INTRODUCTION

VISHAKHAPATNAM STEEL PLANT (VSP):

On 17th April 1970 the prime minister of India late. Mrs. Indhira Gandhi
announced the government`s decision in the parliament to establish a steel plant at
Vishakhapatnam the activities kicked off by appointing site selection committee in
June 1970 and subsequently the committee`s report was approved for site on 20
January 1971 she laid the foundation stone consultants where appointed in February
1971 and facilities reports where submitted in 1972. The first block of the plant was
taken over on 7th April 1974. m/s. M.n.dustur &co. Was appointed as the consultant
for preparing the detail project report in April 1975 and in October 1977 they have
submitted report for 3.4 million tons for Annam of liquid steel with the offer
assistance from government of erstwhile USSR, a received project concept was
evolved detailed project report for a plant capacity of 3.4 million tons per annum was
prepared by m/s dastur &co in November 1980. In February 1981 the contract was
signed with USSR for preparation of working driving for coke oven, blast furnace
sinter plant. The blast furnace foundation was laid with first mass cocrecting in the
project in January 1982. The construction of town ship also started.

PERTICULARS OF THE ORGANIZATION:

 Name of the company : Rashtriya Ispat Nigam Limited

 Company identification number (CIN)
 Date of incorporation
 Mode of incorporation
 Administration ministry
 Present status
 Share capital
 Present share holding
: U27109AP1982GO1003404
: 18th February 1982
: incorporated as a government company
Under the provisions of the companies act, 1956
: ministry of steel govt. Of India
: A govt. Company within the meaning of sec-617
: authorized equity share capital RS.4890 crores
Preference share capital RS.3110 crores
Total: RS. 8000 crores
Subscribed, issued and paid up capital, RS. 7827.32 cr.
: the entire share capital is held by president of India

1|Page
 Address of registered office : Rashtriya Ispat Nigam Limited
Vishakhapatnam steel plant
Administrative building
Vishakhapatnam – 530301
Web site: www.vizagsteel.com

Visakhapatnam Steel Plant, the first coast based Steel Plant of India is located,
16km south west of City of Destiny i.e., Visakhapatnam. Bestowed with modern
technologies, VSP has an installed capacity of 3million tonnes per annum of liquid
steel and 2.656 million tonnes of saleable steel. At VSP there is an emphasis on total
automation, seamless integration and efficient up gradation, which result in wide
range of long and structural products to meet stringent demands of discerning
customers within India and abroad. VSP products meet exalting International Quality
Standards such as JIS, DIN, BIS, BS, etc.

Vishakhapatnam steel plant has become the first integrated steel plant in the
country to be certified to all the three international standards for quality (ISO-9001),
for environment management (ISO-14001) and for occupational health & safety
(OHSAS-18001).

2|Page
 Vishakhapatnam steel plant successfully installed and is operating efficiently
Rs.460cr. worth of pollution control and environment control equipments and
converting the barren landscape by planting more than 3 million plants. Vsp exports
quality pig iron and steel products to srilanka, Myanmar, Nepal, Middle East, usa, and
south east Asia (pig iron). RINL-VSP was awards “star trading house” status during
1997-2000. Having a total manpower of about 16,613., Vishakhapatnam steel plant
has envisaged a labour productivity of 265 tons per man year of liquid steel which is
the best in the country and comparable with the international levels.

AWARDS AND ACCOLADES:

 Gold award for outstanding achievement in training excellence by

greentech foundation, New Delhi in 2010.
 Strategic leadership award for CMD of RINL by Asia pacific human
resource management congress, New Delhi in 2010.
 Global human resource development award of international federation
of training and development organisation, London in 2010.
 Great places to work award by great places to work institute and
economic times, Mumbai in 2010.
 Bagged the first steel minister`s trophy for the year 2006-07.
 Vishwakarma rashtriya puraskar awards for the performance year 2007
fifth time in a row in 2009 for the best suggestions.

TECHNOLOGICAL HIGHLIGHTS OF THE PLANT:

 7metre tall coke oven batteries with coke dry quenching.

 Biggest blast furnace in the country, Bell less top charging system.
 100% slag granulation at the blast furnace cast house.
 Suppressed combustion L-D gas recovery system.
 100%continous casting of liquid steel.
 ‘Tempore’ and ‘stelmor’ cooling process in LMMM & WRM.
 Extensive waste heat recovery systems.
 Comprehensive pollution control measures.

3|Page
Fig. Layout of Vishakhapatnam steel plant

4|Page
MAJOR RAW MATERIALS REQUIRED FOR PLANT:

The Vishakhapatnam steel plant Iron ore lumps and fines, lime stone, lime
stone, Dolomite, Dolomite, Manganese ore, Boiler coal, coking coal, and medium
coking coal (MCC). The raw materials obtained iron ore from bailadilla deposits in
Madhya Pradesh, manganese from cheepurupalli, river sand from river champavathi,
dolomite from madharam, and limestone from jaggayyapeta. Coal from singareni
mines and also imported from Australia for better rated calorific value. And
Operational water requirement of 36 mega gallons per day is being met from the
yeleru water supply scheme. Recently, some amount of water taking from Godavari
River by pipe line for the operational water requirement. And Operational power
requirement of 180 and 200 MW is being met through captive power plant. The
capacity of the power plant is 286.5MW. Vishakhapatnam steel plant is exporting 60
MW power to APSEB.

MAIN PRODUCTS OF VISHAKHAPATNAM STEEL PLANT:

Angles, billets, channels, beams, squares, flats, rounds, Re-bars, and wire rods.

BY PRODUCTS:

Xylene, tolune, benzene, HP naphthalene, granulated oil. Anthrance oil, coal

tar, coke dust, ammonium, lime fines, nut coke.

MAJOR DEPARTMENTS IN VISHAKHAPATNAM STEEL PLANT:

1. RAW MATERIAL HANDLING DEPARTMENT (RMHD):

Vishakhapatnam steel plant annually requires quality raw materials viz. Iron
ore, fluxes (limestone, dolomite), coking and non-coking coals. To the tune of 12-13
million tons for producing 3 million tons of liquid steel. To handle such a large
volume of incoming raw materials received from different sources and to ensure
timely supply of consistent quality of feed materials to different Vishakhapatnam steel
plant consumers, raw material handling department serves a vital function. This is
provided with elaborate unloading, blending, stacking and reclaiming facilities. In
Vishakhapatnam steel plant peripheral unloading has been adopted for the first time in
the country.

5|Page
2. COKE OVENS AND COAL CHEMICAL DIVISION:

The blast furnaces, the mother units of any steel plant requires huge quantities
of strong, hard and porous solid fuel in the form of hard metallurgical coke for
supplying necessary heat for carrying out the reduction and refining reactions besides
acting as a reducing agent.

Coke is manufactured by the heating of crushed coking coal (below 3mm) in

the absence of air at 1000°c and above 16 to 18 hours. A coke oven comprises of two
hollow chambers namely coal chamber and heating chamber in the heating chamber a
gaseous fuel such as blast furnace gas, coke oven gas, etc. is burnt.

The heat so generated is conducted through the common wall to heat and carbonize
and coking coal placed in the adjustment coal chamber. Number of ovens built in
series one offer another form a coke oven battery.

At Vishakhapatnam steel plant there are three coke oven batteries, 7 meter tall
and having 67 ovens each. Each oven is having a volume of 41.6 cu meters and can
hold up to 31.6 tons of dry coal charge. The carbonization takes place at 1000-1050’C
in absence of air for 16 -18 hours.

Red hot coke is pushed out of the ovens and sent to coke dry cooling plants for
cooling to avoid its combustion. There are three coke dry cooling plants (CDCP),
each having four cooling chambers is 50 to 52 TPH. Nitrogen gas used as cooling
medium. The heat recovery from nitrogen is one by generating steam and expanding
in two back pressure turbines to produce 7.5 MW power each. The coal chemicals
6|Page
such as benzol (and its products), tar (and its products), and ammonium sulphate etc..
Are extracte in coal chemical plant from CO gas. After recovering the coal chemicals,
the gas is used as by-product fuel by mixing it with gases such as BF gas, LD gas etc.
A mechanical, biological and chemical treatment plant takes care of the effluents.

Coke ovens

3. SINTER PLANT:

Sinter is a hard and porous ferrous material obtained by agglomeration of iron

ore fines, coke breeze, limestone fines, metallurgical waste like flue dust, mill scale,
LD slag etc. Sinter is a better-feed material to blast furnace in comparison to iron ore
lumps and its usage in blast furnaces help in increasing productivity, decreasing the
coke rate and improving the quality of hot metal produced. Sintering in two sinter
machines of 312 sq.m my heating the prepared feed on a continuous metallic belt
made of pallets at 1200°c-1300°C. Hot sinter discharged from sintering machine is
crushed to 5mm-50mm size and cooled before dispatching to blast furnace.

THE PARAMETERS OF SINTERING MACHINES ARE,

7|Page
  Effective area : 312 square metres
 Sintering area : 276 square metres
 Sinter bed height : 500 mm
 Capacity : 450 TPH each
 No. Of wind boxes : 26

The dust laden air from the machines are cleaned in scrubbers and electrostatic
precipitators to reduce the dust content to 100 mg/m3 level before allowing to escape
into the atmosphere and thus helping in maintaining a clean and dust free
environment.

Sinter plant

4. BLAST FURNACES:

Vishakhapatnam steel plant has two 3200 cubic metres blast furnaces (largest
in India) equipped with paulworth bell less top equipment with conveyor charging.
Rigidly named as Godavari and Krishna after the two rivers of Andhra Pradesh, the
furnaces will help in bringing prosperity to the state of Andhra Pradesh.

Hot metal is produced in blast furnaces, which are tall vertical furnaces. The
furnace is named as blast furnace as it is run with blast at high pressure and
temperature. Raw material such as sinter iron ore lumps, fluxes (lime stone and
dolomite) and coke are charged from the top and hot blast at 1100°c to 1300°c and

8|Page
5.75 KSCH pressure is blown almost from the bottom. The furnaces are designed
80% sinter in the burden.

Provision exists for granulation of 100% liquid slag at blast furnace cast house
and utilisation of blast furnace gas-top pressure (1.5 to 2 atmospheric pressure) to
generate 12 MW of power in each furnace by employing gas expansion turbines. The
two furnaces with their novel circular cast house and four tap holes each are capable
of producing 9720 tons of hot metal daily or 3.4 MT of low sulphur hot metal
annually.

5. STEEL MELTING SHOP (SMS):

Steel is an alloy of iron with carbon up to 1.8%. hot metal produced in blast
furnace contains impurities such as carbon (3.4 to 4.25%), silicon (0.4 to 0.5%),
manganese (0.3 to 0.4%), sulphur (0.04% maximum) and phosphorus (0.04%
maximum) is not suitable as common engineering material. To improve the quality,
the impurities are to be eliminated or decrease by oxidation process.

Vishakhapatnam steel plant produces steel employing three numbers of top

blown oxygen converters called LD converters (‘L’ means linz and ‘D’ means
donawitz. These are two towns in Austria, where this process was first adopted) or
basic oxygen furnaces/converters. Each converter having 133 cubic metres volume
capable of producing 3 million tons of liquid steel annually. Besides hot metal, steel
scrap, fluxes such as lime, dolomite from part of the charge to converters.

