the most important and powerful
business world over. In Andaman and Nicobar Islands, only
a handful of people cultivate traditional flowers like Marigold,
Croosandra, Tuberose and Jasmine in their backyard or
Kitchen gardens in the Bay Island. The demand of flowers in
Andaman and Nicobar Islands at present is met from the
import from mainland. With the extension of air port and
international flights, these Islands are going to become one of
the important tourist destinations. Therefore, the demand of
flowers is going to increase substantially. It has been found
that some of cut flowers like tuberose, gerbera, marigold,
crossandra, and gladiolus have been proved beyond doubt
that they can be grown very well here. The total cost of import
of flowers is approximately four crore sixty lakhs sixty five
thousands rupees and the local supply is only of four lakh
rupees only. The requirement of traditional and cut flowers
is largely met by airlifting it from the mainland. This result in
exorbitant cost of flowers because of the damages caused

96
during the transport of this highly perishable commodity and
high freight charges. Hence, good quality planting material
(seeds, bulbs, etc) production in the Islands itself is a basic
need of a grower. The quality refers to genuine and diseased
free material. Good quality planting material will boost
productivity. Seeds or bulbs etc are the carriers of genetic
potential for higher crop production. The farmers are less
sensitive to price when they are sure of quality planting
material its exclusiveness and the monetary compensations
that will accrue from higher production. In case of problems
caused by virus and virus like diseases, use of virus free
planting material becomes mandatory. Viability and good
germination are of paramount importance in case of seed
propagated ornamental crops (Marigold, Aster, Zinnia, etc).
In ornamental crops very little have been achieved in the
production of genuine planting material free from the diseases.
It is perhaps lack of infrastructure facilities and trained
manpower. Cultivation of flower crops for planting material
production (seed, bulbs production etc) requires constant
attention, in-depth knowledge, skill and specialization. The
growers have adopted mostly open-pollinated cultivars. There
is a need to improve the quality of seeds and bulbs produced
in Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Important considerations in quality plant material

production.
Aspects of quality, which have an effect on plant performance,
are either intrinsic or visible

Visible aspects (In case of plants propagated through budding

or grafting. e.g.: rose)

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 a Homogeneity of plants - Lack of homogeneity may
indicate different grades of inputs or growth
differences in the production field. Source of
rootstock and bud wood is important.
a Diameter of rootstock indicates the grade of
rootstock and quality of the growth process.
a Well-developed fibrous root system. This
characteristic demonstrates growth on a well-
prepared soil and regular growth during the period
of production.
a Strong outgrowth of bud or graft. A strong branch
has the potential to quickly develop a branching
structure, the basis for flower production. The
initial development, fast or slow, one or more
branches, is often variety related.
a No mechanical damage, no visible pests and
diseases.
a Healthy appearance. No growth abnormalities,
green branches.

Intrinsic aspects

a Strong physiological potential. Stress-free growth

during the plant production period will enable the
plant to re-grow easily after planting in the field or
green house, because plants have stored reserve
food.
a Healthy reproduction material and genetic
homogeneity. Selection of source for reproduction
material is based on healthy growth and material
i.e. bud wood and root stock, true to variety.

98
 a Free of non-visible diseases, e.g. Agrobacterium,
Verticillium. Once the plants are uprooted, these
diseases, if in the early stage, are not visible. During
the plant production process this has to be
controlled.

Sources of quality planting material

Since quality of planting material effects the production,

it is necessary to collect the basic material from a genuine and
reliable source. Efforts should be made to identify nodal
centers for supply of elite planting material of important
ornamental plants in our country. In recent years several
multinational and industrial houses have entered into
floriculture business and are producing quality plant material.

The planting materials of those elite varieties are

supplied from these institutions in small quantities to users
for future multiplication.

Field grown nursery:

Field production requires soils with good fertility, high

Organic-matter content (3-5%), and fine tilth, sandy-clay to
clay-loam soil, which will hold together in a ball, are ideal.

Container plant production:

Container production does not necessarily require good

soil on site. Container growing medium can be brought from
remote locations. However, good soil on site as a resource in
media construction may be useful. A firm surface, which
allows for the placing of containers and insures surface
drainage, is a must. The advantages of containerized

99
production include. High plant densities, use of land unsuited
for field production, Planting times independent of the
weather, Lower transportation costs because of lightweight
media and less root loss and a greater chance of survival than
with field-grown plants. The disadvantages are also numerous
like small containers need frequent watering, nutrients are
rapidly depleted, Plants easily become root-bound, Containers
are costly, labour costs to pot up plants are high and the roots
are stressed by temperature extremes. There are several factors
to keep in mind when deciding which containers to use: cost,
design features that control root growth, how the container
affects growing medium moisture content and temperature,
availability, how the container suits the particular needs of
the nursery, durability, and shipping capacity. Round black-
plastic pots are the norm, but they can cause root constriction,
leading to plants with poorly developed root systems. There
are other kinds of containers that promote better root systems.
For instance, copper-lined, white, and light-colored containers
produce more root growth, and square and stair-step pots help
keep plants from becoming root-bound.

Seedling Production using Seedling Trays:

In the past, the farmers themselves use to produce all
seedlings used for transplanting. Now a days many
progressive farmers are coming forward to take up quality
seedling production using seedling trays and supply to the
individual farmers.

Solarization for nursery bed sterilization

It is a method of heating soil through sunlight by
covering it with transparent polythene sheet to control soil
borne diseases including nematodes. This method used for
the disinfection of raised nursery bed made in soil to produce
healthy seedlings of vegetable. Other additional beneficial

100
effects include control of weeds, insect pests and release of
plant nutrients resulting in increased crop growth. Solarization
is a nonchemical alternative for disease, insect pest and weed
control.

Propagation Techniques

Rose: Roses can be propagated by cuttings, layering,

budding and grafting. Among all these methods, budding on
a rootstock is widely practiced. Roses are mainly propagated
through budding. In the budding technique, 'T' budding is
commonly practiced. The rootstocks used are Rosa multiflora
(Karnataka, West Bengal and Bihar), Rosa indica (North India)
and Rosa bourbaniana (North India), A thornless rootstock
namely NISHKANT has been developed at IIHR Since it is
devoid of thorns, close planting of rootstocks can be taken up
for budding operation.

Budding Technique:

The rootstocks are normally propagated through

cuttings. The dormant buds from a selected variety are
carefully removed with a sharp, Knife along with a small
portion of stem. The selected rootstock is pruned to about 7-
10 cm height and on a pencil thick stem, a 'T' shape cut is
made and the bark is slightly loosened to accommodate the
selected bud. After inserting the bud the bark portion of the
rootstock is covered and tied with a film of polythene. The
dormant buds get incorporated into the rootstock and sprout
to produce new flush.

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The Important methods of propagation

1. Seed Propagation

Propagation by seeds is the major methods by which

many ornamental plants are perpetuated. It is one of the most
efficient and widely used propagation method. Various types
of seasonal shrubs and ornamental flowering and avenue trees
are being multiplied by the seeds.

Nursery preparation and sowing of seeds:

The seeds can be sown in seed pans, seed frames, pots

or in baskets. For larger requirements, permanent seed frames
could be constructed for sowing the seeds. Adequate drainage
facilities should be provided in the sowing media in order to
drain out the excess moisture. The soil for sowing seed should
be light and porous. A mixture made up of one part in each of
loam and sand and two parts of leaf mould is ideal for sowing.
The seeds should be sown in the nursery beds evenly and
thinly. The seedings in the thickly sown seed bed will be lanky
due to competition for nutrition and also subject to damping
of disease easily. After sowing the seeds they should be
covered with fine sand or leaf mould twice the thickness of
the seeds. As a general rule large sized seeds should be sown
a bit deeper.

2. Cutting

Propagation by cutting is a simple and less expensive

method. Cutting is a process by which a plant is produced by
severing a vegetative portion from the plant and rooting it in
a favourable medium under optimum conditions. Plant parts

102
such as stems, roots, leaves and modified stems such as corms,
rhizomes, tubers, runners and bulbs are used for this purpose.
The stem cutting can be categorized into 3 types.

