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Aamer Haque
Abstract
Timoshenko beam theory includes the effect of shear deformation which is ignored in Euler-Bernoulli beam theory. An
elementary derivation is provided for Timoshenko beam theory. Energy principles, the stiffness matrix, and Green’s functions
are formulated. Solutions are provided for some common beam problems.
1. Formulation
1.1. Introduction
The goal of beam theory is to simplify the equations of solid mechanics to beams. All loads on a beam act parallel to
an axis that is transverse to its longitudinal axis. The length of a beam is much larger than its width and depth. Beam
theory provides equations for the deflection and internal forces of the beam. Figure 1 shows a typical deflection of a beam
that is loaded from above. We assume that the initial unloaded beam’s longitudinal axis coincides with the x axis. The sign
convention for the deflection u is that positive deflections have positive y values. The deflection u and angle of deflection θ
are assumed to be small. Applied loads are considered positive if they act in the direction of the positive y axis.
Euler-Bernoulli beam theory is extensively applied to structural analysis and design. Most design guides and manuals will
exclusively use Euler-Bernoulli beams. The derivation of Euler-Bernoulli beam theory is given in: Hibbeler [3, 4], Hjelmstad
[5], Kassimali [7], Krenk [9].
The problem with Euler-Bernoulli beam theory is that it is inaccurate for deep beams. Deep beams are ones in which the
depth is not negligible compared to the length. Either complete solid mechanics or a more accurate beam theory is required
for deep beams. Timoshenko beam theory is a simple extension to Euler-Bernoulli beam theory. Shear deformations, which
are absent in Euler-Bernoulli beam theory, are included in Timoshenko beam theory.
The basic assumptions for Timoshenko beam theory are:
• The longitudinal axis of the unloaded beam is straight.
• All applied loads act transverse to the longitudinal axis.
• All deformations and strains are small.
• Hooke’s law can be used to relate stresses and strains.
• Plane cross sections, which are initially normal to the longitudinal axis, will remain plane after deformation.
The last requirement differs from Euler-Bernoulli theory which requires that the plane cross sections also remain normal to
the beam axis after deformation. For Timoshenko beams, plane cross sections will rotate due to shear forces.
This section briefly presents an elementary derivation of the equations of Timoshenko beam theory. A complete derivation
from the equations of solid mechanics is provided in Hjelmstad [5] and Wang et al. [16]. Figure 2 shows a small segment of
the beam. The shear force V and bending moment M are displayed as positive in the figure according to the usual beam
convention. The load w is positive when applied upwards. We assume that the applied load is approximately constant for
the small beam segment shown in figure 2. Vertical equilibrium requires:
V + dV = V + w dx
dV
= w (1.1)
dx
For purposes of static equilibrium, the constant load w can be assumed to act as a point load in the middle of the segment.
Equilibrium of moments results in:
w
M + dM = M + V dx + (dx)2
2
dM
= V (1.2)
dx
The next step in deriving Timoshenko beam theory is to relate the internal forces V and M to deformation. Consider
the pure bending of the beam segment shown in figure 3. Pure bending means that the segment is bent only by constant
end moments M . The y coordinate is measured from the neutral axis of the beam and is positive upwards. The neutral axis
does not change length during the deformation of the beam. The original length of the beam segment is ds. Let dθ be the
angle between the planar cross sections at the ends of the beam segment. The curvature κ is defined through the equation:
1 dθ
κ= =
R ds
The elongation of a longitudinal fiber in the beam is given by:
ds′ = (R − y) dθ = (R − y)κ ds
Since strains are assumed to be small, we shall use the engineering strain:
ds′ − ds
ε= = −κy
ds
2
Notice that the strain is zero at the neutral axis. Hooke’s law gives the stress-strain relation:
σ = Eε = −κEy
where σ is the normal stress at the end planes of the segment and E is Young’s modulus. The bending moment M is related
to normal stress σ through: ˆ ˆ
M = − σy dA = κE y 2 dA = κEI
For beam theory, we need to relate the bending moment M to the deflection u. This is accomplished by substituting the
calculus definition of curvature:
d2 u
M dx2 d2 u
=κ= h ≈ 2 (1.3)
EI du 2
i3/2 dx
1 + dx
du
The approximation is valid because dx is assumed to be small and hence its square is smaller.