99.5% pure oxygen at 15-16 KSCG pressure is blown in the converter through
oxygen lance having convergent divergent copper nozzles at the blowing end. Oxygen
oxidizes the impurities present in the hot metal which are fluxed as slag with basic
fluxes such as lime during the process heat is generated by exothermic reactions of
oxidation of metalloids viz. Si, Mn, P, and carbon and temperature raises to 1700°c
enabling refining & slag formation.

Different grades of steel of superior quality can be made by this process by

controlling the oxygen blow or addition of various ferroalloys or special additives
such as FeSi, FeMn, Si-Mn, coke breeze, aluminium etc. In required quantities while

9|Page
liquid steel is being tapped from the converter into a steel ladle. Converter/ LD gas
produced as by product is used as a secondary fuel.

CHARECTORSTICS OF PLANT CONVERTERS:

 Capacity : 150 tons per heat/blow

 Volume
 Converter sp. Volume
 Tap to tap time
 Height to diameter ratio
 Lining (1) working
: 133 cubic meters
: 0.886 meter cubic per tonne
: 45 min to 60 min
: 1.36
: tar dolomite bricks

(2) Permanent chrome magnetic bricks

Liquid steel produce in LD converters is solidified in the form of blooms in

continuous bloom casters, however, to homogenize the steel and to raise its
temperature, if needed steel is first routed through, argon rinsing station, IRUT
(injection refining & up temperature)/ladle furnaces.

6. CONTINUOUS CASTING DEPARTMENT (CCD):

Continuous casting may be defined as taming of liquid steel in a mould with a

false bottom through which partially solidified ingot/bar (similar to shape and cross
sectional of the mould) is continuously withdrawn at the same rate which liquid steel
is teamed in the mould.

Facilities at a continuous casting machine include a lift and turn for ladles,
copper mould, mould oscillating system tundish, primary and secondary cooling
arrangement to cool the steel bloom, gas cutting machines for cutting the bloom in
required lengths (average 6 metres long).

At Vishakhapatnam steel plant we have six-4 strand continuous casting

machines capable of producing 2.82 MT/year blooms of size 250*250 mm and
250*320 mm. Entire quantity of molten steel produced (100%) is continuously cast in
radial bloom casters which help in energy conservation as well as production of
superior quality products.

10 | P a g e
7. ROLLING MILLS:

The blooms produced in SMS and CCD departments do not find much
applications as such and required to be shaped into products such as billets, rounds,
squares, angles (equal and unequal), channels, IPE beams, HE beams, wire rods, re-
bars by rolling them in 3 sophisticated high capacity, high speed, fully automated
rolling mills, namely light and medium merchant mill (LMMM), wire rod Mill
(WRM) and medium merchant and structural mill (MMSM).

LIGHT AND MEDIUM MERCHANT MILL (LMMM):

LMMM comprises of two units. In the billet/break down mill 250*320 mm

size blooms are rolled into billets of 125*125 mm size after heating them in two
nos.of walking beam furnaces of 200 TPH capacities each. This unit comprises of 7
stands (two horizontal 850*1200 mm and five alternative vertical and horizontal
stands 730*1000 mm and 630*1000 mm).

The billets for rolling in bar mill of LMMM are first heated in two stand roller
hearth furnace of 200 T/H capacity to temperature of 1150°c - 1200°c. The bar mill
comprises of 26 stands-8 stand double strand roughing train, two nos. Of five stand,
double strand intermediate train & two nos. Of four stand single strand finishing
trains. The mill is facilitated with temperature core heat treatment technology
evaporative cooling system in walking beam furnaces, automated piling & bundling
facilities, high degree of automation and computerization.

The mill is designed to produce 710,000 tons per annum of various finished
products such as rounds, rebars, squares, flat, angles, and channels besides for sale.

WIRE ROD MILL:

Wire rod mill is a 4 strand, 25 stands fully automated and sophisticated mill.
The mill has a four zone combination type reheating furnace (walking beam cum
walking hearth) of 200TPH capacity for heating billets received from billet mill of
LMMM to rolling temperature of 1200°c. The heated billets are rolled in 4 stand no
twist continuous mill having a capacity of 850,000tons of wire rod coils and having
the following configuration,

11 | P a g e
  7 stand two high 4 strand horizontal roughing train.
 6 stand two high 4 strand horizontal intermediate mills.
 2 stand 4 strand no twist finishing mill.

The mill produces rounds in 5.5 mm to 12 mm range and rebars in 8 mm to 12 mm

range. The mill is equipped with standard and retarded stelmor lines for producing
high quality wire rods in low, medium and high carbon grade meeting the stringent
national and international standards viz. BIZ, DIN, JI S, BS etc. And having high
ductility, uniform grain size and excellent surface finish.

MEDIUM MERCHANT AND STRUCTURAL MILL (MMSM):

The mill is a high capacity continuous mill consisting of 20 stands arranged in

3 trains.

The feed material to the mill is 250*250 mm size blooms, which are heated to
rolling temperatures of 1200°c in two walking beam furnaces each of 130 TPH
capacities. The mill capable of producing 850,000 tons of rounds, squares, flats,
angles (equal and unequal), T bars, channels, IPE beams/HE beams (universal beams)
having high strength and close tolerances.

8. QUALITY ASSURANCE AND TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT:

The Quality Assurance and Technology Department has been set up to take
care of activities pertaining to Quality Control of Raw Materials; Semi finished
products and finished products. The Quality Assurance and Technology Department
laboratories are provided at major department like C & CCD, BF, SMS and Rolling
Mills etc.

The department controls the process by providing process charts for production of
quality Products. Quality Assurance and Technology Department carries out final
inspection and testing including spark testing of finished products and assigns grades
to them.

12 | P a g e
 INTRODUCTION TO MMSM

Medium merchant and structural mill is a single stand fully continuous rolling
mill having an annual capacity of 850,000 tons of medium merchant and structural
products. The important feature of this mill is that universal beams both parallel and
wide flange beams are rolled for the first time in India using four universal rolls to
stands.
1. The roughing train consist of 8 stands. As,
 4 two horizontal stands
 2 vertical stands
 2 combination stands

2. Intermediate train has 6 mill stands. As,

 2 high horizontal stands

 2 combination stands
 2 horizontal stands/2 universal stands

3. Finishing stand consist of 6 stands. As,

 2 combination stands
 4 horizontal stands/4 universal stands

Since its inception in March 1992 it has successfully rolled more than 10
profiles including IPE 18 diameter And HEA 12 diameter (parallel flange beams) for
the first time in India.

HOT ROLLING PROCESS:

Rolling is classified according to the temperature of work piece rolled. If the
temperature of the metal is above its recrystallization temperature, then the process is
termed as hot rolling. For hot working processes, large deformation can be
successively repeated, as the metal remains soft and ductile. The metal stock is
subjected to high compressive stresses as a result of the friction between the rolls and
the metal surface. Rolling involves passing the material between two rolls revolving
more or less at the same peripheral speed but in opposite directions, i.e., clockwise
and counter clockwise. The distance between them is spaced, which is somewhat less

13 | P a g e
than the height of the metal stock entering them. These rolls can either be flat or
grooved (contoured) for the hot rolling of rods or shapes. Under these conditions, the
rolls grip the piece of metal and deliver it, reduced in cross-sectional area and
therefore, increased in length. The initial hot-working operation for most steel
products is done on the primary roughing mill (blooming, slabbing or cogging mills).
These mills are normally two-high reversing mills with 0.6 -1.4 metres diameter rolls
(designated by size). The objective is to breakdown the cast ingot into blooms or slabs
for subsequent finishing into bars, plate or a number of rolled sections. The
blooms/slabs are heated initially at 1100 ○C -13000 C. In hot-rolling of steel, the
temperature in the ultimate finishing stand varies from 8500 C – 9000 C, and is
always above the upper critical temperature of steel. Steel is squeezed between rolls
until the final thickness and shapes are achieved. To achieve this, rolls exert forces of
tens of millions of Newton - equivalent to a weight of thousands of tonnes. The rolls
run on massive neck bearings mounted in housings of enormous strength and driven
by powerful electric motors. These are known as mill stands. The layout of a rolling
mill varies, from a simple single stand mill to several stands positioned either side by
side or in a line.
PRODUCTS DETAIL OF MMSM:

CATEGORY SIZE (MM)

1. Bars
 Rounds 42-45, 50-75
 Squares 40-60
 Flats ◦ 100×10-20
150×10-20
2. Structures
 Equal angles 75×75×6-10
80×80×6-10
90×90×6-10
100×100×6-12
110×110×6-12
 Unequal angles 80×60×6-10
100×75×6-12

14 | P a g e
  Channels 100×150
125×65
150×75
175×75
180×90
 T-bars 100×100
 Beams, HE type 96×100
100×100
114×120
 Beams, IPE type 100×55
120×64
140×73
160×82
180×91

THE VARIOUS GRADES OF STEEL PRODUCED ARE AS FOLLOWS,

1. Bars
 Mild steel
 Medium carbon steel
 Forging quality
 Bright bar quality
 Free cutting
2. Structures
 IS 226
 IS 2062
 IS 961
 Lloyds Gr A

15 | P a g e
PRODUCTION PROCESS DESCRIPTION IN MMSM:

 The input material to the mill is continuous cast blooms of size 250×250 mm.
Two walking beam type furnaces are provided for reheating the blooms. For
charging the furnace the blooms are loaded on the bloom charging grids
batches by magnet cranes. Blooms are visually inspected on the charging grids
and weighted one by one on a weight scale incorporated in the charging roller
table aligned in front of the furnace and charged into the walking beam
furnace by a bloom charging device. The heated blooms from the furnace are
discharged one by one on to the delivery roller table by bloom discharging
device for feeding them to the first stand of roughing train. During
transportation to the first roughing stand, the blooms are discalced on all four
sides by a hydraulic descaler.
 The mill train consist of continuous roughing, intermediate and finishing
group of standards. Depending on the section being rolled the combined
strands, provided on each of the continuous trains, are arranged in a horizontal
or vertical position. In case of the rolling of a beam suitable number of
horizontal strands provided in the continuous intermediate and finishing trains
are replaced by universal strands.
 Generally the front ends of the bars are cut by shears installed before the
intermediate train and finishing train. Front end cropping, dividing of finished
bars into multiple sale lengths for cooling bed, emergency cutting and test
piece sample cutting is done by the shear provided after the finishing group.
Inline size measurement is done for rounds, squares, and flats on equipment
provided after finishing group of strands.
 Following the shear after the finishing train is a series of water boxes and
roller tables complete with water spraying nozzles for controlled and rapid
cooling of divided bars after which they are directed with the help of diverter
switch to the double sided cooling bed. The finishing of cooled bars is done on
inline is provided with facilities for straitening, cutting, inspecting, sorting
according to surface quality and length, counting, piling, bundling, strapping,
weighing and tagging with embossed metallic tags.

16 | P a g e
  EOT cranes having 20-tons capacity, 10m crane rail height fitted with rotating
trolley, spreader beam and magnetic /slings is available for removing piled and
bundled products to the storage area.

MILL CONFIGUARATION:

Considering the wide-ranging rolling programmed and very high capacity

requirement, a fully continuous strand arrangement has been adopted. The mill
configuration is as follows.