Softwood cuttings:

These types of cutting can still be sub-divided into two

groups. In the first group comes those cuttings which are taken
from herbaceous plants such as coleus, carnation, dahlia,
chrysanthemum etc. the second group consists of cuttings
taken from the unripened tips of woody plants, such as most
of the ornamental shrubs and some tree. The cutting should
be detached from the mother plant from below a node.

Semi-hard- wood cuttings:

Semi-hard-wood cuttings are those which have passed

the soft-wood stage but yet to ripen fully., Jasmines and
hydrangeas are example of plants from which such cuttings
are taken for propagation.

Hard -wood cuttings:

The cuttings which are taken from the mature current

years growth, as in some shrubs and tree. While in the first
tow categories of cuttings the length of cutting remains
between 2.5 to 10 cm and 15 to 25 cm, but in case of hard-
wood cuttings the length depends upon the nature of plants
and prevailing climatic conditions. But normally, for many
hare-wood cuttings the length varies between 15 and 30 cm.
The stem cuttings are further categorized into 3 groups.

103
i.) Terminal cuttings: Such cutting are obtained from
terminal portion of a shoot. The leaves from the
lower portion of the cutting are removed by nipping
(and not by tearing off), while 2-4 leaves are
retained in the apex. If the size of the leaves is very
larger, these may be cut into halves. Most of the
cuttings are to be inserted in the rooting media as
early as possible, after being detached from the
mother plant. But in case of cacti and some other
succulent plants these are air -dried for 2-4 days
before inserting in the rooting media.

ii.) Heel cutting: when lateral shoots are pulled off

from the stem with a portion of the stem attached
to it, these are called heel cuttings. Heel cuttings
root more easily. If needed, the basal end could be
smoothened off with a sharp knife. Sometimes
carnation cutting are prepared in this way.

iii.) Node cuttings: Plants like Dracaena and

Dieffenbachia are propagated from single or
multiple node cuttings. Such cuttings are normally
placed horizontally on the rooting media.

iv.) Root cuttings: Root cuttings should be taken from

young roots of average thickness and the length
may vary from 2.5 to 15 cm with one or a few buds.
The cuttings are placed horizontally or vertically
in light soil or sand. The horizontally placed
cuttings are covered sufficiently. The adventitious
buds give rise to new shoots and roots to grow from
the base of these buds or from the cut sections of
the old roots.

104
 v.) Leaf cuttings: In this method the leaf stalk when
notched and placed in rooting medium, they
produce individual plants.

Factors affecting rooting in cuttings: Age and nutritional

environmental factors affect the rooting of cuttings. Age and
nutritional condition of the stock plant, position of the shoot
on the parent plant, maturity of the tissue at the base of the
cuttings and presence of leaves and buds on the shoot are the
internal factors affecting the rooting of cuttings. Light,
temperature, humidity and rooting medium are the external
factors affecting the rooting wounding, defoliation treatment
with growth regulators is used especially in ornamental like
Bougainvillea (2000 ppm of IBA+NAA mixture by quick dip
method) and Ixora (IBA 200 ppm). Vase on shrubs like Tagar,
Crotons, Hemelia and Climbers and creepers as well as trees
like Pangara and peltoforum are being propagated by cuttings.

3. Layering

Layering is done when a clone can not be rooted through

stem cutting. It is an important method of commercial
propagation in ornamental like Jasmine, Hibiscus, Ixora,
Mussanda. Generally the plants, which are difficult to multiply
by cutting, can be raised by one or other method of layering.
In this method since the twigs are attached to the mother plant,
the supply of food and water supply is not discontinued; this
helps in rooting in layer than cuttings. Rooting of layering is
encouraged by etiolating. Presence of sufficient oxygen,
moisture and temperature and application of root promoting
substance at the time of layering help to get profuse root in a
short time. Root promoting substance are applied as powder
or in lanolin.

105
Simple or ground layering:

It is the common and simplest from of layering. Majority

of the variegated plants which are difficult to root from cuttings
could be rooted through this method of layering. Some
clumbers are also rooted through this.

Air layering:

Air layering or gootie is one of the most widely used

method of layerage in ornamental plants. A large number of
shrubs, foliage plants and even ornamental trees are raised by
this method. Generally branches of plants which are not prone
to bending upto the ground level for layering are propagated
by this method. Generally terminal portions are used for air
layers. The mature branch is slit or nitched below a node at
the desired height. The part of the wounded stem, as well as 5
cm on either side of the wound, is covered with damp
sphagnum moss and this is covered over by polythene paper
and secondly tied at both ends the polythene paper around
the moss to form a bag and fold the ends several times inwards
to prevent the moisture in the moss from coming out. The two
ends are tied firmly on the two sides of the stem layered.

4. Grafting

Grafting is the method of propagation used for

perpetuating clones that cannot be readily maintained by
several methods of propagation. It is used for obtaining special
forms of plan growth etc. This method of propagation is limited
for plants. Sometimes approach grafting is done for
propagation of delicate Hawaiian cultivars of Hibiscus.

106
5. Budding

In budding, a single bud, as against a scion wood

containing a number of buds in the case of grafting is inserted
on the rootstock in a manner that both will unite and continue
to grow as a single plant. Three to five weeks after the budding
operation, the portion of the rootstock about 3-5 cm above the
union, is cut off. Mostly 'T' budding is employed for
propagation of most of the ornamental plants. The patch
budding is generally not popular. This method is sometimes
used for multiplication of hibiscus hybrids. The optimum time
of budding is when the stock plant is actively growing and
the bark separates easily from the wood.

6. Others

Suckers:

In some plants new stems are produced from the

adventitious buds on their roots. Such new growths are called
suckers. These suckers can be perpetuated as individual plants.
(e.g. gerbera, chrysanthemum)

Division:

This type of propagation is the simplest method of

propagation for increasing the number of stock plants. It
involves simply dividing the plants into small pieces each of
which must contain a portion of the rootstock with leaves or
buds or as a few roots. Division must be carried out during
the dormant season. The clumps are lifted with a fork and are
divided by separating them into suitable sized portions. Each
portion shows contain about 3 or 4 buds or stems and the

107
outside portions of the clumps should be selected, as these
are the most vigorous. Some of the clumps are easy to divide
by pulling them apart after shaking of the loose soil, others
are more difficult, and the rhizomes or rootstocks have to be
separated with or without knife or through with a spade. The
divided portions must be planted firmly and well watered
within an hour or two. Majority of herbaceous ornamentals
can be increased through this method. (e.g. Alstroemaria,
Delphinium, Campanula, Armeria, Daisy etc.)

Rhizomes:

Rhizomes are sub- terrnean stems that arise from a lateral

bud from the main stem at ground level and extend
underground near the surface horizontally. The aerial shoots
develop from the laterial buds. Generally rhizomes are cut
into small pieces having one or more buds and planted for
multiplication (e.g. Canna) Stolons A slender branch, which
normally produces roots and bears a bud at this extreme, this
forming a new plant e.g. Chlorophytum.

Tubers:

They are short, thickned part of subterranean branches,

which store large quantities of plant food, mainly starch.
Tubers contain buds in the axils of reduced leaves. (eg.
Tuberose)

Corm:

These are underground stem with a short, fleshy, vertical

axis covered with dried leaf bases. (e.g. gladiolus).

108
Plug production of flower seedlings

There has been a shift from growing seedlings on flat

and raised nursery beds in open field towards growing value
added transplants in specially designed containers such as
plug trays.

A major advantage of block or modular raised seedlings

as compared with that of bare-root transplants is the significant
reduction of the transplanting shock resulting in improved
crop establishment and yield of several annuals. Container
raised seedlings are easy to handle, grade, shift and transport
manually as well as mechanically. Further, it provides good
control of young plants in the nursery due to better water
drainage, aeration, sanitation, quick take-off and uniform
growth in nursery and in the field after transplanting.
Production of healthy seedlings is a prerequisite for good
initial crop growth that results in optimum vegetative growth
that gets finally transformed into the potential economic yield.
Healthy growth of the plant from the beginning also ensures
better use efficiency of scarce and costly inputs like water,
nutrients and better tolerance to both biotic and abiotic stresses.