Now consider the case of pure shear shown in figure 4. The constitutive relation between shear V and angle of shear γ is:
V = GAs γ (1.4)
where G is the shear modulus and As is the shear area. As is usually not equal to the area of the cross section because the
distribution of shear stress is not constant along the cross section.
Notice that shear deformation does not result in longitudinal strain. Also remember that bending deformation did not
cause any shearing strain. Thus bending and shearing deformations are separable and the total angle of deformation is:
du
=θ−γ (1.5)
dx
Using equations (1.1)-(1.5), we arrive at the equations for Timoshenko beam theory:
These equations can be reduced to the pair of differential equations for 0 < x < L:
d dθ du
EI = GAs θ − (1.10)
dx dx dx
d du
GAs θ − = w (1.11)
dx dx
These equations imply that θ and u are two unknown functions whose solutions are to be determined. This is in contrast to
Euler-Bernoulli beam theory where a single 4th order differential equation can be written for the displacement u. Equations
(1.10) and (1.11) are used to formulate variational and energy principles in the next section.
3
Figure 5: Beam deflection using dimensionless distance ξ
The constants of integration V0 , M0 , θ0 , and u0 are determined using the boundary conditions for the particular problem
being solved.
The solution to the beam equations is more conveniently written using the dimensionless spatial variable ξ = x/L. We
then reformulate functions f (x) as f (ξ). Since this involves reformulation of the function instead of mere replacement of the
dependent variable, we notate this process as: f (x) → f (ξ). Integrals of f (x) are transformed in the following manner:
s
τ= , L dτ = ds
L
ˆ x ˆ ξ
f (s) ds → L f (τ ) dτ (1.16)
0 0
4
2. Energy Principles
Remember that M = EIθ′ . Moving all terms to the left hand side of the equation we have:
ˆ L ˆ L
′ ′ L
EIθ φ dx + GAs (θ − u′ ) φ dx − [M φ]|0 = 0 (2.1)
0 0
φ is interpreted as a virtual angle of rotation of the plane cross section of the beam.
We now multiply (1.11) by a function v and integrate by parts:
ˆ L ˆ L
′ ′
[GAs (θ − u )] v dx = wv dx
0 0
ˆ L ˆ L
L
[GAs (θ − u′ ) v]|0 − GAs (θ − u′ ) v ′ dx = wv dx
0 0
Notice that V = GAs (θ − u′ ). Again moving all terms to the left hand side:
ˆ L ˆ L
L
GAs (θ − u′ ) v ′ dx + wv dx − [V v]|0 = 0 (2.2)
0 0
Internal virtual work δWint and external virtual work δWext are defined as:
ˆ L
T EI 0
δWint (u, v) = ũ ṽ dx (2.5)
0 0 GAs
ˆ L
0 w v dx + f T (L) v(L) − f T (0) v(0)
δWext (v) = (2.6)
0
T
where ũT =
θ′ θ − u′ and ṽ = φ′ φ − v′ .
5
2.1.3. Boundary Conditions
Essential Natural
The boundary terms in equation (2.3) provide the essential and natural boundary conditions. Either M or θ can be
specified at the end points but both cannot be specified simultaneously. The same argument applies to V and u. In the
case that θ or u is specified, the corresponding virtual displacement is not permitted to vary. The possibilities for boundary
conditions are summarized in table 2.
It should be noted that some combinations of boundary conditions are not permissible since they would violate the
existence and uniqueness principles of the differential equations. These issues will not be discussed here but are found in
mathematical texts on boundary value problems.
T
The set of functions v(x) in L2 with first derivatives v′ (x) = φ′ (x) v ′ (x) also in L2 is called:
H1 = v : [0, L] → R2 v ∈ L2 and v′ ∈ L2
The subset of H1 which satisfies the essential boundary conditions is notated as Hbc 1
. The actual displacements u =
T 1
θ u come from Hbc . The virtual displacements v must be zero at essential boundary conditions. The function space
1 1 1
for virtual displacements is denoted as Hbc0 . Note that Hbc and Hbc0 will be depend on the boundary conditions of the
1 1
particular beam problem. We always have the following set relations: Hbc0 ⊆ Hbc ⊆ H1 .