 Roughing train strand numbers :1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

 Configuration :HVHVHKHK
 Intermediate train strand numbers : 9 10 11 12 13 14
 Configuration :H K H K H K
U U
 Finishing train strand number : 15 16 17 18 19 20
 Configuration :H H K H K H

H- Horizontal strand

V- Vertical strand

K- Combination strand

U- Universal strand

MILL STANDS:

Mill stands are of housing less design characterized by high rigidity, small
dimension and low weight. The high rigidity is obtained by direct compression of the
bearing housing by non pre stressed rods which also serves as adjusting screws. The
rolling pressure is transmitted via bearing housings to supporting rods.

Due to this conventional closed top strands, the frames do not have any
influence on tolerance of the product being rolled. The housing less design permits
use of rolls with flanges up to 40% larger than nominal diameter of rolls. Roll
changing is done in the strand preparation by, after pulling a part two frames on a
special bed. Universal strands are also of housing less design.

17 | P a g e
STAND CHANGING:

In order to produce set up time, during profile change all strands have quick
strand changing facilities. Stands of roughing and intermediate trains are transferred
to mill by/ stand preparation with the help of transfer car and over head crane. In case
finishing train where frequency of change is more, all stands are side shift able to next
bay using chain transfer without the help of crane.

During strands change, connection of electric supply, hydraulic oil, lubrication

oil, grease and cooling water is automatic without manual intervention. The automatic
engagement of spindles on the working rolls affected by supporting and guiding
device.

FINISHING AREA:

The finishing area includes the following systems.

 SAW AREA:
It consist of three saws, they are stationary saw, mobile saw 1 and
mobile saw 2. Among the three saws, stationary saw is fixed and
remaining two saws are adjustable according to the length requirement.
One travel shipper stopper is here for levelling sizes. This stopper is
adjustable according to the length requirement. After stopper we place
the stationary saw, mobile saws 1&2 are placed in equal distance from
stationary saw.
 INSPECTION AREA:
After getting the required shape, it comes to inspection area. Here
inspection done by QATD department. If there is any defect present in
the product as per customer requirement, they eliminate the defected
product. This section is only to check whether the required product is
occurred or not. If it has the exact dimensions it goes to the piling area,
otherwise they shift to scrap section.
 PILING AREA:
After the inspection area, if the product is tested OK it will come to the
piling area. In this area product handling is done by hydraulic system.
After sending the material in to piling area it piles the material in 6 to 8

18 | P a g e
 layers by using the magnetic converter and they are stapled by
strapping machine. Finished product is lifted by hydraulic system and
transferred by electric motor.
 BUNDLING AREA;
Bundling area is for packing the finished products after finishing. This
is done by pneumatic strapping machine.
 SHIPPING AREA:
This area is present in between the transport and piling area. After
bundling the material, order is present at the time, it is directly
transported to them. Otherwise they are shifted and stored at the
shipping area with the help of magnetic cranes.

AUTOMATION;

 The automation system mainly consist of one production control computer at

the upper level and three processes control computers on one each for mill
control, cooling bed area equipment control and piling bed area equipment
control at the lower level with required data-links for exchange of information
for online control of the mill. Programmable logic controllers provide
automation all sub ordinate level as well as interlocking and sequence controls
of the various process equipment. One separate computer system facilitates
acquisition, monitoring and logging of mill faults.
 The automation system does the following tasks,
Material tracking.
Management of production scheduled rolling programmers.
Roll shop management.
Bloom positioning in front of furnace.
Cut length optimisation and control of cooling bed.

19 | P a g e
 CASSETTE

INTRODUCTION TO CASSETTE:

Cassette is equipment which provides support and drive for the working rolls.
Working rolls which rotate in opposite direction in the hot rolling process.

Hydraulic plungers provide the cushioning effect for the working rolls against
various loads, so that various components of cassette are ensured.

THE TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS OF A CASSETTE:

 Nominal roll diameter : 630 mm

 Minimum roll diameter : 600 mm
 Maximum diameter of collar : 860 mm
 Length of roll body : 1000 mm
 Distance of roll axes maximum & minimum : 750 mm & 600 mm
 Rolling level : + 1200 mm
 Change of rolling level : ± 10 mm
 Axial adjustment of the upper roll : ± 5 mm
 Summary speed of the roll adjustment : 0.3 mm/sec.
 Working pressure of the pressure oil : 100 bar. (10 mpa)

CONSTRUCTION:

TWO HIGH STAND 630 AND FRAME:

The cassette consists of the frame accommodating the bedding of rolls is

screwed in the frame upper section. This is formed by two separate, two stage worm
gear units. The adjustment of rolls is on the operator’s side and the other is drive side
the top and bottom bearing bodies are interconnected by armatures. These armatures
serve for the adjustment of the rolling gap and at the same time they transfer the
rolling pressure.

These armatures are attached to the rolls adjustment with the help of a hanger,
thus the entire weight of the armature together with the rolls bedding is suspended
through the gears of the rolls adjustment. The hanger of the armatures enables to
adjust the rolling level within the range of ± 10 mm. The adjustment of the rolling
20 | P a g e
level is accomplished manually in the bottom section of the frame there are installed
the moving supply unit A and the moving supply unit B. The supply units serve for
the automatic connection of utilities i.e. the cooling water, pressure oil, lubricating
grease. The contact block serves for the automatic connection of the electric power.

In the parting plane of the frame, on the output from the two high stands, there
are in the frame top cross beam, the connecting unit of the drive side and the
connecting unit of the operator side. These units serve for the automatic connection of
utilities (lubrication, grease and pressure oil). Between both halves of the two high
stand. The two high stands 630 can operate either in the horizontal or vertical position
without any modifications.

Fig. Cassette assembly

21 | P a g e
 The frame 630 serves for the installation of bearing bodies of the rolls bedding
for the attachment of various auxiliary mechanisms. The frame is made cast steel, U
shaped open. Upper cross beams form the boxes of the rolls adjustment.

For the replacement purpose of operating rolls, the frame consists of two
halves-the frame of drive side, both frame sections are mutually connected with the
help of 8 screws 42*3 for the centering reasons of both frame halves to each other, the
guiding pins are placed in the parting plane. In the lower cross beams, there are two
centering pins ∅85 in the upper cross beams there are two pins ∅40.

The frame is provided with fixing footings in the lower section for the
installation on the base plate. The surfaces, over which the bearing bodies are moving,
are lined with sliding bars. The frame is provided with a travel wheels these serving
for the two high stands moving into the train. In the bottom section of the frame there
are the wheels for the horizontal position of the two high stand on the operator`s side
there are 4 travel wheels for the vertical position of the two high stand on the
operator`s side, there is a hook this serving for the two high stand installation into the
train with the help of the equipment for the roll stand replacement on the drive side
there is a hock for the two high stand connection with the support of spindles.

The axial forces from the rolls bedding are caught with the help of bars on the
operator`s side and are transferred to the frame. The bars and even the frame at the
point of the axial forces catching are provided with sliding bars and on the drive side,
the bearing bodies are held in the frame by the same bars as on the operator`s side,
however they don`t catch axial forces. The screw serves for the clearance setting
between the bearing bodies on the operator`s side the bars are set up without any
clearance.

ROLLS BEDDING:

The operating rolls are supported by four-row roller bearings the bearings are
supported by bearing bodies the sealing of bearings against water and impurities from
the side of the roll body made by means of two sealing rings “sevanit” and labyrinths.

The bearing inner ring is supported on the pin of the operating roll ∅300 with
an allowance and is mounted with the help of an inducer. The assembly method is
described in the operating instructions of the roll stands preparation shop. The

22 | P a g e
labyrinth is mounted on the roll pin (∅305) also with a clearance and an inducer is to
be used for the assembly and dismantling. The assembly method is described in the
operating instructions of roll stands preparation shop work place.

The axial force caused by the rolling is caught only at the lower and upper roll
on the operator`s side in both directions. The axial force is transferred from the
operating roll to the ring and to the thrust bearing in one direction. In the other
direction from the operating roll via the right sleeve and the left sleeve to the ring and
via the thread to the body of the thrust bearing and to force is transferred to the sleeve
of the thrust bearing. Further to the bearing body and the frame of the two high stand.

The upper operating roll can be adjusted axially of ±5 mm from the centre
position. The lower roller cannot be rest axially. The axial adjustment of the upper roll
is carried out manually with the help of the gear box. To reset the upper roll axially, it
is necessary first of all to release the nut. This is made manually with the help of gear
box mounted on the right side.

BALANCING OF ROLLS:

The balancing of rolls limits the clearances among the components which
participate in the force transfer from the rolling.

23 | P a g e
 Fig. Armature assembly

It means the clearance between the bearing body and the compression nut and
further between the nut threads and the armature threads the balancing is made behind
the bearing bodies with the help of four hydraulic plungers ∅80 two of them on the
drive side and two on the operator`s side. The hydraulic plungers are attached to the
bearing bodies with the help of brackets.

CONNECTING UNIT – THE DRIVE SIDE:

The connecting unit on the drive side is accommodated in the upper cross
beam of the two high stand on the right hand side when viewed from the operator`s

24 | P a g e
side it serves for the transfer of the lubricating grease and the pressure oil from the
drive side to the operator`s side.

In the pressure oil supply system there is the non-return valve, this consisting
of the socket the cone valve the insert and the spring inside the grease supply system
there is only the socket. the sockets and even 5 serve simultaneously for guiding
against the counter piece i.e. into the connecting unit of the operator`s side.

CONNECTING UNIT – OPERATOR`S SIDE:

The connecting unit of the operator`s side forms a counter piece to the
connecting unit of the drive side. Both of them serve together for the automatic
connection and disconnection of the lubricating grease and pressure oil supply on the
two high stand from the drive side to the operator`s side. The connecting unit is
accommodated in the upper cross beam of the two high stand frame.

In the pressure oil supply system there is the non-return valve, connecting of
the insert the cone valve the stop and the spring for sealing the pressure oil space
serves the sleeve and the guiding bushing in the lubricating grease supply system
there is not a non-return valve. This space is sealed with the help of the sleeve and the
guiding bushing.

COOLING WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM:

Cooling water is fed through the spindles support to the moving supply units
A and B. Water is fed from the moving supply unit A to the upper operating rolls by
means of the rising pipes. The pipe and the hose water is fed to the lower operating
roll from the moving supply unit B through the water supply and the hose. The upper
operating roll is cooled by two sprays the spacing of which can be changed according
to the calibre width. The sprays are fixed to the beam by means of the shim and the
wedge. The beam is attached to the clamps which are welded to the bearing bodies.
The power operating roll is cooled in the same way as the upper roll.

PRESSURE OIL:

Pressure oil is fed through the moving connecting unit B from this, it is fed
with the help of the hoses to separate hydraulic rolls. The pressure oil is fed from the

25 | P a g e
drive side to the operator`s side with the help of the connecting units “operator`s side
and drive side”.