Advantages of growing seedlings in plastic trays under

protected structures:

‹ Seeds germinate properly.

‹ Mortality of seedlings is very rare,

‹ There is no loss of expensive seeds of hybrids.

‹ There is adequate space for each seedling to grow

properly.

109
 ‹ Equal and healthy growth of each seedling.

‹ Damage due to pests and diseases are very rare.

‹ Seedlings do not wither during transport.

‹ Promotes better root growth.

‹ Damage to roots is very rare during shifting and

planting.

‹ Hassle free planting.

‹ Facilitates uniform maturity of the crop.

Protective structure for seedling production

Seedlings of ornamental crops are being grown in low

cost poly houses and net houses. The mainframe can be of
steel pipes, wooden poles or even granite stone pillars. Poly
houses are clad with 200 micron UV stabilized polythene sheet
on the roof and the sides are covered with 40 mesh insect-
proof nylon net. A retractable (50%) shade net is provided
below the roof to be used during the days of bright sunlight
and high temperature. Foggers may also be provided to bring
down the temperature during summer days. The mainframe
can also be erected with wooden poles or granite stone pillars
bringing down the expenditure further. In recent years net
houses are becoming popular to raise the seedlings. Granite
stone pillars of 6 to 8 feet long are erected as the mainframe of
the net house. The roof is generally covered with a shade net
and the sides are covered with the insect proof net. However,
it is advisable to cover the roof also with the insect proof net
above the retractable shade net to have better control over the
entry of insect vectors like white flies which may be carried

110
by the air currents and gain entry into the greenhouse. Further
it is essential to harden the seedlings before transplanting. A
retractable shade net will be useful to regulate the shade in
the greenhouse depending on the light levels prevailing in
the greenhouse. Plastic pipes of ¾ inch are bent in arch shape
over the nursery beds and are covered with a plastic sheet to
protect the seedlings from rain as and when required. This
structure provides adequate light, shade and humidity and
also protects the seedlings from thrips and white flies that
spread the virus diseases.

Plug Trays:

Plug trays are also called as pro-trays (propagation

trays). The most commonly used are 98-celled trays. The
dimensions of the trays are generally 54 cm in length and 27
cm in width with a cavity depth of 4 cm. These trays are made
of polypropylene and are re-usable up to five to six times
depending on the care with which they are handled. Before
using every time it is necessary that these trays are thoroughly
washed and disinfected with a fungicide. The holes at the
bottom of the cells control the moisture properly. Equal spaced
cells facilitate equal growth of the seedlings. Coir dust (Coco
peat) Well decomposed and sterilized commercial growing
medium is better as the incidence of seedling diseases is less
or nil and it contains in it right amount of moisture to support
seed germination. The most commonly used growing medium
is coir dust (coco peat), which is steam sterilized to prevent
nursery diseases. Coco peat is a by-product of coir industry
and it has high water holding capacity. It should be well
decomposed, sterilized and supplemented with major and

111
micro nutrient sources before using it as the growing medium.
Neem cake enriched with Trichoderma (100:1) is applied @
100 kg per tonne of the medium to prevent seedling diseases.
Technique of raising seedlings Fill the seedling tray with
appropriate growing medium such as coco peat or vermin
compost + sand mixed in equal proportion. About 1-1.25 kg
of coco peat is required to fill one 98-celled tray. Make a small
depression for sowing (0.5 cm) by fingertip or a dibbler in the
center of the cell. Sow one seed per cell and cover the cells
with the coco peat. Irrigation is not required before or after
sowing till seeds germinate if coco peat having adequate
moisture is used as the medium. Keep about 10 trays one over
the other for 3 to 6 days, depending on the crop. Cover the
entire stack of trays with a polyethylene sheet to ensure
conservation of moisture and warmth that hastens
germination. Care must be taken for spreading the trays when
the seeds start sprouting. The trays with sprouted seeds are
placed in pairs over a bed covered with polyethylene sheet.
Seedling trays are watered daily, or as needed (not too wet or
too dry) using a rose can or a hosepipe with a rose. The trays
are also drenched with a fungicide as a precautionary measure
against seedling mortality. Spray (3g / L) 100 percent water-
soluble fertilizer (19 per cent NPK plus trace elements) twice
(12 and 20 days after sowing). Protect the seedlings from
rainfall by covering the arch erected on the beds with
polyethylene sheet whenever it rains. Hardening of seedlings
Tray grown seedlings in a green house especially need
hardening as they are raised with lower light levels. Harden
the seedlings by withholding irrigation and reducing the shade
before transplanting. Pest Management Drenching plug trays

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with copper oxy chloride (0.4 %) before filling them with
growing medium prevents seedling diseases. Spray systemic
insecticides like Imidacloprid (0.3ml/liter) 7-10 days after
germination and before transplanting. The seedlings will be
ready in about 21-42 days for transplanting into the main field
depending upon the crop.

Rooting and Growing Media

Potting Media

Field soil is sometimes used in container mixes (10%-

30% by volume), but soil is heavy and requires the additional
step of pasteurization to eliminate diseases and weed seeds.
The standard replacement for soil is peat moss, but there has
been concern over the past few years that peat is a non-
renewable resource. Consequently, research is being
conducted to determine what materials can be used to replace
peat. Calculating substrate quantity The volume of the
container has to be determined by filling the container with
water. The total amount of water added is the volume of the
container. The volume of the container has to be multiplied
with the number of seedlings/plants to be produced. The
resulting volume can be divided by 20, the capacity of one big
bucket, to get approximately the number of buckets of substrate
needed to fill all containers. In general, small polybags usually
hold 0.5 litres of water, large bags more than 1.5 litres and
root trainers less than 0.5 litres. Media for plant growth and
seed germination has great significance in nursery business.
Propagating medium plays an important role in raising of
successful plant material in nursery production. Propagating
medium is the substance, be it peat, sand, cocopeat, vermiculite

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or other material, into which the unrooted cuttings are inserted
or seeds are sown for germination. The material for rooting
and growing media may be used either alone or incorporated
with one or more products in combination. The materials used
for rooting media may be naturally occurring or max; be
manufactured artificially. In many cases, the waste or surplus
products from the industries viz., saw dust is used for this
purpose.

Qualities of a ideal rooting media:

The substance must have appropriate physical and

chemical properties. They must retain sufficient water and air.
They must allow sufficient drainage. The substance must be
free from weed seeds, nematodes, fungi, bacteria and insect
pests. The acidity or alkalinity should be in optimum for
different species. The medium must be sufficiently firm and
dense to hold the cuttings or seeds in place during rooting or
germination. Its volume must be fairly constant when either
wet or dry. It must be capable of being sterilized. The rooting
media should support the cuttings to avoid lodging. This is
particularly important whenever larger level cuttings are used
under mist chamber conditions Selection criteria for media.
Always consider utilizing local products to save transportation
costs. Check the quality of the product before buying. Check
for the grade or particle size and freedom from impurities such
as silt and harmful salts. Obtain local guidance of agricultural
officers for selecting appropriate media. The pH of the media
should be checked. An optimum pH for the rooting medium
should be 5.5 - 6.5, with a range of 4.0 - 5.0. Select a rooting
media which has optimum air filled porosity range of around

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34%. The media must provide sufficient oxygen to the base of
cuttings. Ensure that the product is well graded. Select a media
which can retain structures during rooting particularly where
mist and fogging units are used for mist propagation. Select a
medium which does not require any mixing

Media for propagation and growing nursery plants

There are several media and mixtures of different kind
are available for use in propagation such as in seed
germination, rooting of cuttings and for growing container
stock. Commonly used media with a brief description of
properties are given below:

i) Soil:

A soil is composed of materials in the solid, liquid and

gaseous states. These materials must exist in the proper
proportions for satisfactory plant growth. The texture
of a soil depends upon relative proportions of sand, silt
and clay. Maintenance of a favourable granular and
crumb soil structure is very important.

ii) Sand:

Sand consists of small rock grains (0.05 to 2.0 mm)

formed as result of the weathering of various rocks. Its
mineral composition depends on type of rock. Quartz
sand is generally used for propagation and plastering
grade is used for rooting of cuttings. Sand should be
preferably sterilised before use.

iii) Peat:

There are different types of peats available because of

mode and circumstances of its formation, the plant
species from which it is formed. Peat consists of the
remains of aquatic, marsh, bog or swamp vegetation

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 which has been preserved under water in a partially
decomposed state. Composition of peat varies widely
depending upon the vegetation, decomposition and
degree of acidity. The main advantage of moss peat is
that it is a uniform product. It is free from pests, diseases
and weed seeds. Useful for growing rooted cuttings or
seedlings. Peat is easily compressed and can be
purchased in polythene covered bags. Peat is the
material most commonly used and forms the basis of
many different propagation media when mixed with
other components. Peat can be mixed, with either fine
or coarse sand, perlite or vermiculate, sawdust. Peat is
formed by the partial decomposition of plants in areas
of high rainfall and the types of peat can vary
considerably in color and structure. A medium grade
sphagnum peat is generally recommended

iv) Sphagmum moss:

The sphagmum moss is the dehydrated remains of acid-

bog plants of the genus Sphagmum. It is relatively sterile,
light in weight and has a very high water holding
capacity and contains specific fungistatic substances. It
is very popular media per propagation of pomegranate
in Maharashtra by air layering.

v) Vermuculite:

It is a micaceous mineral which expands markedly when

heated. It is chemically a hydrated magnesium -
aluminium - iron silicate. It is very light in weight,
neutral in reaction with good buffering properties and

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 insoluble in water. .. It can absorb large quantities of
water. Normally has pH range between 6.0 - 6.5, has a
buffering action. Vermiculate will not re-expand if
excessively firmed or compressed. It is normally mixed
with peat moss, because vermuculite alone will not
support the cuttings. It is suitable for rooting cuttings
intended for export to overcome specific plant
quarantine regulation

vi) Perlite:

It is a gray white material of volcanic origin mined from

lava flows and has neutral reaction with no buffering
and no cation exchange capacity and no mineral
contents. Chemically perlite is made up of alumino -
silicates. It is light, sterile, contain no nutrients. It has
pH of 6.0 - 7.5 range. It may be used alone but is best
used with peat moss for woody ornamentals. Since it is
light in weight, it is useful for mist propagation benches
because there is little chance of damages to the structure
from weight stress. It is a useful material for rooting and
shipping cuttings when there are specific plant
quarantine regulations.

vii) Pumice:

It is a gray or white volcanic rock, which is originally

frothed by gases to give it sponge like and porous
character. It is made up of aluminium silicate and also
contain small quantities of potassium and sodium. It
provides good aeration and drainage to the media

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viii) Leaf mold:

Maple, Oak, Sycamore and elm are among the leaf types
suitable for leaf mold. This material is little used in
modern large scale propagation procedures. Leaf mold
in easily available in India. It has a very low bulk density
i.e. 0.1 - 0.25 gms/cm3. ix) Sawdust and woodshavings:
These are used mostly for propagating media. A
biproduct formed during the processing of wood
material. It is free from harmful substances, freedom
from salts, nitrogen deficiency. If sawdust is excessively
composted, there is a problem of drainage. Controlled
release fertilizers can be used along with sawdust

x) Cocopeat:

It is also called cocodust. A by product of cutting and

sifting coconuts for fibre production. It is the most
popular growing media available these days. Cocopeat
has excellent aeration of 15 to 25% because of its fine
structure. Coco substrates are expected to degrade
slower than substrates such as peat moss. Do not add
potassium to media as it is already available in coir. In
cocopeat media add more nitrogen as micro organism
in coco peat need to break down the few easily
degradable substances present in peat Soil mixtures for
container growing In propagation procedures, young
seedlings or rooted cuttings are sometimes planted
directly in the field but frequently they are started in a
soil mix in some type of container such as peat or plastic
pots or clay flower pots or metal cans. Potting mixture
for rooted cuttings and young seedlings The general

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 potting mixture for rooted cuttings and seedling is 1 or
2 parts of sand, 1 part of loam soil and 1 part peatmoss
or shredded bark or leaf mold. For container grown
general nursery stock, it is 1 part sand, 2 parts loam soil
and 1 part peat moss or shredded bark of leaf mold is
generally recommended potting mixture. General
standards of media / substrate water content (% by
weight) maximum 80% organic content (% of dry matter)
minimum 90% pH of water - maximum 4.5 Ec (mS/cm
at 25° C in the 1:1.5 volume extract) maximum 0.5.

Lay out and Planning Good Nursery

Nursery is an area for rearing plants. It is the place where

all kinds of plants like trees, shrubs, climbers etc. are grown
and kept for transporting or for using them as stock plants for
budding, grafting and other method of propagation or for sale.
The modern nurseries also serve as an area where garden tools,
fertilizers are also offered for sale along with plant material.
The number of genuine and quality fruit and ornamental
plants varieties produced by Agricultural Universities, State
Departments of Horticulture and Research Institutions are very
meagre to meet the demand of large number of growers
through out the country. Such high quality planting material
could be produced by careful planning, establishment and
management of nurseries. The success of any nursery depends
largely upon several factors viz., proper selection of site, careful
planning, selection of crops and varieties which are in good
demand and procuring the progeny from the reputed
institutions/nurseries, elite gardens, establishment of mother
plants blocks/scion banks, acquiring scientific information of

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each variety and skilful management in production of
necessary scions as well as marketing the same. For the
establishment of ornamental plant nursery on scientific base
the following points have to be considered.

A. Selection of site Location:

The selected site for establishing a nursery should be

located in an established nursery area. By doing so, one can
share the experiences of fellow nurserymen and thereby many
mistakes can be avoided in planning, management and
marketing of the nursery stock. The selected site should
preferably on a highway or atleast connected with a good
motorable road, which facilitates easy and economic transport
of inputs and nursery plants to the users, orchardists and fruit
growers. The selected site should also have electricity and other
communication facilities. These facilities will improve the
production as well as marketing.

Soil:

The success of any nursery depends mainly upon the

quality of soil and abundant supply of good quality potable
water. Before selecting the site for nursery, the soil and water
analysis must be done, since most of the fruit and ornamental
plants cannot tolerate salinity and alkalinity. The soil should
be light to medium in texture with good fertility and sufficient
water holding capacity along with good drainage. A soil pH
of 6.0 to 7.0 is most suitable for any nursery. Salinity in soil or
irrigation water leads to salt injury resulting in nutritional
deficiencies, marginal browning of leaves and in acute cases
death of grafts, layers and nursery seedlings especially in

120
summer months. Therefore, a careful selection of soil with
good quality irrigation water supply is of paramount
importanance for the nursery.

Topography:

The topography of the selected land should be plain with

one per cent slope. The slope facilitates smooth flow of
irrigation water.

B. Planning and layout of a nursery

After selection of site for the establishment of a nursery,

planning may be done in consultation with an experienced
horticulturist or nurserymen. By doing so the cost on
establishment, production and marketing can be reduced
substantially, besides performing various nursery operations
most efficiently and economically. While planning and layout
is being done, the following components are to be taken care
and provision should be made for these.

1. Fence:

Prior to the establishment of a nursery, a good fence with

barbed wire must be erected all around the nursery to prevent
tress pass of animals and theft. The fence could be further
strengthened by planting a live hedge with thorny fruit plants
(like Koranda).

2. Roads and paths:

A proper planning for roads and paths inside the nursery

will not only add beauty, but also make the nursery operations
easy and economical. This could be achieved by dividing the

121
nursery into different blocks and various sections. But at the
same time, the land should not be wasted by unnecessarily
laying out of paths and roads.