For the example of a beam clamped at x = 0 and prescribed displacement u(L) = uL at x = L, we have:
1
= u : [0, L] → R u ∈ H1 , θ(0) = 0, u(0) = 0, u(L) = uL
Hbc
1
= v : [0, L] → R v ∈ H1 , φ(0) = 0, v(0) = 0, v(L) = 0
Hbc0
6
2.1.5. Variational Problem
The Principle of Virtual Work states that the solution u to the Timoshenko beam problem has the property that internal
virtual work equals external virtual work for all admissible virtual displacements.
1 1
Find u ∈ Hbc such that δWint (u, v) = δWext (v) ∀v ∈ Hbc0 (2.8)
where x0 = 0 and xN +1 = L. We included the end points of the beam in order to simplify the book-keeping. The Principle
of Virtual Work (2.3) for each segment of the beam is:
ˆ xi ˆ xi ˆ xi
′ ′
EIθ φ dx + ′ ′
GAs (θ − u ) (φ − v ) dx = wv dx + [M φ]|xxii−1 − [V v]|xxii−1
xi−1 xi−1 xi−1
7
2.2. Principle of Complementary Virtual Work
2.2.1. Formulation
Let δM (x) be a virtual moment distribution and δV (x) be a virtual shear distribution for the beam. We restrict these
distributions to be ones that are in static equilibrium with the virtual applied load δw(x). Multiply both sides of equation
(1.8) by δM and integrate by parts:
L L
M δM
ˆ ˆ
θ′ δM dx = dx
0 0 EI
L L
M δM
ˆ ˆ
L ′
[δM θ]|0 − θ δM dx = dx
0 0 EI
L L
M δM
ˆ ˆ
L
dx − [δM θ]|0 + θ δM ′ dx = 0 (2.12)
0 EI 0
Now multiply equation (1.9) by δV , integrate by parts, and use the fact that δV = δM ′ and δV ′ = δw to get:
L L
V δV
ˆ ˆ
′
(θ − u )δV dx = dx
0 0 GAs
L L L
V δV
ˆ ˆ ˆ
θ δV dx − u′ δV dx = dx
0 0 0 GAs
L L L
V δV
ˆ ˆ ˆ
θ δM ′ dx − u′ δV dx = dx
0 0 0 GAs
L L L
V δV
ˆ ˆ ˆ
L
θ δM ′ dx − [δV u]|0 + u δV ′ dx = dx
0 0 0 GAs
L L L
V δV
ˆ ˆ ˆ
L
θ δM ′ dx − [δV u]|0 + δw u dx = dx
0 0 0 GAs
L L L
V δV
ˆ ˆ ˆ
L
θ δM ′ dx − [δV u]|0 + δw u dx − dx = 0 (2.13)
0 0 0 GAs
Set equation (2.12) equal to equation (2.13) and rearrange terms:
L L L
M δM V δV
ˆ ˆ ˆ
dx + dx = δw u dx + [δM θ]|L L
0 − [δV u]|0 (2.14)
0 EI 0 GAs 0
The left hand side is complementary internal virtual work and the right hand side is complementary external virtual work.
T T
Equation (2.14) can be written as using matrix and vector notation. Let p = M V and q = δM δV . Then
the Principle of Complementary Virtual Work is:
∗ ∗
δWint (p, q) = δWext (q) (2.15)
∗ ∗
where complementary virtual internal work Wint (p, q) and complementary virtual external work Wext (q) are:
L 1
0
ˆ
∗
Wint (p, q) = pT EI
1 q dx
0
0 GAs
ˆ L
u dx + qT (L) u(L) − qT (0) u(0)
∗
Wext (q) = 0 δw
0
T
where u = θ u is the actual displacement field. Remember that p is related to u through the differential equations
(1.6)-(1.9).