LUBRICATION:

The lubrication of the rolls bedding is a central one by means of grease. Grease
supply is carried out with the help of pressure hoses to the bearing body. In the
bearing bodies, ports are drilled to individual lubricating points. The following points
are lubricated centrally,

 For row roller bearings

 Thrust bearings
 Space among the “sevanit” rings at the labyrinths

26 | P a g e
 HYDRAULIC SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION:

Hydraulic is the combination of two Greek words, ‘hyder’ means water and
‘aulos’ means pump. So hydraulics means pumping of water, but generally it includes
pumping of liquids the study of liquids and how they work is called hydraulics.

PRINCIPLES OF HYDRAULICS:

Hydraulics can be considered as the application of the principles of

hydrostatics and hydrodynamics as the study of fluids in motion. Some of the laws
which are widely used while dealing with hydraulics or

 PASCAL`S LAW:
Hydraulics are based on Pascal’s law. It states that “pressure applied on a
confined fluid will be transmitted undiminished in all directions and acts with equal
force on equal areas and right angles to them”

The controlled movement of parts or a controlled application of force is a

common requirement in the industries. These operations are performed mainly by
using electrical machines or diesel, petrol and steam engines as a prime mover. These
prime movers can provide various movements to the objects by using some
mechanical attachments like screw jack, lever, rack and pinion etc. However, these
are not the only prime movers. The enclosed fluids can also be used as prime movers
to provide controlled motion and force to the objects or substances. The specially
designed enclosed fluid systems can provide both linear as well as rotary motion. The
high magnitude controlled force can also be applied by using these systems. This kind
of enclosed fluid based systems using pressurized incompressible liquids as
transmission media are called as hydraulic systems. The hydraulic system works on
the principle of Pascal’s law which law says that the pressure in an enclosed fluid is
uniform in all the directions.

27 | P a g e
 Fig. Principle of hydraulic system

The hydraulic systems consists a number of parts for its proper functioning. These
include storage tank, filter, hydraulic pump, pressure regulator, control valve, hydraulic
cylinder, piston and leak proof fluid flow pipelines. The schematic of a simple hydraulic
system consists of:
• A movable piston connected to the output shaft in an enclosed cylinder
• Storage tank
• filter
• Electric pump
• Pressure regulator
• Control valve
• Leak proof closed loop piping.

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY:

This states that, “energy can neither be created nor be destroyed. It can only be
converted from one form to other form”.

BERNOULLI`S EQUATION (ENERGY LAW):

It states that “total energy of a flow of fluid doesn`t change as long as energy is
not supplied from outside or drained to outside. i.e., if the flow is constant, the sum of
kinetic energy, pressure energy and potential energy at various points in a system must be
constant”.

28 | P a g e
 COMPONENTS OF HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS:
Different types of components of any hydraulic system are as follows,
 Tank (reservoir)
 Hydraulic Pumps
 Control valves
 Actuators
 Accumulators
 Filters
 Tubes, pipes and hoses
 Seals, fittings and connections
TANK (RESERVOIR):
The main purpose of reservoir is to store and supply hydraulic fluid to use by the
system. The reservoir is also designed to aid in separation of air from the fluid and also
work as a heat accumulator to cover losses in the system when peak power is used.
Reservoirs can also help separate dirt and other particulate from the oil, as the particulate
will generally settle to the bottom of the tank. Some designs include dynamic flow
channels on the fluids return path that allow for a smaller reservoir.
HYDRAULIC PUMPS:
The most important component in the power supply unit is the hydraulic pump.
This draws in the hydraulic fluid from a reservoir (tank) and delivers it via a system of
lines in the hydraulic installation against the opposing resistances. That is they convert
mechanical energy in to hydraulic energy. Pressure does not build up until the flowing
liquids encounter a resistance.
The pump function is to convert mechanical energy to hydraulic energy by
pushing the hydraulic fluid into the system. Pumps are made in many shapes and
sizes-mechanical and manual with many different pumping mechanisms.

All pumps fall into one of two basic categories:

a) Hydrodynamic pumps (or) Non-positive displacement pumps.

b) Hydrostatic pumps (or) Positive displacement pumps.

a) HYDRODYNAMIC PUMPS (or) NON-POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS:

Hydrodynamic Pumps (or) Non-positive displacement pumps such as
centrifugal or turbine design is used primarily in the transfer of fluids where the only

29 | P a g e
resistance encountered is that created by the weight of the fluid itself and friction.
Most non-positive displacement pumps operate by centrifugal force whereby fluids
entering the centre of the pump housing are thrown to the outside by means of a
rapidly driven impeller. There is no positive seal between the inlet and outlet ports
and pressure capabilities are a function of drive speed.

While they provide smooth continuous flow, their output is reduced as resistance is
increased. It is possible to completely block off the outlet while the pump is running.
For this and other reasons these pumps are seldom used in hydraulic systems.

b) HYDROSTATIC PUMPS (or) POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS:

These pumps provide a given amount of fluid for every stroke, revolution or cycle.
Their output except for leakage losses is independent of outlet pressure making them
well suited for used in the transmission of power.

PUMP RATINGS:

Pumps are generally rated by their maximum operating pressure capability and
their output in GPM (Gram Per Minute) at a given speed.

PRESSURE RATINGS:

The pressure rating of pump is determined by the manufacturer based upon

reasonable service life expectancy under specified operating conditions. Operating at
higher pressure may result in reduced pump life or more serious damage.

DISPLACEMENT:

The flow capacity of a pump can be expressed as the displacement per revolution
or by its output in GPM.

Displacement is the volume of liquid transferred in one revolution. It is equal

to the volume of pumping chamber multiplied by the number of chambers that pass
the outlet per revolution. Displacement is expressed in cubic inches per revolution.

Most pumps have a fixed displacement which cannot be changed except by

replacing certain components. It is possible in some, however to vary the size of the
pumping chamber and thereby the displacement by means of external controls.

30 | P a g e
 Certain unbalanced vane pumps and many piston units can be varied from
maximum to zero delivery, with some being capable of reversing their flow as the
control crosses a centre or neutral position.

DELIVERY IN GPM:

A pump may be nominally rated as a 10 GPM. Actually it may pump more than
that under no load conditions and less than that its rated operating pressure. Its
delivery, too, will be proportional to drive shaft speed.

VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY:

Theoretically, a pump delivers an amount of fluid equal to its displacement in

each cycle. But practically the actual output is reduced because of internal leakage or
slippage. As pressure increases, the leakage from the outlet back to the inlet or to the
drain increases and volumetric efficiency decreases.

Volumetric efficiency is equal to the actual output divided by the theoretical output. It
is expressed as a percentage.

Efficiency = (actual output / theoretical output)

For example, if a pump theoretically should deliver 10 GPM but delivers only 9 GPM
at 1000 PSI, its volumetric efficiency at that pressure is 90%.

Efficiency = 9/10 = 0.9 = 90%

GEAR PUMPS:

A Gear pump develops flow by carrying fluid between the teeth of two
meshed gears. One gear is driven by the drive shaft and turns the other. The pumping
chambers formed between the gear teeth care enclosed by the pump housing and side
plates (often called wear or pressure plates).A partial vacuum is created at the inlet as
the gear teeth unmeshed. Fluid flows to fill the space and is carried around the outside
of the gears. As the teeth mesh again at the outlet, the fluid is forced out.

31 | P a g e
 High pressure at the pump outlet imposes an unbalanced load on the gears and the
bearings supporting them. Fig. Illustrates a typical internal gear pump; in this design,
the pumping chambers also are formed between gear teeth. A crescent seal is
machined into the valve body between the teeth is maximum.

Also in the general family of gear pump is the lobe or rotor pump. This pump
operates on the same principle as the internal gear pump, but has a higher
displacement. The gyrator pump operates much like the internal gear pump. The inner
rotor is driven and carries outer rotor around in mesh. Pumping chambers are formed
between the rotor lobes. The crescent seal is not used. Rather, the tip of the inner
rotor contacts the outer rotor to seal the chambers from each other.

GEAR PUMP CHARECTORSTICS:

More gear type pumps are fixed displacement. They range in output from very
low to high volume. Because of the shaft side loading, they are usually low pressure
units although some may be used up to 3000 PSI.

Internal leakage increases with wear. However, the units are fairly durable and
are more dirt tolerant than other types. A gear pump with many pumping chambers

32 | P a g e
generates high frequencies and therefore tends to run noisily, although there have
been significant improvements in recent years.

VANE PUMPS:

The Operating principle of a vane pump is shown. A slotted rotor is splinted to

the drive shaft and turns inside a cam ring. Vanes are fitted to the rotor slots and
follow the inner surface of the ring as the rotor turns. Centrifugal force and pressure
under the vanes hold them out against the ring. Pumping chambers are formed
between the vanes and are enclosed by the rotor, ring and two side plates.

At the pump inlet, a partial vacuum is created as the space between the rotor
and ring increases. Oil entering have is trapped in the pumping chambers and then is
pushed into the outlet as the space decreases. The displacement of the pump depends
on the width of the ring and rotor and on the ‘throw’ of the ring.

VANE PUMP OPERATING CHARECTORSTICS:

Vane pumps cover the low and medium high volume ranges with operating
pressures up to 3000 PSI. They are reliable, efficient and easy to maintain. The ring
surface and vane tips are the points of greatest wear, which is compensated by the

33 | P a g e
vanes moving farther out of their slots. Cleanliness and proper fluid are essential for
long life.

PISTON PUMPS:

All pistons operate on the principle that a piston reciprocating in a bore will
draw in fluid as it is retracted and expel it on the forward stroke.

The basic designs are radial and axial; both are available as fixed or variable
displacement models. A radial pump has the pistons arranged radially in a cylinder
block while in the axial units; the pistons are parallel to each other and to the axis of
the cylinder block. The latte may be further divided into in-line (swash plate or
wobble plate) and bent axis types.

RADIAL PISTON PUMPS:

In a radial pump the cylinder block rotates on a stationary pintle and inside a
circular reaction ring or rotor. As the block rotates, centrifugal force changing
pressure or some form of mechanical action causes the pistons to follow the inner
surface of the ring which is offset from the centre line of the cylinder block. As the
pistons reciprocate in their bores, porting in the pintle permits them to take in clued as
they move outward and discharge it as they move in.

34 | P a g e
 The size and number of pistons (there may be more than one bank in a single
cylinder block) and, of course, the length of their stroke determines pump
displacement. In some models the displacement can be varied by moving the reaction
ring to increase or decrease piston travel.

SWASH PLATE DESIGN INLINE PISTON:

In axial piston pumps, the cylinder block and drive shaft are on the same centre
line and they reciprocate parallel to the drive shaft .The simplest type of piston pumps
is swash plate in the line design.

35 | P a g e
 The cylinder block in this turned by the drive shaft. Pistons fitted to bores in the
cylinder are connected through piston shoes bear against an angled swash plate.

NAs the block turns, the piston shoes follow the swash plate, causing the
pistons to reciprocate. The ports are arranged in the valve plate so that the piston
passes the inlet as they are being pulled out and pass the outlet as they are forced back
in.

DISPLACEMENT:

In these pumps the displacement is also determined by the size and number of
pistons as well their stroke length, the latter being a function of the swash plate
angle.

In variable displacement models of the inline pumps, the swash plate is

installed in a movable yoke “pivoting” the yoke on pointless changes the swash plate
angle to increase or decrease the piston stroke. the yoke can be positioned manually,
with a servo control, with a compensator control, or by any of several other means.
show a compensator control. Maximum angle on the units shown is limited to 171/2
degrees by construction.