3. Progeny block/Mother plant block:

The nursery should have a well-maintained progeny

block or mother plant block/scion bank planted with those
varieties in good demand. The grafts/layers/ rooted cuttings/
seedlings should be obtained preferably from the original
breeder /research institute from where it is released or from a
reputed nursery. One should remember that, the success of
any nursery largely depends upon the initial selection of
progeny plants or mother plants for further multiplication. Any
mistake made in this aspect will result in loss of the reputation
of the nursery. A well managed progeny block or mother plants
block will not only create confidence among the customers
but also reduces the cost of production and increases the
success rate of grafting/ budding/layering because of
availability of fresh scion material throughout the season
within the nursery itself and there will not be any lag period
between separations of scion and graftage.

4. Wells, sump, pipelines, generators etc:

Fruit and ornamental nursery plants require abundant

supply of water for irrigation, since they are grown in polybags
or pots with limited quantity of potting mixture. Hence
sufficient number of wells to yield sufficient quantity of
irrigation water is a must in nurseries. In areas with low water
yields and frequent power failures, a sump to hold sufficient
quantity of water to irrigate the nursery plants is also very

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much essential along with appropriate pump for lifting the
irrigation water. In areas where electricity failure is a problem
which is more common, an alternate power supply (generator)
is very essential for smooth running of pumpset. Since water
scarcity is a limiting factor in most of the areas in the country
a well laid out PVC pipeline system will solve the problem to
a greater extent. An experienced agricultural engineer may be
consulted in this regard for layout of pipeline. This facilitates
efficient and economic distribution of irrigation water to
various components in the nursery.

5. Office cum stores:

An office-cum-stores is needed for effective

management of the nursery. A store room of suitable size is
needed for storing polybags, tools and implements, packaging
material, labels, pesticides, fertilizers etc.

6. Seed beds:

In a nursery, this component is essential to raise the

seedlings and rootstocks. These are to be laid out near the water
source, since they require frequent watering and irrigation.
Beds of 1-meter width of any convenient length are to be made.
A working area of 60cm between the beds is necessary. This
facilitates ease in sowing of seeds, weeding, watering, spraying
and lifting of seedlings. Irrigation channels are to be laid out
conveniently. Alternatively, sprinkler irrigation system may
be provided for watering the beds, which offers uniform
germination and seedling growth.

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7. Nursery beds:

Rising of seedlings / rootstocks in polybags requires

more space compared to nursery beds but mortality is greatly
reduced along with uniformity. Nursery beds area should also
have a provision to keep the grafted plants either in trenches
of 30cm deep and 1 m wide so as to accommodate 500 grafts /
layers in each bed. Alternatively, the grafts/ layers can be
arranged on the ground in beds of 1 m wide with 60cm
working place in between the beds. Such beds can be irrigated
either with a rose fitted to a flexible hosepipe or by overhead
micro sprinklers.

8. Potting mixture and potting yard:

For better success of nursery plants, a good potting

mixture is necessary. The potting mixtures for different
purposes can be prepared by mixing fertile red soil, well rotten
FYM, leaf mold, oil cakes etc. in different proportions. The
potting mixture may be prepared well in advance by adding
sufficient quantity of superphosphate for better decomposition
and solubilization. The potting mixture may be kept near the
potting yard, where potting/pocketing is done. Construction
of a potting yard of suitable size facilitates potting of seedlings
or grafting/ budding operations even on a rainy day.

C. Structures for nursery:

1. Shade houses:

Shade houses in nurseries in tropical and sub-tropical

regions offer many advantages like raising of seedlings in bags
directly, protecting the grafts from hot summer months,

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effective irrigation through upside down overhead
microsprinklers. The shade houses made with shade nets (50%
or 75%) for regulation of shade are particularly very useful in
arid regions where the humidity is very low during summer
months.

2. Green houses/Polyhouses :

Grafting or budding of several fruit species under

polyhouses or low cost green houses with natural ventilation
will enhance the percentage of graft/bud take besides faster
growth of grafts due to favourable micro climatic conditions
of polyhouse.

General Nursery Management Practices

Facilities required for propagating many plant species

by seed, cuttings or grafting and budding include two basic
units namely a structure with temperature control and ample
light such as a green house or hot bed where seeds can be
germinated or cuttings rooted. The second unit, is a structure
into which the young tender plants can be moved for
hardening preparatory to transplanting and cold frames or lath
houses are useful for this purpose. Propagating structures

i. Green houses:

There are number of types of green houses namely low

cost green house and commercial green houses. In green house
construction, a wood or metal frame work is built to which
wood or metal sash bars are fixed to support panes of glass
embedded in putty. In all polyhouses/ green houses means
of providing air movement and air exchange is necessary to

125
aid in controlling temperature and humidity. It is best, if
possible to have in the green house heating and self opening
ventilators and evaporative cooling systems. ii. Plastic green
houses: Green houses covered with various types of plastic
film have become very popular for small home garden as well
as for large commercial installation. Several kinds of plastic
materials are available and are cheaper than glass. Plastic
houses are usually of temporary construction except when
permanent high cost coverings are used. Plastic covered green
houses tend to be much lighter than glass covered ones with a
build up of excessive high humidity.

a) Polythene film:

This is the most inexpensive covering material but it is

the short lasting one. However, UV ray resisting
polyethylene film of various thickness is usually
recommended which lasts longer.

b) PVC film:

This material is pliable and comes in various thickness

and widths upto 6 ft. It is longer lasting than polythene
and is more expensive PVC surface of film tends to
collect dust and lower the light intensity in due course
of time.

c) Polyester film:

This is a strong material with excellent weathering

properties lasting for 3-5 years and is unaffected by
extremes of heat or cold. But is usually costlier than
polythene film/pvc film.

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 d) Fiberglass:

Rigid panels, corrugated or flat fiber glass sheets

embedded in plastic are widely used for green house
construction. Fibre glass is strong, long lasting, light
weight and easily applied which is coming in a variety
of widths, lengths and thickness. It is costlier than poly
thin film/pvc film.

iii. Hotbeds:

The hot bed is often used for the same purpose as a green
house but in a smaller scale. Amateur operations and seedlings
can be started and leafy cuttings root early in the season in
such structures. Heat is provided artificially below the
propagating medium by electric heating cables, pot water,
steam pipes or hot air blows. As in the green house, in the hot
beds attention must be paid for shading and ventilation as
well as temperature and humidity control.

iv. Lathhouses:

These structures are very useful in providing protection

from the sun for container grown nursery stock in areas of
high summer temperatures and high light intensity. Well
established plants also can require lath house protection
including shade loving plants Lathhouses construction varies
widely depending on the material used. Aluminium pre-
fabricated lathhouses are available but may be more costly
than wood structures. Shade is provided by appropriate
structures and use of shade nets of different densities allow
various intensities of light in the lathhouses.

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Miscellaneous propagating structures

i. Mist beds:

These are valuable propagating units both in the green

house and out doors and are useful mainly in rooting of leafy
cuttings.

ii. Mist chamber:

This is a structure used to propagate soft wood cuttings,

difficult to root plants and shrubs. Here the principle is to spray
the cuttings with a minimum quantity of water. This is
achieved by providing the cuttings a series of intermittent
sprayings rather than a continuous spray. The intermittent
spraying can be done easily by means of a high pressure pump
and a time switch. The pump leads to a pipeline system inside
the propagating structure. The mist nozzles are fitted to these
pipelines and suitably spaced over the propagating material.

iii. Nursery bed:

These are raised beds or boxes made of brick and mortar,

provided with drainage holes at the bottom. The dimensions
of the boxes are 60 cm high, 120 cm broad and length as
required preferably not exceeding 10 m. Roof structures for
planting on both sides and forming ridges at the centre are
constructed on the top of the nursery beds. These structures
may be made permanent with angle iron or may be made of
wood. Moveable bamboo mats, palm leaf mats are placed over
these structures to protect the seedling from hot sun and heavy
rains. Even shade roofing can be used for this purpose for
raising see dings.