8
2.2.3. Function Spaces
Suppose the virtual forces coincide with the actual forces in equation (2.14). Then the integrals exist only if the forces
are square-integrable functions. However, the virtual forces must also be in equilibrium. We denote the set of virtual forces
as L2eq . The actual forces are derived from displacements which satisfy the essential boundary conditions. The set of actual
forces is notated as L2eqbc . Note the relationship between the sets is: L2eqbc ⊆ L2eq ⊆ L2 . The function spaces are determined
by the particular problem being solved. Unfortunately, the L2eq spaces are more cumbersome to specify than the Hbc 1
spaces of
virtual work methods. This fact helps to explain why complementary virtual work is seldom mentioned in the mathematical
theory of continuum mechanics.
where x0 = 0 and xN +1 = L. The Principle of Complementary Virtual Work (2.14) for each segment is:
ˆ xi ˆ xi ˆ xi
M δM V δV
dx + dx = δw u dx + [δM θ]|xxii−1 − [δV u]|xxii−1
xi−1 EI xi−1 GA s xi−1
Concentrated virtual moments are associated with jumps in virtual moment: δMi = − δM (x+
−
i ) − δM (xi ) . We also equate
virtual point loads with jumps in virtual shear: δpi = δV (x+ −
i ) − δV (xi ). The actual displacements θ and u are continuous.
Thus the Principle of Complementary Virtual Work becomes:
L L L
M δM V δV
ˆ ˆ ˆ
dx + dx = δw u dx + δM (L) θ(L) − δM (0) θ(0) − δV (L) u(L) + δV (0) u(0)
0 EI 0 GAs 0
N
X N
X
+ δMi θ(xi ) − δpi u(xi ) (2.19)
i=1 i=1
9
3. Stiffness Matrix
3.1. Derivation
3.1.1. Beam element
Matrix structural analysis requires stiffness matrices for every structural member. Only the derivation of the stiffness
matrix is described in this paper. Details of matrix structural analysis are found in: Harrison [2], Kassimali [8], McCormac
[10], McGuire et al. [11]. The Timoshenko beam element is shown in figure 7. The displacements and end forces are positive
in the direction of the positive y axis. End rotations and moments are positive if they are counter-clockwise. This sign
convention is demonstrated in figure 7.
The stiffness matrix K relates the beam end displacements u to the applied loads f :
Ku = f (3.1)
T
θ1 ]T and f = Fu0 FM0 Fu1 FM1
where u = [ u0 θ0 u1 . Equation (3.1)is explicitly written as:
K11 K12 K13 K14 u0 Fu0
K21 K22 K23 K24 θ0
= FM0
K31 K32 K33 K34 (3.2)
u1 Fu1
K41 K42 K43 K44 θ1 FM1
The most direct way of computing the elements of K is to consider the meaning of the j-th column. Kij is the end force fi
that is required to maintain the unit displacement uj = 1 while keeping all other displacements at zero. Thus the procedure
to compute the j-th column of K is as follows:
1. Solve the beam equations (1.17)-(1.20) with boundary conditions:
(
1 if i = j
ui = δij =
0 if i 6= j
2. Compute the end shears V0 , V1 and end moments M0 , M1 from the solution of the beam equations.
3. Translate from the beam sign convention to the element sign convention using:
This procedure will be applied in the next several pages of this paper.
V (ξ) = V0 (3.3)
M (ξ) = LV0 ξ + M0 (3.4)
L2 V0 2 LM0
θ(ξ) = ξ + ξ + θ0 (3.5)
2EI EI
L3 V0 3 L2 M0 2
V0
u(ξ) = ξ + ξ + L θ0 − ξ + u0 (3.6)
6EI 2EI GAs
Boundary conditions are used to determine the values of the constants V0 , M0 , θ0 , and u0 .
We also define the parameter Φ which will be used in forming the stiffness matrix.