BENT AXIS PISTON PUMPS:

In a bent axis piston pump, the cylinder block turns with the drive shaft, but at an
offset angle. The piston rods are attached to the drive shaft flange by ball joints, and
or forced in and out of their bores as the distance between the drive shaft flange and
cylinder block changes. A universal link key the cylinder block to the drive shaft to

36 | P a g e
maintain alignment and assure that they turn together. The link does not transmit
force except to accelerate and decelerate the cylinder block and to overcome
resistance of the block revolving in the oil filled housing.

CHANGING DISPLACEMENT OF PUMP:

The displacement of this pump varies with the offset angle, the maximum angle
being 30˚, the minimum Zero. Fixed displacement models, are usually available with
23˚ or 30˚ angles. In the variable displacement construction, a yoke with an external
control is used to change the angle. With some controls, the yoke can be moved over
centre to reverse the direction of flow from the pump.

CONTROL VALVES:

In a hydraulic system, the hydraulic energy available from a pump is

converted into motion and force by means of an actuator. The control of these
mechanical outputs (motion and force) is one of the most important functions in a
hydraulic system. The proper selection of control selection ensures the desired output
and safe function of the system. In order to control the hydraulic outputs, different
types of control valves are required. It is important to know various types of control
valves and their functions. This not only helps to design a proper hydraulic system but
also helps to discover the innovative ways to improve the existing systems.

There are basically three types of valves employed in hydraulic systems:

 Directional control valves

 Flow control valves
 Pressure control valve

1. DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES:

Directional control valves are used to control the distribution of energy in a

fluid power system. They provide the direction to the fluid and allow the flow in a
particular direction. These valves are used to control the start, stop and change in
direction of the fluid flow. These valves regulate the flow direction in the hydraulic
circuit. These control valves contain ports that are external openings for the fluid to
enter and leave. The number of ports is usually identified by the term ‘way’. For
example, a valve with four ports is named as four-way valve. The fluid flow rate is
37 | P a g e
responsible for the speed of actuator (motion of the output) and should control in a
hydraulic system. This operation can be performed by using flow control valves. The
pressure may increase gradually when the system is under operation. The pressure
control valves protect the system by maintaining the system pressure within the
desired range. Also, the output force is directly proportional to the pressure and hence,
the pressure control valves ensure the desired force output at the actuator.
Directional control valves can be classified in the following manner:
1. Type of construction:
• Poppet valves
• Spool valves
2. Number of ports:
• Two- way valves
• Three – way valves
• Four- way valves.

3. Number of switching position:

• Two – position
• Three - position

4. Actuating mechanism:
• Manual actuation
• Mechanical actuation
• Solenoid actuation
• Hydraulic actuation
• Pneumatic actuation
• Indirect actuation
1. TYPE OF CONSTRUCTION:
CHECK VALVES or POPPET VALVES:
These are unidirectional valves and permit the free flow in one direction only.
These valves have two ports: one for the entry of fluid and the other for the discharge.
They are consists of a housing bore in which ball or poppet is held by a small spring
force. The valve having ball as a closing member is known as ball check valve. The
various types of check valves are available for a range of applications. These valves
are generally small sized, simple in construction and inexpensive. Generally, the

38 | P a g e
check valves are automatically operated. Human intervention or any external control
system is not required. These valves can wear out or can generate the cracks after
prolonged usage and therefore they are mostly made of plastics for easy repair and
replacements.

An important concept in check valves is the cracking pressure. The check

valve is designed for a specific cracking pressure which is the minimum upstream
pressure at which the valve operates. The simplest check valve is an inline check
valve as shown in Figure. The ball is held against the valve seat by a spring force. It
can be observed from the figure that the fluid flow is not possible from the spring side
but the fluid from opposite side can pass by lifting the ball against. However, there is
some pressure drop across the valve due to restriction by the spring force. Therefore
these valves are not suitable for the application of high flow rate. When the operating
pressure increases the valve becomes more tightly seated in this design.
The advantages of the poppet valves include no leakage, long life and
suitability with high pressure applications. These valves are commonly used in liquid
or gel mini-pump dispenser spigots, spray devices, some rubber bulbs for pumping
air, manual air pumps, and refillable dispensing syringes. Sometimes, the right angle
check valve as shown in Figure. Is used for the high flow rate applications. The
pressure drop is comparatively less in right angle check valve.
SPOOL VALVE:
The spool valves derive their name from their appearance. It consists of a shaft
sliding in a bore which has large groove around the circumference. This type of
construction makes it look like a spool. The spool is sealed along the clearance

39 | P a g e
between moving spool and housing (valve body). The quality of seal or the amount of
leakage depends on the amount of clearance, viscosity of fluid and the level of the
pressure. The grooves guide the fluid flow by interconnecting or blocking the holes
(ports). The spool valves are categorized according to the number of operating
positions and the way hydraulic lines interconnections. One of the simplest two way
spool valve, The standard terms are referred as Port ‘P’ is pressure port, Port ‘T’ is
tank port and Port ‘A’ and Port ‘B’ are the actuator (or working) ports. The actuators
can move in forward or backward direction depending on the connectivity of the
pressure and tank port with the actuators port.
NUMBER OF PORTS:
TWO WAY VALVE:

Two way valves have only two ports as shown in Figure. And These valves
are also known as on-off valves because they allow the fluid flow only in direction.
Normally, the valve is closed. These valves are available as normally open and
normally closed function. These are the simplest type of spool valves. When actuating
force is not applied to the right, the port P is not connected with port A as shown in
figure. Therefore, the actuation does not take place. Similarly, Figure 5.4.6 shows the
two-way spool valve in the open condition. Here, the pressure port P is connected
with the actuator port A.
THREE WAY VALVE:
When a valve has one pressure port, one tank port and one actuating port, it is
known as three way valve. In this valve, the pressure port pressurizes one port and
exhausts another one. As shown in figures, only one actuator port is opened at a time.
In some cases a neutral position is also available when both the ports are blocked.
Generally, these valves are used to operate single acting cylinders.

40 | P a g e
FOUR WAY VALVE:
A four-way valve, it is generally used to operate the cylinders and fluid motors
in both the directions. The four ways are: pump port P, tank port T, and two working
ports A and B connected to the actuator. The primary function of a four way valve is
to pressurize and exhaust two working ports A and B alternatively.

NUMBER OF SWITCHING POSITION:

TWO POSITION FOUR WAY VALVE:
The two position four way valves have only two switching positions and do
not have any mid position. Therefore, they are also known as impulse valves. The
typical connections of 2/4 valves these valves can be used to operate double acting
cylinders. These are also used to reciprocate or hold an actuator. The operation is
faster because the distance between ports of these valves is smaller. Hence, these
valves are used on machines where fast reciprocation cycles are needed such as
punching and stamping etc.

THREE POSITION FOUR WAY VALVE:

Three position four way (3/4) valves are used in double-acting cylinders to
perform advance, hold and return operation to the piston. Three position four way
valves. These types of valves have three switching positions. They have a variety of
possible flow path configurations but have identical flow path configuration. When
the cantered path is actuated, port A and B are connected with both the ports P and T
respectively. In this case, valve is not active because all the ports are open to each
other. The fluid flows to the tank at atmospheric pressure. In this position work cannot
be done by any part of the system. This configuration helps to prevent heat build-up.

41 | P a g e
ACTUATING MECHANISM:
MANUAL ACTUATION:
In this type, the spool is operated manually. Manual actuators are hand lever,
push button and pedals etc.
MECHANICAL ACTUATION:
The DCV spool can be operated by using mechanical elements such as roller
and cam, roller and plunger and rack and pinion etc. In these arrangements, the spool
end is of roller or a pinion gear type. The plunger or cam or rack gear is attached to
the actuator. Thus, the mechanical elements gain some motion relative to the actuator
(cylinder piston) which can be used for the actuation.
SOLENOID ACTUATION:
The solenoid actuation is also known as electrical actuation. the schematic of
solenoid actuation. The energized solenoid coil creates a magnetic force which pulls
the armature into the coil. This movement of armature controls the spool position. The
main advantage of solenoid actuation is its less switching time.

HYDRAULIC ACTUATION SYSTEM:

This type actuation is usually known as pilot-actuated valve. In this type of
actuation, the hydraulic pressure is directly applied on the spool. The pilot port is
located on one end of the valve. Fluid entering from pilot port operates against the
piston and forces the spool to move forward. The needle valve is used to control the
speed of the actuation.

42 | P a g e
PNEUMATIC ACTUATION SYSTEM:
DCV can also be operated by applying compressed air against a piston at
either end of the valve spool. The construction of the system is similar to the
hydraulic actuation. The only difference would be the actuation medium. The
actuation medium is the compressed air in pneumatic actuation system.
INDIRECT ACTUATION SYSTEM:
The direction control valve can be operated by manual, mechanical, solenoidal
(electrical), hydraulic (pilot) and pneumatic actuations. The mode of actuation does
not have any influence on the basic operation of the hydraulic circuits. Mostly, the
direct actuation is restricted to use with smaller valves only because usually lot of
force is not available. The availability of limited force is the greatest disadvantage of
the direct actuation systems. In practice, the force required to shift the spool is quiet
higher. Therefore, the larger valves are often indirectly actuated in sequence. First, the
smaller valve is actuated directly and the flow from the smaller valve is directed to
either side of the larger valve. The control fluid can be supplied by the same circuit or
by a separate circuit. The pilot valve pressure is usually supplied internally. These two
valves are often incorporated as a single unit. These valves are also called as Electro-
hydraulic operated DCV.
2. FLOW CONTROL VALVES:
In practice, the speed of actuator is very important in terms of the desired
output and needs to be controlled. The speed of actuator can be controlled by
regulating the fluid flow. A flow control valve can regulate the flow or pressure of the
fluid. The fluid flow is controlled by varying area of the valve opening through which
fluid passes. The fluid flow can be decreased by reducing the area of the valve
opening and it can be increased by increasing the area of the valve opening. A very
common example to the fluid flow control valve is the household tap. The schematic

43 | P a g e
diagram of a flow control valve. The pressure adjustment screw varies the fluid flow
area in the pipe to control the discharge rate.