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iv. Fluorescent light boxes:

Young plants of many species grow satisfactorily under

artificial light from fluorescent lamp units. Although adequate
growth of many plant species may be obtained under
fluorescent lamps but not up to the mark compared to good
green house conditions.

v. Propagating cases:

Even in green house, humidity conditions are often not

sufficiently high for rooting. The use of enclosed frames or
cases covered with glass or plastic materials may be necessary
for successful rooting. In using such structures, care is
necessary to avoid the build up of disease organisms due to
high humidity. Types/species/varieties of plants for
production under polyhouse conditions. There are many
tender and half hardy plants worth raising each year, all of
which can be propagated from cuttings throughout the year.
Under Indian conditions, quoset type, multi span green house
is most suitable, because of its low cost and ease of fabrication,
ultraviolet resistant low density polyethylene single film
cladding of 200 micron thickness is sufficient for naturally
ventilated and fan and pad green houses. Fan and Pad green
houses are most suitable for nursery raising and rooting of
cuttings due to high relative humidity inside. High humidity
can be maintained in green house used for nursery raising or
for rooting cuttings by misting or fogging which is also known
as mist chamber. The containerized transplant production and
the hybrid seed production of high value annual ornamentals
have become a service oriented industry in advanced
countries. Thus, the green house technology for production

129
of planting material would be highly paying, there being a
demand for planting material. Nurserymen are enterpreneurs
can avail themselves of the subsidy facilities being provided
by the Government of India and technical guidance provided
by the State Department of Horticulture and the Agricultural
Universities for adopting the technology and making covered
cultivation or profitable venture.

Shade Nets

The shadenets are primarily used to protect the nursery

plants from direct sunlight. The planting material requires
certain amount of protected cultivation systems, which help
in maintaining the freshness and appeal of the plants. The
shade nets are available in desired shading percentages. These
are ultraviolet ray stabilised and can be used for longer time.
With many incentives in the form of subsidies from the
Government, use of shade net is becoming more popular. The
main effect of shade net is to reduce sunlight to the required
intensity. Though white, green and black are popular colours,
red and blue nets are recent introductions. Transluscent blue
shade net gives blue light, which is found to be excellent for
plant growth. For general purpose shading nets with open
weave pattern are preferred in fan and pad system, however
closed weaving patterns will be useful. Shade nets are also
used as sunscreen in low cost polyhouses or glass houses used
for production of plant material. Movable screen have the
advantage that whenever sunlight decreases the shade net can
be moved to one side to let more sunlight. Shade nets help
increase in quantity (growth) and quality besides having
partial protection from biotic and abiotic stresses. Fertilization

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Commercial synthetic fertilizers (including slow-release and
liquid fertilizers) have played a key role in modern nurseries.

The two most widely used irrigation systems are

overhead and drip (or trickle). Overhead irrigation is designed
to cover a large area, and these systems are the least expensive
to install. However, this method produces uneven water
distribution, which can slow plant growth, encourage disease,
and contribute to runoff. Drip or trickle system, which uses
60%-70% less water than overhead systems. Drip irrigation
systems cost more to install than overhead systems, but have
superior application uniformity and efficiency. They are also
less affected by wind and crop canopies, and they produce
less runoff. Another advantage is that workers can continue
working while the plants are being irrigated. The biggest
disadvantage to trickle irrigation, besides the initial cost, is
keeping the pipes and emitters clean. A third, less-used type
of irrigation system is sub irrigation using capillary sand beds.
In this system, water rises into containerized plants through
capillary action. Usually, the sand bed is covered with at least
one inch of fine sand, and slopes very slightly from one end
to the other. Water is released at the high end and slowly
percolates to the low end. These systems cost the most to
install, but they have no runoff or leaching. Weed Control
Weed control is extremely important. Weeds not only compete
for water and nutrients, but they can also hinder sales of
nursery stock. Weed control efforts should focus on two areas:
in the pot and under the pot. Sanitation is the least costly and
most effective method for controlling weeds. To prevent weed
seeds from blowing into pots, attention to a vegetation-free
zone both on and surrounding the production bed-is critical.
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Hand weeding is costly, but it may be appropriate in a small
nursery setting. Weeds must be removed when they are still
small, since large quantities of media are lost when big weeds
are pulled out of containers. Herbicides, on the other hand,
are widely used in container nursery production. Even though
weed-free media is used to establish nursery plants, wind and
birds and surface irrigation water are sources of weed seeds
that get deposited onto the pot surface. Thus, pre- and post-
emergent herbicides are commonly used in commercial
nursery production to control these freeloaders.

Nursery Plant Protection

Insect pests, diseases are critical factors in the process

of multiplication of plant material under open as well as
controlled conditions. Control of insects and diseases are
integral part of the nursery plant production.

Pest management: Prevention or avoidance of pests and

their damage is possible by the following methods:

™ Maintain vigorous, healthy plants by using proper

culture and management practices

™ Practice IPM and realize that all culture and

management factors can affect pests

™ Scout plants for pests o Use soaps, oils and

botanicals whenever possible

™ Spot spray only infested plants that exceed the

threshold

™ Destroy heavily infested or injured plants

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 ™ Conserve and promote beneficial insects by
selective pesticide use
Disease management:
™ Steam Sterilization: Rooting media sterilisation is
essential if it has been exposed or previously used
as it may contain undesirable microorganisms,
insects, and weeds. Steam sterilisation is relatively
expensive but ecofriendly compared to chemical
sterilisation
™ Soil Solarization: In solar sterilisation, the soil is
ploughed thoroughly and covered with polythene
sheet for few days depending on temperature
conditions
™ Hot Water Treatment (bulbs,corms)
™ Biological Control (Bacillus, Pseudomonas, and
Streptomyces and fungi such as Trichoderma
reduces fungal plant pathogens)
™ Chemical Control
Pest
Scales
Scales are serious pests on many plants. These remain
covered inside a hard coating which looks like a waxy scale
and infest lower surface of leaves, veins of branches. These
insects suck plant sap and as a result plants become weak.
The affected leaves turn yellow, deformed while the branches
and the plant may die - in severe cases. Plants with green shade
or semi shade are more prone to attack. If tender annual
flowerings crops are attacked, it is necessary to eradicate them
immediately.

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Management:

Selection of scale free planting material prevents early

build up of pest. Cutting and burning of infested parts reduces
further spread. Sprays of dimethoate, etheon and
chlorpyriphos at 0.05% provides effective control of scales.
Application of 10% pongamia oil to pruned shoots completely
controls rose red scale within 3 weeks. Natural enemies viz.,
Aphytis spp. Chilocorus nigritus and Pharasymnus horni are
common enemies of red scale in nature. Spraying of fish oil
resin soap at 0.5 kg/30 litres of water or methyl parathion
0.05% or dimethoate 0.05% provides effective control of scales
on orchids.

Thrips

Thrips are minute insects and mainly attack tender

leaves and growing buds. These are sucking insects which
affect a large number of plants. Both nymphls and adults can
affect plant parts. As a result of sucking nature of the pest,
plants become weak and the affected parts develop brown
streaks, with burnt appearance. The tender twigs, foliage,
flower buds get distorted and dry.

Management:

Sprays of oxydemeton methyl or dimethoate or

oxydemet on methyl or acephate given at 0.05% at 10 days
interval provides significant control of thrips. A predatory
wasp, Polistes hebraeus preys on R. cruentatus. Soil application
of phorate @ 1 kg a.i./ha also reduces thrips damage.
Drenching soil with chlorpyriphos 0.1% also helps in reducing
population.

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Aphids

Aphids are sucking insects which are blackish or

brownish or green in colour and suck sap from tender shoots,
leaves and flower buds. The aphids excrete honey-dews on
the foliage causing sooty mould to grow over the foliage.
Shoots or foliage get deformed. Affected plants become weak,
retard in growth. In case of ornamental plants, ornamental
look may be affected.

Management:

Spraying of dimathoate 0.05% or oxydemeton-methyl

0.05% or malathion 0.1 % at 10-15 days interval controls aphid
population effectively. To prevent recurrence of the pest
granular insecticides like phorate @ 1.0 kg a.i/ ha should be
applied to soil. Application of 4% alcohol extracts of Solanum
indicum and Erythrina indica provides good control of rose
aphid. Water extract of pongamia kernel 4% or pongamia oil
2% sprays cause significant mortality of aphids, on
chrysanthemum. Application of neem oil 1 % also reduces
aphid population effectively. Grubs and adults of coccinellid
beetles and maggots prey upon the aphids and effectively wipe
out their population in nature.