12EI
Φ= (3.7)
L2 GAs
10
3.1.3. Unit displacement at left end
L3 V0 L3 V0 LV0
0 = − − +1
6EI 4EI GAs
3
L L
0 = − + V0 + 1
12EI GAs
L3
12EI
1+ 2 V0 = 1
12EI L GAs
12EI
V0 = (1 + Φ)−1
L3
The end moments are computed to be:
6EI
M0 = − (1 + Φ)−1
L2
6EI
M1 = (1 + Φ)−1
L2
Translating from beam sign convention to matrix sign convention, the first column of the stiffness matrix is:
K11 V0 12
K21 −M0 EI 6L
K31 =
=
−V1 (1 + Φ)L3 −12
K41 M1 6L
11
3.1.4. Unit rotation at left end
LV0 EI
M0 = − −
2 L
Substituting this expression into (3.6) with u(1) = 0:
L3 V0 L3 V0 L LV0
0 = − − +L−
6EI 4EI 2 GAs
2
L 1 1
0 = − + V0 +
12EI GAs 2
L2
12EI 1
1+ 2 V0 =
12EI L GAs 2
6EI −1
V0 = (1 + Φ)
L2
This value is used to compute M0 :
3EI EI
M0 = − (1 + Φ)−1 −
L L
3EI −1 EI
M0 = − (1 + Φ) − (1 + Φ)(1 + Φ)−1
L L
EI
M0 = − (4 + Φ)(1 + Φ)−1
L
M1 is then calculated to be:
M1 = LV0 + M0
6EI EI
M1 = (1 + Φ)−1 − (4 + Φ)(1 + Φ)−1
L L
EI
M1 = (2 − Φ)(1 + Φ)−1
L
Translating from beam sign convention to matrix sign convention, the second column of the stiffness matrix is:
K12 V0 6L
K22 −M0 EI (4 + Φ)L2
= =
K32 −V1 (1 + Φ)L3 −6L
K42 M1 (2 − Φ)L2
12
3.1.5. Unit displacement at right end
L3 V0 L3 V0 LV0
1 = − −
6EI 4EI GAs
3
L L
1 = − + V0
12EI GAs
L3
12EI
1 = − 1+ 2 V0
12EI L GAs
12EI
V0 = − 3 (1 + Φ)−1
L
The end moments are computed to be:
6EI
M0 = (1 + Φ)−1
L2
6EI
M1 = − 3 (1 + Φ)−1
L
Translating from beam sign convention to matrix sign convention, the third column of the stiffness matrix is:
K13 V0 −12
K23 −M0
= EI −6L
−V1 = (1 + Φ)L3 12
K33
K43 M1 −6L
13
3.1.6. Unit rotation at right end
LV0 EI
M0 = − +
2 L
Substituting this expression into (3.6) with u(1) = 0:
L3 V0 L3 V0 L LV0
0 = − + −
6EI 4EI 2 GAs
2
L 1 1
0 = − + V0 +
12EI GAs 2
L2
12EI 1
1+ 2 V0 =
12EI L GAs 2
6EI −1
V0 = (1 + Φ)
L2
This value is used to compute M0 :
3EI EI
M0 = − (1 + Φ)−1 +
L L
3EI −1 EI
M0 = − (1 + Φ) + (1 + Φ)(1 + Φ)−1
L L
EI
M0 = − (2 − Φ)(1 + Φ)−1
L
M1 is then calculated to be:
M1 = LV0 + M0
6EI EI
M1 = (1 + Φ)−1 − (2 − Φ)(1 + Φ)−1
L L
EI
M1 = (4 + Φ)(1 + Φ)−1
L
Translating from beam sign convention to matrix sign convention, the fourth column of the stiffness matrix is:
K14 V0 6L
K24 −M0 EI (2 − Φ)L2
= =
K34 −V1 (1 + Φ)L3 −6L
K44 M1 (4 + Φ)L2
14
3.2. Matrix Form
Collecting the information from the previous pages, the stiffness matrix for the Timoshenko beam element is:
12 6L −12 6L
EI 6L (4 + Φ)L2 −6L (2 − Φ)L2
K= (3.8)
(1 + Φ)L3 −12 −6L 12 −6L
6L (2 − Φ)L2 −6L (4 + Φ)L2
Remember that K is only the element stiffness matrix. The global stiffness matrix is constructed by assembling the stiffness
matrices for each element. The right hand side contains the applied forces. Forces occurring along the beam are represented
as fixed end shears and moments at the ends. These statically equivalent forces are placed in the right hand side vector.