The pressure drop across the valve may keep on fluctuating. In general, the
hydraulic systems have a pressure compensating pump. The inlet pressure remains
almost constant but the outlet pressure keeps on fluctuating depending on the external
load. It creates fluctuating pressure drop. Thus, the ordinary flow control valve will
not be able to maintain a constant fluid flow. A pressure compensated flow control
valve maintains the constant flow throughout the movement of a spool, which shifts
its position depending on the pressure. Flow control valves can also be affected by
temperature changes. It is because the viscosity of the fluid changes with temperature.
Therefore, the advanced flow control valves often have the temperature
compensation. The temperature compensation is achieved by the thermal expansion of
a rod, which compensates for the increased coefficient of discharge due to decreasing
viscosity with temperature.
TYPES OF FLOW CONTROLLED VALVES:
The flow control valves work on applying a variable restriction in the flow path.
Based on the construction; there are mainly four types viz. plug valve, butterfly valve,
ball valve and balanced valve.
PLUG or GLOVE VALVE:

44 | P a g e
 The plug valve is quite commonly used valve. It is also termed as glove valve.
Schematic of plug or glove valve is shown in Figure 5.5.12. This valve has a plug
which can be adjusted in vertical direction by setting flow adjustment screw. The
adjustment of plug alters the orifice size between plug and valve seat. Thus the
adjustment of plug controls the fluid flow in the pipeline. The characteristics of these
valves can be accurately predetermined by machining the taper of the plug. The
typical example of plug valve is stopcock that is used in laboratory glassware. The
valve body is made of glass or Teflon. The plug can be made of plastic or glass.
Special glass stopcocks are made for vacuum applications. Stopcock grease is used in
high vacuum applications to make the stopcock air-tight.
BUTTERFLY VALVE:
A butterfly valve, it consists of a disc which can rotate inside the pipe. The
angle of disc determines the restriction. Butterfly valve can be made to any size and is
widely used to control the flow of gas. These valves have many types which have for
different pressure ranges and applications. The resilient butterfly valve uses the
flexibility of rubber and has the lowest pressure rating. The high performance
butterfly valves have a slight offset in the way the disc is positioned. It increases its
sealing ability and decreases the wear. For high-pressure systems, the triple offset
butterfly valve is suitable which makes use of a metal seat and is therefore able to
withstand high pressure. It has higher risk of leakage on the shut-off position and
suffers from the dynamic torque effect. Butterfly valves are favoured because of their
lower cost and lighter weight. The disc is always present in the flow therefore a
pressure drop is induced regardless of the valve position.

45 | P a g e
BALL VALVE:
The ball valve, this type of flow control valve uses a ball rotated inside a
machined seat. The ball has a through hole. It has very less leakage in its shut-off
condition. These valves are durable and usually work perfectly for many years. They
are excellent choice for shutoff applications. They do not offer fine control which may
be necessary in throttling applications. These valves are widely used in industries
because of their versatility, high supporting pressures (up to 1000 bar) and
temperatures (up to 250°C). They are easy to repair and operate.

BALANCED VALVE:
Schematic of a balanced valve, It comprises of two plugs and two seats. The
opposite flow gives little dynamic reaction onto the actuator shaft. It results in the
negligible dynamic torque effect. However, the leakage is more in these kinds of
valves because the manufacturing tolerance can cause one plug to seat before the
other. The pressure-balanced valves are used in the houses. They provide water at
nearly constant temperature to a shower or bathtub despite of pressure fluctuations in
either the hot or cold supply lines.

46 | P a g e
3. PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES (pressure relief valves):

The pressure relief valves are used to protect the hydraulic components from
excessive pressure. This is one of the most important components of a hydraulic
system and is essentially required for safe operation of the system. Its primary
function is to limit the system pressure within a specified range. It is normally a
closed type and it opens when the pressure exceeds a specified maximum value by
diverting pump flow back to the tank. The simplest type valve contains a poppet held
in a seat against the spring force. The fluid enters from the opposite side of the
poppet. When the system pressure exceeds the preset value, the poppet lifts and the
fluid is escaped through the orifice to the storage tank directly. It reduces the system
pressure and as the pressure reduces to the set limit again the valve closes. This valve
does not provide a flat cut-off pressure limit with flow rate because the spring must be
deflected more when the flow rate is higher.
1. DIRECT TYPE OF PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE:

Schematic of direct pressure relief valve is shown in figure 5.6.1. This type of valves
has two ports; one of which is connected to the pump and another is connected to the
tank. It consists of a spring chamber where poppet is placed with a spring force.
Generally, the spring is adjustable to set the maximum pressure limit of the system.

47 | P a g e
 The poppet is held in position by combined effect of spring force and dead weight
of spool. As the pressure exceeds this combined force, the poppet raises and excess
fluid bypassed to the reservoir (tank). The poppet again reseats as the pressure drops
below the pre-set value. A drain is also provided in the control chamber. It sends the
fluid collected due to small leakage to the tank and thereby prevents the failure of the
valve.
2. UNLOADING VALVE:

The construction of unloading valve is shown in Figure 5.6.2. This valve consists
of a control chamber with an adjustable spring which pushes the spool down. The
valve has two ports: one is connected to the tank and another is connected to the
pump. The valve is operated by movement of the spool. Normally, the valve is closed
and the tank port is also closed. These valves are used to permit a pump to operate at
the minimum load. It works on the same principle as direct control valve that the
pump delivery is diverted to the tank when sufficient pilot pressure is applied to move
the spool. The pilot pressure maintains a static pressure to hold the valve opened. The
pilot pressure holds the valve until the pump delivery is needed in the system. As the
pressure is needed in the hydraulic circuit; the pilot pressure is relaxed and the spool
moves down due to the self-weight and the spring force. Now, the flow is diverted to
the hydraulic circuit. The drain is provided to remove the leaked oil collected in the
control chamber to prevent the valve failure. The unloading valve reduces the heat
build up due to fluid discharge at a preset pressure value.

48 | P a g e
SEQUENCE VALVE:

The primary function of this type of valve is to divert flow in a predetermined

sequence. It is used to operate the cycle of a machine automatically. A sequence valve
may be of direct-pilot or remote-pilot operated type.
Schematic of the sequence valve, Its construction is similar to the direct relief
valve. It consists of the two ports; one main port connecting the main pressure line
and another port (secondary port) is connected to the secondary circuit. The secondary
port is usually closed by the spool. The pressure on the spool works against the spring
force. When the pressure exceeds the present value of the spring; the spool lifts and
the fluid flows from the primary port to the secondary port. For remote operation; the
passage used for the direct operation is closed and a separate pressure source for the
spool operation is provided in the remote operation mode.
COUNTERBALANCE VALVE:

49 | P a g e
 The schematic of counterbalance valve, It is used to maintain the back
pressure and to prevent a load from failing. The counterbalance valves can be used as
breaking valves for decelerating heavy loads. These valves are used in vertical
presses, lift trucks, loaders and other machine tools where position or hold suspended
loads are important. Counterbalance valves work on the principle that the fluid is
trapped under pressure until pilot pressure overcomes the pre-set value of spring
force. Fluid is then allowed to escape, letting the load to descend under control. This
valve is normally closed until it is acted upon by a remote pilot pressure source.
Therefore, a lower spring force is sufficient. It leads to the valve operation at the
lower pilot pressure and hence the power consumption reduces, pump life increases
and the fluid temperature decreases.
PRESSURE REDUCING VALVE:

Sometimes a part of the system may need a lower pressure. This can be made
possible by using pressure reducing valve, these valves are used to limit the outlet
pressure. Generally, they are used for the operation of branch circuits where the
pressure may vary from the main hydraulic pressure lines. These are open type valve
and have a spring chamber with an adjustable spring, a movable spool as shown in
figure. A drain is provided to return the leaked fluid in the spring (control) chamber.
A free flow passage is provided from inlet port to the outlet port until a signal from
the outlet port tends to throttle the passage through the valve. The pilot pressure
opposes the spring force and when both are balanced, the downstream is controlled at

50 | P a g e
the pressure setting. When the pressure in the reduced pressure line exceeds the valve
setting, the spool moves to reduce the flow passage area by compressing the spring. It
can be seen from the figure that if the spring force is more, the valve opens wider and
if the controlled pressure has greater force, the valves moves towards the spring and
throttles the flow.
ACCUMILATORS:
HYDRAULIC ACCUMULATORS:

A hydraulic accumulator serves to take into store a volume of fluid under pressure
and to release it again, as required. The pressure accumulator can carry out many
tasks in a hydraulic circuit.

 As fluid reserve, where a large quantity of fluid may be required at a short

notice in a hydraulic system. The hydraulic pump is not designed for the
maximum flow required for a short time only. It has a lower flow volume and
fills the accumulator, if, during the working cycle; the volume of flow required
for the system is lower than the pump flow. If the maximum volume is then
required, the difference between this and the pump flow volume is taken from
the accumulator. The accumulator therefore helps to avoid the used of large
pump with high drive power, suitable for the short-term high power
requirement.
 As an emergency unit, to stop an operation which has already started, should
there be any damage to the pump or its drive.
 As leakage compensation, to make up leakage losses and thus maintain
pressure over a long period.
 To balance out the volume at temperature changes, e.g., for a closed system.
 To break down pressure peaks during switching process.
 To cushion vibrations; decrease of pressure amplitudes on pumps.
 For the recovery of brake energy.

51 | P a g e
Various models of accumulator available:

a) Weight accumulator
b) Spring accumulator
c) Piston type accumulator
d) Bladder accumulator
e) Membrane accumulator
WEIGHT AND SPRING ACCUMILATOR:

Weight and spring type accumulators are of practically no importance for

industrial applications.

The gas pressure accumulator is used most frequently. The actual

accumulation of pressure energy is undertaken by the compressible gas (nitrogen).
One differentiates between piston, bladder and membrane accumulators.

PISTON ACCUMILATOR:

They are suitable mainly for large volumes and large discharge quantities.
The gas and fluid are separated by a free-moving piston (“flying piston”).

The piston runs in a cylinder tube and provides a steal between the gas and the
fluid by means of rings. The maximum pressure ratio, i.e. the ratio gas pressure to
maximum operating pressure, is 1:10.

52 | P a g e
MEMBRANE ACCUMILATOR:

They are used for small volumes, for example, to absorb shocks, cushion
vibrations and for pilot circuits. The membrane, which is generally semi-spherical,
divides the two median and arches to the fluid side. The maximum pressure ratio is
1:10.

BLADDER ACCUMILATOR:

It is distinguished by its absolute sealing feature, very short response time and
very low inertia operation.

In a bladder accumulator, the nitrogen and fluid are separated by a closed

flexible bladder. The gas is inside the bladder.

The maximum pressure ratio is 1:4

The bladder accumulator comprises a Steel container 1 with fluid connection

2, plate valve 3, accumulator bladder 4 and gas valve5.

The accumulator bladder 4, initially stressed with gas via gas valve 5,
completely fills the Steel container and closes the plate valve. The plate valve
prevents the bladder from coming out of the container and also protects it from
damage.

53 | P a g e
 If the pressure in the hydraulic system becomes equal to the initial gas stress,
fluid then flows into the accumulator by means of the plate valve and compresses the
nitrogen in, the bladder. The gas volume is decreased by the fluid intake volume. As
the fluid drains the accumulator bladder increases in size again. The gas pressure and
also the pressure in the system follows the gas laws: (Fig-3 and Fig-4 follows the
process)

P.V n = Constant

P = Gas pressure

V = Gas volume

If the conditions change very slowly, causing exchange of heat, one talks of
the isothermal change of conditions.

The gas temperature remains constant.

The power n = 1.

With an adiabatic change in condition, there is no change in heat. This means that an
exchange of heat between the gas volume in the accumulator bladder and its
immediate surroundings is not possible, when considering a pressure accumulator
system. This condition occurs, if the compression or expansion processes occur very
quickly.

The power n = k – 1.4

The gas equation P1. Vn = P2. Vn

Representation of the process in P-V diagram.

54 | P a g e
 In practice, the change in conditions will lie between adiabatic and isothermal,
depending on the drain speed. This is called a “polytrophic change in conditions”.
The power in lies between 1 and 1.4 (1<n<1.4).