Mealybug

Mealy bugs are small fleshy insects which remain

covered in a white, wooly and waxy secretions. .. Generally
older plants are affected. The insects suck the sap as a result
of which plants weaken, leaves turn yellow & get deformed.
In severe cases affected plants may even die .. Mealy bugs
secrete honey dews which stick to the foliage and as a result
of which sooty mould cover the leaf surface impairing the
normal activity of the leaves

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Management:

Prompt collection and desctruction of infested parts

reduces spread of the pest. Crawling of ants on plants is the
sign of beginning of mealybug infestation. Spraying should
be taken up at this stage. Sprays of methyl parathion 0.05% or
dimethoate 0.05% or acephate 0.1 % at 15 days interval
effectively controls mealybug infestation. Application of
pongamia oil 2% also provides good control of mealy bugs, if
plant is not sensitive to oil sprays. Release of coccinellid
predator, Cryptolamus montrouzieri and a parasitoid,
Leptomastridia abnormis reduces mealy bug population in
glass house grown ornamentals.

Whiteflies

Whiteflise are tinny insects, white in colour and are very

active.

Management:

Excessive dampness and dark conditions should be

avoided for crops grown under protected conditions. Removal
and burning of heavily infested leaves checks multiplication
of the pest. Clean cultivation, using of insect screening nets
and Proper closing of doors help in preventing incidence of
whiteflies. Spraying of phosphamidin 0.05% alternated with
triazophos 0.05% at an early stage of infestation effectively
contains pest build up. Sprays of methomyl and acephate at
0.05% significantly reduce nymph and pupal population. A
management package of spraying dichlorvos 0.05% for adults,
triazophos or Spark at 0.05% alternating with pongamia oil
1% for nymphs and soil application of carbofuran @ 1 kg a.i./

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ha provides effective control of whitefly on gerbera. Release
of a parasitoid, Encarsia formosa (6 adults/m2), and use of
yellow sticky traps gives significant control of whiteflies on
green house ornamentals.

Mites

The mite is a minute dot sized pest red in colour almost

invisible to the naked eyes, resembling the spider but not a
true spider. This is a sucking type of pest if established once,
they may become a serious problem. The tender shoots affected
by mites develop spots and turn yellow, dry and drop.

Management:

Cutting and burning of severely infested plant parts

reduces further multiplication of mites. Proper ventilation,
irrigation and clean cultivation are essential to keep the pest
population under control. Acaricides like dicofol 0.05% and
wettable sulphur 0.3% sprays (2-3) at 15 days interval gives
considerable control of mites. Spraying of triazophos 0.05%
or dimethoate 0.05% followed by a spray of pongamia oil 1 %
provides significant control of T.urticae on carnation. New
acariades like vertimec, pentac Apollo, Mitac, Cascade are also
used to combat mite problem in nurseries. Commercial neem
formulation (3500 ppm azadirachtin) application against T.
urticae Causes mortality, growth retardation, reduction in egg
hatchability and egg laying. Methyl parathion 0.05%,
fluvalinate 0.012% and ethion 0.05% also offer significant
control of mites that infest various ornamentals. Use of dicofol,
0.05%, protenofos 0.05% and wetlable sulfur 0.05% brings
down mites population considerably on ornamental crops.
Release of predatory mite, Amblyseivs sp @ 20/plant
successfully contains T.uritcae population on Rose.

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Leaf Eating Caterpillars
Caterpillars feed on foliage. They damage leaves by
feeding

Management:

Collection and destruction of egg masses and leaves

infested with early larval instars of hairy caterpillar and S.litura
reduces pest build up. Setting up of light traps attracts adult
moths and helps in monitoring pest population. Spraying of
quinalphos 0.05% or chlorpyriphos 0.05% gives protection to
foliage from semiloopers, hairy caterpillars and S.litura.
Application of Bacillus thuringiensis dust and spray (3 x 106
spores) gives effective control of these caterpillars on rose.
Spraying of plant derivatives like neem oil 1 % or neem kernel
extract 4% checks damage by early instar larvae.

Leaf Beetles and Weevils

Management:

Soil application of phorate or carbofuran @ 1.0 kg a.i./

ha controls grubs. Setting up of light traps helps in collecting
adults and monitoring pest incidence. Fortnightly sprays of
quinalphos 0.05% or methyl parathion 0.05% or chlorpyriphos
0.05% taken up in the evening protects foliage from betles and
weevils on rose. Ethanol extract of neem kernel at 2.5% or neem
oil 1 % inhibits feeding by chafer beetles on rose.

Cut Worms

These are essentially found in a nursery. The insect

remains in the soil and attacks the seedlings at ground level.

Management: Use of light traps collects adult moths. Poison

bait consisting of carbaryl or malathion at 0.1% , wheat bran
andmollasses scattered in the fielkd, controls larvae. Sprays

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of methyl parathion 0.05% or quinalphos 0.05% provides
protection to foliage from cut worms. Application of granulosis
virus causes 90-94% mortality of cutworm on ornamentals.

Leafminers

The larvae of the insects mines into leaves between

epidermal layers leaving excreta on leaf surfaces. The affected
leaves become brittle turn brown & dry.

Management:

Removal and destruction of severely mined leaves

reduces further damage. Sprays of deltanethns 0.05%
triazophos 0.06% and pongamia oil 0.5% causes significant
mortality of larvae. Drenching of soil with Margosan (0.33%)
and spraying with same chemical at 0.94 and 1.25% effectively
reduces number of pupae and adults. Use of yellow sticky
traps coated with chlorpyriphos or permethrin reduces adult
population. Release of eulophid parasitoid. Diglyphus
intermedius @ 1000 at weekly intervals gives considerable
reduction of leaf miner population on chrysanthemum. Snails
And Slugs

Snails are one of the important pests found in nursery.

They cut the young plants at general level and damage
seedlings during rainy season.

Management:

Hand picking and killing by putting them in 5% salt

solution is the most effective method to bring down the
population. Spreading of 'Snail kill' (3% metaldehyde pellets)
in the field kills snails and slugs. Spraying of neem oil 1 %
and water extract of soapnut 5% protects foliage from snail
damage.

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Diseases
i) Damping off:

This is a major disease of germinating seeds which is

caused by three separate fungi mainly species of Pythium
Rhizoctonia and. Phytophthora. The disease is expressed either
by the failure of the seedling to emerge or by the death of the
seedling soon after emergence. A common symptom is the
girdling of young seedling stems at the soil surface. Damping
off usually occurs only in youmg, succullent seedlings during
or shortly after germination, but older plants may be affected
in severe cases. Control measures involves direct control by
use of Captan 0.2% or Bavistin 0.15% or Kavach 0.2%,
drenching or use of organomecuerials such as Cersan or
Thiram or Agrosan as seed treatment chemicals at rate of 2g/
ka of seed. Regulation of environmental conditions such as
excess humidity, water also plays an important role in spread
and control of disease.

ii) Anthracnose:

This is a kind of leaf spot formed in young plants and

spots are circular, slightly raised concentric and are studded
with large number of raised black or red bodies. The infection
spreads rapidly under high humid conditions, spraying with
copper fungicides 0.2% or Bavistin 0.15%, will control the
disease.

iii) Blights:

These also sometimes causes damage to the nursery

stock in high humid areas. The blights are kept under control
by constant and timely spray of copper fungicides 0.2% or
Dithane Z-78 0.2%

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iv) Dieback:

This is serious in some of the grafts/buddlings at the

young stage. The disease may be due to fungi. The symptoms
are drying up of the margin of the leaf and drying slowly
spreads to young shoots in severe cases. Control measures
involves dipping of scion sticks in Bavistin or Benlate 0.2°/"
solution and prophylactic sprays with Topsin M 0.15% or
Bavistin 0.15%. v) Leaf spots: The disease is very common in
grown up plans and number of fungi as well as bacteria is
involved. The leaf spots vary in size shape colour and extent
of damage. The symptoms vary according to the pathogen
involved. Spraying with Copper fungicide 0.2% or Bavistin
0.15% or Dithane Z-78 0.2% will control the disease.