Details concerning this procedure are described in texts on matrix structural analysis such as: Kassimali [8], McCormac
[10], McGuire et al. [11], Timoshenko and Young [15].
3.3. Meaning of Φ
The parameter Φ, defined by equation (3.7), appears in every term of the element stiffness matrix. Φ measures the ratio
of the bending stiffness to shear stiffness. For a very large shear stiffness, Φ is close to zero. In this case, the solutions for
the Timoshenko beam match the solutions to Euler-Bernoulli beam theory. This is expected since shear deformations are
ignored for Euler-Bernoulli beams.
The relative importance of shear deformation can be explored further by examining the material and shape constants in
Φ. We will ignore all numerical constants contained in Φ and focus on dimensional factors instead. For rectangular sections,
the moment of inertia and shear area scale according to the following dimensions:
I ∼ wd3 , As ∼ wd
where w is the width and d is the depth of the section. Noting that E and G are usually the same order of magnitude, we
have: 2
d
Φ∼
L
Thus, Φ ∼ 0 when L ≫ d. For I-sections, the analysis is slightly different:
I ∼ wf tf d2 , As ∼ tw d
where wf is the flange width, tf is the flange thickness, and tw is the web thickness. For most sections, tf and tw are much
nearer in magnitude than they are to d. Also, wf is usually smaller than d. Thus we can write:
2
wf d d
Φ∼ <
L2 L
15
4. Green’s Functions
4.1. Formulation
The Green’s functions are the solutions to the beam equations (1.17)-(1.20) for a downward unit point load acting at
location x = a. The point load is represented as a delta function: w(x) = −δ(x − a). In terms of the dimensionless variable
ξ, we set µ = a/L. The delta function obeys the scaling property:
1
δ(x − a) = δ(L(ξ − µ)) =
δ(ξ − µ) (4.1)
L
Thus we write: w(ξ) = −δ(ξ − µ)/L. We also require the fact that the integral of the delta function is the Heaviside function:
ˆ ξ (
1 if ξ ≥ µ
δ(τ − µ) dµ = H(ξ − µ) = (4.2)
0 0 if ξ < µ
Detailed information on Green’s functions and the delta function are found in: Richards and Youn [12], Richtmyer [13],
Stakgold [14]. Successive integrals of the Heaviside function are given by the formula:
ξ
(ξ − µ)n+1
ˆ
(τ − µ)n H(τ − µ) dτ = H(ξ − µ), n≥0 (4.3)
0 n+1
16
Finally, the deflection is calculated in the form:
ξ ξ
L
ˆ ˆ
u(ξ) = L θ(τ ) dτ − V (τ ) dτ + u0
0 GAs 0
3 ξ
ˆ ξ
L 2 2EI L