The following quantities for the accumulator are calculated by means of the
gas equation: nominal volume, working volume available and prefilled pressure
related to the minimum and maximum operation pressure.

FILTERS:

The reliability of hydraulic units depends on the cleanliness of the system, i.e.
on the filtration. The filter serves to reduce the level of dirt in a pressure medium to a
reliable level, and thus to protect the individual elements from too much wear.

Various factors play a part:

Type of dirt particle (size, condition)

No. of dirt particles

Speed at which the pressure fluid flows into the individual elements

System pressure, pressure drop

Tolerances, constructional conditions.

Test on fluids have indicated a connection between the amount of contamination, the
size and the number of particles.

55 | P a g e
The degree of contamination is divided into 7 classes according to SAE standards.

No. of particles in 100 cm3/ classes

Size of particles
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
(micron meters)

05-10 2700 4600 9700 24000 32000 87000 128000

10-25 670 1340 2680 5360 10700 21400 42000

25-50 93 210 380 780 1510 3130 65000

50-100 16 28 56 110 225 430 1000

100 1 3 5 11 21 41 92

The particles, tiny pieces of dirt are measured in microns (micron meter), the
millionth part of a meter. Filtration is also started in microns.

ABSOLUTE FILTRATION:

This refers to the value, corresponding to the diameter of the largest particle
which can pass through the filter.

There is a star shaped fold in the filter material. It is thus possible to achieve a
very large filter area with a small size element and good stability.

WIRE MESHING: A stainless steel mesh is used here.

56 | P a g e
PAPER: The element is made of paper fibre. The filtration is 10 micron meter. Along
with the pressure stable supporting tube and the star-shaped folding, the paper
element guarantees relatively good inherent stability. Paper filters cannot be cleaned.
They must be thrown away and are therefore used for flushing processes or
commissioning of a unit.

METAL FIBRE: Fibres are used as filter material. The metal fibre element has
several advantages:

 Multiple dirt pick up capacity on same filter area

 Long service life due to deep filtering.
 Not related to temperature
 High permissible pressure drop
 Good inherent stability
 Various system filters are available, which differ from one another as follows,
depending on their arrangement in hydraulic circuit.
SUCTION FILTERS:

The suction filter (above) is fitted in the suction line of the pump.

The filter element is fitted with a threaded part 2. The fluid is sucked out of
the tank through the filter element 3, so that only filtered oil reaches the system 1.
However a disadvantage is that it is not easily accessible and maintenance is there
fore difficult. A suction filter also makes the pump suction more difficult. Special
attention must be paid to this point, as some pumps should not be fitted in this type of
filter. The filtration is generally > 100 micron meter.

57 | P a g e
 The suction filter elements can also be fitted with a by-pass valve, so that no
suction difficulties can occur with a dirty element or at a cold start. The cracking
pressure is 0.2 bar.

Pressure filter: The pressure filter is fitted in the pressure line of a hydraulic
circuit. This can be, for example, at the pressure port of the pump, in front of a servo
valve or in front of a flow control valve, set at a very low flow. However, the filter is
usually fitted directly in front of the unit to be protected.

The pressure filter (type DF shown in fig.2) is suitable for fitting in pressure line. The
filter comprises a filter housing with filter head 1, screw-in filter drum (dirt catching
drum) and filter element 3. As the pressure filter is exposed to the maximum
operating pressure, it must be correspondingly stable. This filter is designed, for
example, for a permissible pressure drop of 315 bars.

Important technical data:

Operating pressure : up to 420 bar

Flow : up to 330 l/min. at delta p = 0.8 bar

Filtration : 1,5,10 micron meters

RETURN LINE FILTER:

The return line filter is the type most used. The filter is fitted in the return
line. This means that fluid coming from the system is filtered and flows back to tank.

The filter is available for fitting in the oil tank (fig-3) or for direct line
mounting.

58 | P a g e
 The filter shown in fig-3 is fixed on to the tank cover with mounting flange

The housing 2 with the filter outlet goes directly into the tank. One advantage of this
type of filter is easy accessibility and therefore eases of service.

It is also important that the filter element 5 is surrounded by a dirt-catching tray 4.

The tray is removed with the element. The dirt cannot therefore flow away into the oil
tank. Double filters are also used, in order to avoid standstill, caused by element
changing or filter maintenance.
Two filters are fitted parallel to each other. Standstill of the unit can be avoided by
switching to the second element, while the first element is removed.

59 | P a g e
IMPORTANT TECHNICAL DATA:

Operating pressure : Up to 30 bar

Flow : Up to 1300 l/min (filter for tank mounting)

: Up to 3900 l/min (filter for line mounting)

Filtration : 10 and 20 micron meters.

TUBES, PIPES & HOSES:

HYDRAULIC TUBES:

Hydraulic tubes are seamless steel precision pipes, specially manufactured for
hydraulics. The tubes have standard sizes for different pressure raises up to 100 mm.
The tubes are supplied by manufacturers in lengths of 6 metres, cleaned, oiled and
plugged. The tubes are interconnected by different types of flanges. (Especially for
the larger sizes and pressures). Welding cones/nipples (with o-ring sealing), several
types of flare connections and by cut rings. In larger sizes hydraulic pipes are used.
Direct joining of tubes by welding is not acceptable since the interior can`t be
inspected.

HYDRAULIC PIPES:

Hydraulic pipe is used in case standard hydraulic tubes are not available.
Generally these are used for low pressures. They can be connected by threaded
connections, but usually welds. Because of the larger diameters the pipe can usually
be inspected internally after welding. Black pipe is non galvanized and suitable for
welding.

HYDRAULIC HOSES:

Hydraulic hoses are graded by pressure, temperature and fluid compatibility.

Hoses are used when pipes or tubes can`t be used, usually to provide flexibility for
machine operation or maintenance. The hose is built up with rubber and steel layers.
A rubber interior is surrounded by multiple layers of woven wire and rubber. The
exterior is designed for abrasion resistance. The bend radius of hydraulic hose is
carefully design in to the machine, since hose failure can be deadly, and violating the

60 | P a g e
hoses minimum bend radius will cause failures. Hydraulic hoses generally have steel
fittings swaged on the ends. The weakest part of the high pressure hose is the
connection of the hose to the fitting. Another disadvantage of hoses is the shorter life
of rubber which requires periodic replacement, usually at 5 to 7 years intervals.

Tubes and pipes for hydraulic applications are internally oiled before the
system is commissioned. Usually steel piping is painted outside. Where flare and
other couplings are used, the paint is removed under the nut, and is a location where
corrosion can begin. For this reason, in marine application most piping is stainless
steel.

SEALS, FITTINGS AND CONNECTIONS:

Components of a hydraulic system need connections that will contain and

direct the hydraulic fluid without leaking or losing the pressure that makes them work.
In some cases, they components can be made to bolt together with fluid paths built in.
In more cases though, rigid tubing or flexible hoses are used to direct the flow from
one component to the next. Each component have entry and exit points for the fluid
involved (ports) sized according to how much fluid is expected to pass through it.

There are a number of standardised methods in use to attach the hose or tube
to the component. Some are intended for ease of use and service. Others are better for
higher system pressures are control of leakage. The most common method, in general
is to provide in each component a female threaded port, on each hose or tube a female
threaded captive nut, and use a separate adopter fitting with matching male threads to
connect the two. This is functional, economical to manufacture and easy to service.

Fittings serve several purposes:

1. To join components with ports of different sizes

2. To bridge different standards: O-ring boss to JIC. Or pipe threads to face
seal
3. To allow proper orientation of components, a 90°,45°, straight, swivel
fitting is chosen as needed. They are designed to position in the correct
orientation and then tightened.
4. To incorporate bulk head hardware to passes the fluid through an
obstructing wall.

61 | P a g e
 5. A quick disconnect fitting may be added to a machine without
modification of hoses or valves.

A typical piece of machinery or heavy equipment may have thousands of sealed

connection points and several different types.

 Pipe fittings, the fitting is screwed in until tight, difficult to orient in

angled fitting correctly without over or under tightening.
 O-ring boss, the fitting is screwed in to a boss and orientated as
needed, an additional nut tightens the fitting, washer and O-ring in
place.
 Flare fittings, or metal to metal compression seals deformed with a
cone nut and pressured into a flare mating.
 Face seal, metal flanges with a groove and O-ring and seal are fastened
together.
 Beam seals are costly metal to metal seals used in primarily in air
crafts
 Swaged seals, tubes are connected with fittings that are swaged
permanently in place. Primarily used in air crafts

Elastomeric seals (O-ring bosses and face seal) are the most common types of seals in
heavy equipment and are capable of reliably sealing 6000+ PSI (40+ MPA) of fluid
pressure.

HYDRAULIC FLUIDS:

Hydraulic fluids also known as tractor fluid, is the life of hydraulic circuit. It is
usually mineral oil with various additives. From various surveys conducted, it has
been found that 80% of all operating difficulties in industrial hydraulic systems were
due to improper condition of hydraulic fluids.

PURPOSE OF HYDRAULIC FLUIDS:

1. To transmit power
2. To lubricate moving parts.
3. To cool or dissipate heat.
4. To prevent from rust

62 | P a g e
 5. To prevent formation of sludge, gum, varnish etc.
6. To maintain its stability and thereby reduce fluid replacement cost.

HYDRAULIC FLUID PROPERTIES:

Hydraulic system can be subject to tens of thousands of pounds of pressure

and extremely hot or cold condition. Choosing the right hydraulic fluid for our
application is crucial for system longevity and performance after thousands of work
and heat cycles.

COMPRECIBILITY:

Also known as bulk modulus, “compressibility” refers to a fluids tendency to

change volume or density in response to pressure. Although it may seem strange to
think of any fluid compressing, the additives, impurities and microscopic air bubbles
in the oil will regularly do so. In short a perfect hydraulic fluid would have zero
compressibility, but this isn`t usually possible because it requires a very thin fluid
with almost no additives.

AIR RELEASE:

Air release is a factor in the fluids compressibility and heat transfer characteristics. A
very thick hydraulic oil will tend to keep air bubbles trapped inside well after they
have been introduced, which is never good.

DETERGENT CONTENT:

Most types of oil contains some sort of detergent that is used to emulsify water
and to suspend contaminants that can cause sludge build up in the system. This keeps
contaminants from turning into deposits and keeps water from causing system
damage. When using a detergent oil, bear in mind that you will need to filter your oil
and keep a close eye on its condition.

VISCOSITY:

Viscosity refers to how well a fluid holds together when allowed to free flow.
Water as very low viscosity and maple syrup has high viscosity. Viscosity almost
always diminishes with increased heat, as the molecules of the hydraulic fluid move
further apart. A delicate balance must be struck in viscosity, as a higher viscosity fluid

63 | P a g e
makes the system more efficient, but a thinner fluid as better air release and performs
better in cold weather.

LUBRICITY:

Like most oils, hydraulic oil is also used as a system lubricant where applied.
The base stock of oil itself doesn`t provide very good lubrication, which is why
manufacturers use a zinc dialkyl dithio phosphate (znDTP) to increase its lubricity.
Fluids with high levels of znDTP (sold commercially as anti wear oil) should only be
used in systems that are designed for them, as this chemical can be highly corrosion to
some metals.

HYDRAULIC OIL HLP 46 PROPERTIES:

 Appearance : C and B clear and bright.