vi) Powdery mildews:

This is a common malady in most of ornamental crops

during dry cool weather and when plants produce new flesh.
The powdery mildews are easily recognised by the presence
of scattered areas showing powdery growth mostly on the
young leaves. Spraying with wetable sulphur sulfex 0.2% or
Calixin 0.15% will control the disease. Precautions for handling
plant protection equipment. They should be kept away from
food or feed stuffs and medicines. The instructions found on
the labels should be carefully read and strictly followed. Bags
and containers of pesticides should be cut open with a separate
knife intended for such purposes. The empty containers, after
the use of the chemical, should be destroyed and should not
be put into some other use. While preparing the spray solutions
bare hands should not be used for mixing the chemical with
water. Inhaling of pesticide sprays or dusts and smoking,
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chewing, eating or drinking while mixing or applying the
chemicals should be avoided Spilling of pesticides on skin or
clothing should as far as possible be avoided. The clothes
should be washed after each operation .. Particles or drops of
pesticides which may accidentally get into eyes should be
flushed out immediately with large volumes of clean water. It
is preferable that protective clothings and devices are used
while handling poisonous chemicals to avoid exposure to
sprays or drifts. Dusting or spraying should never be done
against the wind and it is preferable to have them done in
cool and calm weather. Sprayer nozzles should not be blown
by mouth if gets blocked while spraying. Washers and other
contaminated parts should be buried. After handling
pesticides hands, face and body should be washed and
clothing changed. Washing of equipment after use and
containers in or near wells, or streams should be avoided.
Persons engaged in handling pesticides should undergo
regular medical check up. In case of any suspected poisoning
due to insecticides the nearest physician should be called
immediately.

Symptoms and Management of Nutrients

Plant performance in nursery depends on nutrient status

in plant media, but nothing has been worked out owing to its
short duration of plant with nursery. Nutrients are necessary
for growth and productivity of crops. Apart from the
N,P,K,Ca,Mg and S, micronutrients such as Zn, Fe, Cu, B, Mo,
Mn, el, etc are also necessary for maintaining the normal health
and metabolism of plants. However, nutrient deficiency can
lead to poor and stunted growth of plants resulting in poor

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performance. Often nurserymen are encountered with some
deficiency symptoms appearing in nursery plants and they
should have sufficient knowledge to identify the nutrient
deficiencies in nursery plants to take up appropriate steps to
correct the nutrient deficiencies. The deficiencies are
manifested in various plant parts. The appearance of plant
parts can be used by nurserymen to help indicate plant health
in general and nutrient deficiencies in particular. The
expression of deficiency symptoms are varied among the plant
parts viz., whole plant, leaves, stem, roots etc., depending upon
the role of the element and nutrient content. The deficiency
symptoms of different micro and macro nutrients and their
corrections are given hereunder.

Nutrient deficiency symptoms in plants

Deficiency Symptoms

A. Older or lower leaves affected

1. Nitrogen (or posphorus) Deficiency - Effects mostly

generalised over whole plant, more or less drying,
scorching of lower leaves, plant light or dark green.

a) Nitrogen Deficiency - Plants light green light

yellow, drying to light brown colour, stalks short
and slender if element is deficient in later stages of
growth.

b) Phosphorus Deficiency - Plant dark green, often

developing red and purple colour, lower leaves
sometime yellow; turning to greenish brown black
colour.

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2. Magnesium, Potassium or Zinc Deficiency - Effects
mostly localised, mottling or chlorosis with or without
spots of dead tissue on lower leaves, little or no drying
up of lower leaves

a) Magnesium Deficiency - Lower leaves mottled or

chlorotic, without dead spots, leaves may redden
as with cotton, sometimes with dead spot tips and
margin turned or curved upwards, stalks slender.

b) Potassium or Zinc Deficiency - Lower leaves

mottled or chlorotic, with dead spots.

i) Potassium Deficiency - Spots of dead tissue

small usually at tips and between veins, more
marked at margins of leaves, stalks slender.

ii) Zinc Deficiency - Spots generalised, rapidly

enlarging and generally involving areas
between veins eventually involving secondary
and even primary veins, leaves thick, stalks
with shortened inter nodes.

B. New or bud leaves affected (symptoms localised)

1. Calcium or Boron Deficiency - Terminal buds, following

appearance of distortions at tips or bases of young
leaves.

a) Calcium Deficiency - Young leaves of terminal bud

at first typically hooked, finally dying back at tips
and margins so that latter growth is characterised
by a cut out appearance at these points, stalks finally
die at terminal bud.

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 b) Boron Deficiency - Young leaves of terminal bud
becoming light green at bases, with final break
down here; in later growth, leaves become twisted,
stalk finally dies back at terminal bud.

2. Copper, Manganese, Sulphur or Iron Deficiency -

Terminal bud commonly remains alive, wilting or
chlorosis of younger or bud leaves with or without spots
of dead tissues, veins light or dark green.

i) Copper Deficiency - Young leaves permanently

wilted or marked chlorosis; twig or stalk just below
tip and seed head often unable to stand erect in
later stage when shortages are acute.

ii) Manganese or iron Deficiency - Young leaves not

wilted, chlorosis present or without spots of dead
issue scattered over the leaves.

a) Manganese Deficiency - Sports of dead tissue

scattered over the leaves smallest veins tend to
remain green producing a checkered or
reticulated effect.

b) Sulphur or Iron Deficiency - Dead spots not

commonly present, chlorosis may not involve
veins making them light dark green in colour.

i) Sulphur Deficiency - Young leaves with

veins and tissue between veins light green
in colour.

ii) Iron Deficiency - Young leaves chlorosis,

principal veins green, stalks short and
slender.

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 c) Stems

i) Phosphorus Deficiency - Stunted shade

plants but have stronger stems.

ii) Sulphur Deficiency - Thin and erect stems.

iii) Pottassium Deficiency - Stocky appearance

with short internodes.

iv) Copper Deficiency - Slender and weak

stems with poor lignification spilling or
cracking on the barks.

Control measures
Nutrient deficiency can be easily rectified by applying
the deficient element either by soil application or by foliar
application or by the combined application of soil + foliar
spray. Nitrogen: Applying recommended doses of N fertilizers.
If the deficiency is observed during the growth phase, 1% of
urea can be used.

Phosphorus:

Recommended doses of P and foliar spray of 2% DAP

or 1 % super phosphate extract.

Potassium:

Recommended doses of K and foliar spray of 1 % KCl

or 1% K2SO4 Calcium: Lime application depending upon the
pH and foliar spray of 1 % calcium nitrate (Fruit crops)

Magnesium:

Soil application of Domolite or Gypsum Salt

MgSO4,7H2O depending upon the deficiency and 0.5% of
Gypsum salt as foliar spray.

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Zinc:

Soil application of Zinc Sulphate at 12.5 - 25 kg/ha and

foliar spray of 0.5% Zinc Sulphate.

Iron:

Soil application of Ferrous sulphate at 50kg/ha and

foliar spray of 0.5% Ferrous sulphate (for calcerous soil, only
foliar spray is recommended)

Manganese:

Soil application of Manganese sulphate at 25 kg/ha and

foliar spray of 0.2-0.4% MnSO4

Copper :

Soil application of Copper Sulphate at 10kg/ha and

foliar spray of 0.5% CuSO4

Boron:

Soil application of Borax at 15-20 kg/ha and foliar spray

of 0.2% Borix acid

Molybdenum:

Soil application of 500g to 2 kg of Ammonium molybdate

and 0.1 % foliar spray of ammonium molybdate.

Nutrients can be sprayed on the foliage of the crops

either in the morning or late evening. Spray can be repeated 2
to 3 times with an interval of 15-20 days with 400 litres of spray
fluid per ha. Spray fluid should be prepared only with clean
water. Spraying can be done with hand operated sprayer. Care
should be taken to ensure that the entire foliage should be
thoroughly wet. Spray fluid can be mixed with any wetting
agent at 1 ml per litre of spray fluids. Spraying on young foliage
yields better results than spraying on the old mature leaves.

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