ˆ
u(ξ) = −(τ − µ)2 H(τ − µ) + V0 τ 2 + M0 τ + 2 θ0 dτ − [−H(ξ − µ) + V0 ] dτ + u0
2EI 0 L L GAs 0
L3
1 3 1 3 1 2 2EI L
u(ξ) = − (ξ − µ) H(ξ − µ) + V0 ξ + M0 ξ + 2 θ0 ξ + [(ξ − µ) H(ξ − µ) − V0 ξ] + u0
2EI 3 3 L L GAs
L3
3 L
u(ξ) = −(ξ − µ)3 H(ξ − µ) + V0 ξ 3 + M0 ξ 2 + [(ξ − µ) H(ξ − µ) − V0 ξ] + Lθ0 ξ + u0 (4.7)
6EI L GAs
Expressions (4.4)-(4.7) are the Green’s functions for the Euler-Bernoulli beam. Let Gq (ξ, µ) denote the Green’s function
for the value of quantity q at location ξ due to the unit downward load at location µ. We let q ∈ {V, M, θ, u} and list all the
corresponding Green’s functions:
17
4.3. Uniform Loads
For a uniform load w (weight per unit length) acting downwards, the solution (4.13) becomes:
ˆ 1
q(ξ) = wL Gq (ξ, µ) dµ (4.14)
0
In order to proceed further, we require the evaluation of certain types of definite integrals. The first of which involves
non-negative integer powers of ξ − µ multiplied by H(ξ − µ):
1
ξ n+1
ˆ
(ξ − µ)n H(ξ − µ) dµ = , n≥0 (4.15)
0 n+1
18
5. Examples
0 = L [−(1 − µ) + V0 ]
V0 = 1−µ
L3
−(1 − µ)3 + (1 − µ) + Lθ0
0 =
6EI
L2
(1 − µ)3 − (1 − µ)
θ0 =
6EI
The Green’s functions are:
GV (ξ, µ) = −H(ξ − µ) + (1 − µ)
GM (ξ, µ) = L [−(ξ − µ) H(ξ − µ) + (1 − µ)ξ]
L2 L2
−(ξ − µ)2 H(ξ − µ) + (1 − µ)ξ 2 + (1 − µ)3 − (1 − µ)
Gθ (ξ, µ) =
2EI 6EI
L3
−(ξ − µ)3 H(ξ − µ) + (1 − µ)ξ 3 + (1 − µ)3 ξ − (1 − µ)ξ
Gu (ξ, µ) =
6EI
L
+ [(ξ − µ) H(ξ − µ) − (1 − µ)ξ]
GAs
1
V (ξ) = wL −ξ
2
wL2
M (ξ) = ξ(1 − ξ)
2
wL3
θ(ξ) = − (1 − 6ξ 2 + 4ξ 3 )
24EI
wL4 wL2
u(ξ) = − (ξ − 2ξ 3 + ξ 4 ) − ξ(1 − ξ)
24EI 2GAs
19
5.2. Fixed Beam
5.2.1. Boundary Conditions
L2
2
−(1 − µ)2 + V0 + M0 = 0
2EI L
L3
3
−(1 − µ)3 + β(1 − µ) + (1 − β)V0 + M0 = 0
6EI L
GV (ξ, µ) = −H(ξ − µ) + V0
GM (ξ, µ) = L [−(ξ − µ) H(ξ − µ) + V0 ξ] + M0
L2
2
Gθ (ξ, µ) = −(ξ − µ)2 H(ξ − µ) + V0 ξ 2 + M0 ξ
2EI L
L3
3 L
Gu (ξ, µ) = −(ξ − µ)3 H(ξ − µ) + V0 ξ 3 + 2
M0 ξ + [(ξ − µ) H(ξ − µ) − V0 ξ]
6EI L GAs
1
V (ξ) = wL −ξ
2
wL2 1
M (ξ) = − − ξ(1 − ξ)
2 6
wL3
θ(ξ) = − (ξ − 3ξ 2 + 2ξ 3 )
12EI
wL4 2 wL2
u(ξ) = − ξ (ξ − 1)2 − ξ(1 − ξ)
24EI 2GAs
20
5.3. Cantilever Beam
5.3.1. Boundary Conditions
0 = −1 + V0
V0 = 1
0 = L [−(1 − µ) + 1] + M0
M0 = −Lµ
GV (ξ, µ) = −H(ξ − µ) + 1
GM (ξ, µ) = L [−(ξ − µ) H(ξ − µ) + ξ] − Lµ
L2
−(ξ − µ)2 H(ξ − µ) + ξ 2 − 2µ ξ
Gθ (ξ, µ) =
2EI
L3
−(ξ − µ)3 H(ξ − µ) + ξ 3 − 3µ ξ 2
Gu (ξ, µ) =
6EI
L
+ [(ξ − µ) H(ξ − µ) − ξ]
GAs
V (ξ) = wL(1 − ξ)
wL2
M (ξ) = − (1 − ξ)2
2
wL3
θ(ξ) = − (3ξ − 3ξ 2 + ξ 3 )
6EI
wL4 wL2
6ξ 2 − 4ξ 3 + ξ 4 −
u(ξ) = − ξ(2 − ξ)
24EI 2GAs
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5.4. Spring-supported Beam
5.4.1. Boundary Conditions
0 = L [−(1 − µ) + V0 ]
V0 = 1−µ
L3
−(1 − µ)3 + (1 − µ) + Lθ0 + u0
u1 =
6EI
L2 1
(1 − µ)3 − (1 − µ) + (u1 − u0 )
θ0 =
6EI L
The Green’s functions are:
GV (ξ, µ) = −H(ξ − µ) + (1 − µ)
GM (ξ, µ) = L [−(ξ − µ) H(ξ − µ) + (1 − µ)ξ]
L2 L2 1
−(ξ − µ)2 H(ξ − µ) + (1 − µ)ξ 2 + (1 − µ)3 − (1 − µ) + (u1 − u0 )
Gθ (ξ, µ) =
2EI 6EI L
L3 3 3 3
Gu (ξ, µ) = −(ξ − µ) H(ξ − µ) + (1 − µ)ξ + (1 − µ) ξ − (1 − µ)ξ
6EI
L
+ [(ξ − µ) H(ξ − µ) − (1 − µ)ξ] + ξu1 + (1 − ξ)u0
GAs
It is seen that Green’s functions for θ and u are the sum of the corresponding Green’s functions for simple beams and a linear
displacement field connecting the ends.
1
V (ξ) = wL −ξ
2
wL2
M (ξ) = ξ(1 − ξ)
2
wL3 1
θ(ξ) = − (1 − 6ξ 2 + 4ξ 3 ) + (u1 − u0 )
24EI L
wL4 wL2
u(ξ) = − (ξ − 2ξ 3 + ξ 4 ) − ξ(1 − ξ) + ξu1 + (1 − ξ)u0
24EI 2GAs
22
5.5. End-restrained Beam
5.5.1. Boundary Conditions
M1 = L [−(1 − µ) + V0 ] + M0
M1 − M0
V0 = + (1 − µ)
L
This expression and the end moment-angle relations are incorporated into equations (4.6) and (4.7):
L2
M1 2 M1 − M0 2 M0
− = −(1 − µ) + + (1 − µ) + M0 +
β1 2EI L L β0
L3
M 1 − M 0 3 1 M0
0 = −(1 − µ)3 + + (1 − µ) + M0 − [M1 − M0 ] + L
6EI L L GAs β0
where
Lβ0 Lβ1 12EI
κ0 = , κ1 = , Φ= , γ = κ0 κ1 + 4(κ0 + κ1 ) + 12 + Φ (κ0 κ1 + κ0 + κ1 )
EI EI L2 GAs
GV (ξ, µ) = −H(ξ − µ) + V0
GM (ξ, µ) = L [−(ξ − µ) H(ξ − µ) + V0 ξ] + M0
L2
2 M0
Gθ (ξ, µ) = −(ξ − µ)2 H(ξ − µ) + V0 ξ 2 + M0 ξ +
2EI L β0
L3
3
Gu (ξ, µ) = −(ξ − µ)3 H(ξ − µ) + V0 ξ 3 + M0 ξ 2
6EI L
L M0
+ [(ξ − µ) H(ξ − µ) − V0 (µ) ξ] + L ξ
GAs β0
where the values of V0 and M0 were computed above for this problem.
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5.5.4. Uniform Load
For a uniform load of w, the following integrals are first computed:
ˆ 1
Lκ0 1 κ1
M0 (µ) dµ = − + (1 + Φ)
0 γ 2 12
ˆ 1
Lκ1 1 κ0
M1 (µ) dµ = − + (1 + Φ)
0 γ 2 12
ˆ 1
κ1 1 κ0 κ0 1 κ1 1
V0 (µ) dµ = − + (1 + Φ) + + (1 + Φ) +
0 γ 2 12 γ 2 12 2
ˆ 1 ˆ 1
1
θ0 (µ) dµ = M0 (µ) dµ
0 β 0 0
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References
[16] C.M. Wang, J.N. Reddy, and K.H. Lee. Shear Deformable Beams and Plates, Relationships with Classical Solutions.
Elsevier, Oxford, 2000.
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