 Kinematic viscosity
40°c : 46.8 centi strokes
100°c : 6.75 centi strokes
 Viscosity index : 97
 Total acid content : 0.46
 Specific gravity : 0.85
 Power point : -15°c
 Flash point : 238°c
 Rust test with synthetic sea water D-665 : pass
 Air release value 50°c, min. :8
 Vickers vane pump test : pass

64 | P a g e
 EXISTING PROBLEM
CASSETTE PLUNGER FAILURE:
INTRODUCTION TO PLUNGER:

Plunger is a hydraulic component it works on the principle of Pascal’s law. It

is a mechanical actuator that is used to give a unidirectional force through a
unidirectional stroke. It has many applications. Hydraulic plungers get their power
from pressurized hydraulic fluid which is typically oil. The hydraulic plunger
consisting a cylinder barrel, in which a piston connected to piston rod moves back and
forth. The barrel is closed on one end by the cylinder bottom and the other end by the
cylinder head where the piston rod comes out of the cylinder. The piston has a rings
and seals the piston divides insides of cylinder into two chambers.

WHAT IS THE PROBLEM?

The hydraulic plunger is equipment which is used in the cassette chocks

supporting purpose and balancing the weight of the two rolls of the cassette. The
chocks are arranged in between the two rollers by the supporting of anchors and
adjusting the roll gap between the rolls is done by using worm gear box system
attached to the anchors. The anchors having the opposite threading facilitates
adjusting the roll gap between working rolls, uniformly on both sides, resulting in
same roll gap from the rolling axis between top and bottom rolls. The plunger is in
between the top & bottom chocks of cassettes. This plunger is supplied with 100 bar

65 | P a g e
hydraulic oil working pressure so that it supports and cushions the top & bottom rolls
against rolling loads. It is fixed in the brackets which are connected to the chocks.

Roll gap is closed or opened during rolling to get the required size and shape
of the product being rolled. Also the roll gap is need to be opened for dismounting of
rolls and after mounting new rolls, the roll gap need to be closed again. This process
is done offline in cassette preparation area. The plungers are connected in closed loop
in the cassette with single common pipe line. Thus to avoid compression of oil in the
plunger while closing roll gap, this common header pipe line needs to be connected to
the central hydraulic system so that the pressure inside plunger does not increase and
vice versa. While rolling i.e. cassette is in online, this external connection is done
automatically. But in offline this external connection is to be done manually i.e. in
cassette preparation area.

For any reason the pressure inside the plunger increases more than working
pressure it will lead to failure of plunger and connected components like hydraulic
fittings, pipes, hoses, brackets, bolts etc. This is the main problem and it will be a big
issue to the mill area cassette preparation section.

ANALYSING THE PROBLEM:

It is observed that on an average 5 nos., of cassettes per day are to be made

ready in the cassette preparation area to facilitate continuous rolling process. This
results in 5 x 300 rolling days = 1500 cassettes per year to be made ready. Each
cassette preparation involves two times of external connection one for dismounting
and the other for mounting. Thus it results into 1500 x 2 = 3000 manual hydraulic
connections in a year.

And this enormous manual job is leading to sometimes the quick coupler
connection are not done in proper way, and due to interchange ability, the male and
female parts are may not be match. These results in external hydraulic connection not
connected properly. This results in the increase in pressure inside the plunger more
than the working pressure 100 bar. Then the hydraulic plunger will be damaged by
means of seals of the piston damaged or connections of the oil pipe lines are may also
damaged. For this problem we have to calculate the maximum pressure is how much
acting on the plunger bracket is find and that pressure idea we have a confirmation to
release the oil without any disturbance of connections of hydraulic oil pipe lines.

The maximum load how much acting on the bracket also calculated for the
finding of pressure where it will be shears or plunger damaged. The particular force
and pressures we have to controls the failures the hydraulic plunger. Otherwise we
can’t do anything without knowing these force acting, and pressure where it is
damaged.

66 | P a g e
IMPACT OF THE PROBLEM:

The failure occurs with minor problem or moderate problem or major

problem. If failure occurs with minor problem, mainly failure parts are hydraulic
hoses, hydraulic pipe lines these failures are repairs in a less time and less cost within
the half day. These types of failures are happening rate is 120/annum.

If, it is a moderate failure, the damage in the hydraulic plunger seals lost and
plunger bracket locking failures these are moderate failures. The moderate cost and
moderate time takes to repair this type of problems. This type of problem takes a time
of one day. And the average failure rate of this type of problems is 36/annum.

If, it is a major problem, the failure occurs in the plunger brackets bolts
sheared and plunger bracket fixing holes on the chocks thread damage, this is leading
to change the chock changing, and also leading to rolling problems, reduction in the
total production.

It will take a more time to prepare a healthy cassette in 15 to 20 days. This is

the main problem these type of failure rate is on average 6/annum.

Average rolling rate is = 180/hr

Per annum total delay of production due to plunger failure = 5 hrs. (avg.)

Total production loss due to plunger failure = 180*5

= 900

Average net profit for ton = 5000/-

Total loss due to plunger failure = 900*5000

= 4500000/-

This is only on average calculations based on the average data taken from the
company log book, on plunger parts failures data.

ROOT CAUSE:

For that reason we have to calculate the force acting on the bracket when it
will be shears, and that particular force is needed to find the how much pressure is
acting on the bracket.

CALCULATIONS:

The bracket like a canti liver beam of one end is fixed and other end is freely.
Of having a shear force on one end and we have to find the other end. By using the
fundamental equilibrium of forces,

67 | P a g e
Maximum Shear force acting on the fixed side = 240 kn

Height of the fixed side = 50 mm

Length of the bracket = 140 mm

Force = how much?

Pressure = how much?

Applying equilibrium of forces equation, then we get force.

H*SHEAR FORCE=LENGTH*FORCE

50 * 240 = 140 * F

F = (50*240)/140

F = 85.714 kn (force acting on the bracket)

We get the value force, and then with respect to the force we have to calculate
the pressure.

Pressure = force/area

P = F/A

Where, p = pressure

F = force acting on the bracket

F = 85.714 kn

A = 𝜋/4 (D*D)

A = 𝜋/4 (80*80) sq. Metre, (diameter of the piston is 80 mm)

A = 0.785 * 80 * 80

A = 5024 sq. Metre.

68 | P a g e
 P = F/A

P = 85.714/5024

P = 0.017060 kn/sq.mm

Pressure is in kn/sq.mm it is convert to bar then,

P = 0.01706*1000*1000000 n/sq.metre.

P = 17060000 n/sq. Metre.

P = 17060000 / 105 bar, (1 bar = 105 n/sq.metres)

P = 170.6 bar.

The root cause is the force and the pressure. We have to maintain the force and
pressure below the 85.714 kn and 170.6 bar. Not exceeds to the calculated forces and
pressures if it exceeds it will failures.

SOLUTION OF THE PROBLEM:

The solution, the main root cause of the failure of plunger brackets is
increasing the pressure and load on them. The solution is to be maintaining the normal
pressure and load on the particular equipment. If the pressure is increase then the
system is going to be disturbed. So in order to eliminate this type of problem we have
to put a pressure relief valve to the connection of the hydraulic oil pipe line. This
pressure relief valve releases the increasing pressure in the plunger. The set pressure
is the important thing in the system, it regulates the higher pressure dropped to outside
then the system is in safe condition.

Automatic pressure-relieving device actuated by the static pressure upstream

of the valve. The valve opens in proportion to the increase in pressure over the
opening pressure.

The pressure relief valves are the Process equipment should be

designed for pressures sufficiently higher than the actual working pressure to allow
for pressure fluctuations and normal operating “pressure peaks”. In order that process
equipment is not damaged or ruptured by pressures in excess of the design pressure,
pressure relief valves are installed to protect the equipment. The design pressure of a
pressure vessel is the value obtained after adding a margin to the most severe pressure
expected during the normal operation at a coincident temperature.

69 | P a g e
TYPES OF PRESSURE RELIEF VALVES:
POPPET VALVES:
These are unidirectional valves and permit the free flow in one direction only.
These valves have two ports: one for the entry of fluid and the other for the discharge.
They are consists of a housing bore in which ball or poppet is held by a small spring
force. The valve having ball as a closing member is known as ball check valve. The
various types of check valves are available for a range of applications. These valves
are generally small sized, simple in construction and inexpensive. Generally, the
check valves are automatically operated. Human intervention or any external control
system is not required. These valves can wear out or can generate the cracks after
prolonged usage and therefore they are mostly made of plastics for easy repair and
replacements.

An important concept in check valves is the cracking pressure. The check

valve is designed for a specific cracking pressure which is the minimum upstream
pressure at which the valve operates. The simplest check valve is an inline check
valve as shown in Figure. The ball is held against the valve seat by a spring force. It
can be observed from the figure that the fluid flow is not possible from the spring side
but the fluid from opposite side can pass by lifting the ball against. However, there is
some pressure drop across the valve due to restriction by the spring force. Therefore
these valves are not suitable for the application of high flow rate. When the operating
pressure increases the valve becomes more tightly seated in this design.
The advantages of the poppet valves include no leakage, long life and
suitability with high pressure applications. These valves are commonly used in liquid
or gel mini-pump dispenser spigots, spray devices, some rubber bulbs for pumping
air, manual air pumps, and refillable dispensing syringes. Sometimes, the right angle

70 | P a g e
check valve as shown in Figure. Is used for the high flow rate applications. The
pressure drop is comparatively less in right angle check valve.
SPOOL VALVE:
The spool valves derive their name from their appearance. It consists of a shaft
sliding in a bore which has large groove around the circumference. This type of
construction makes it look like a spool. The spool is sealed along the clearance
between moving spool and housing (valve body). The quality of seal or the amount of
leakage depends on the amount of clearance, viscosity of fluid and the level of the
pressure. The grooves guide the fluid flow by interconnecting or blocking the holes
(ports). The spool valves are categorized according to the number of operating
positions and the way hydraulic lines interconnections. One of the simplest two way
spool valve, the standard terms are referred as Port ‘P’ is pressure port, Port ‘T’ is
tank port and Port ‘A’ and Port ‘B’ are the actuator (or working) ports. The actuators
can move in forward or backward direction depending on the connectivity of the
pressure and tank port with the actuators port.
SELECTION OF THE PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE:
The selection of the pressure relief valve the basic concepts are size of the pipe
line connection, diameter of the valve, flow rate through the valve, valve design metal
properties, set pressure value, open pressure, back pressure, temperature, oil
properties and safety pressure limit of the valve etc. These are the main important
things while selecting the pressure relief valve. The mostly reliability of the valve is
the important thing while selecting the pressure relief valve.
Finally, suitable vale for our requirement is to set the puppet valve because the
valve having more precision to resist the pressure within opposite direction (back
pressure).
INCORPORATION OF PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE:
Cost of the pressure relief valve = 5000/-
Number of cassettes = 26
Total cost of the pressure relief valves = 26*5000 = 130000/-
Installation and connection charges = 20000/-
Total cost of implementation = 150000/-
Net savings due to reduction of plunger failures = 4500000-150000 = 4350000/annum
This is an average data from the company log book details of plunger failures.

71 | P a g e
 CONCLUSION
“NESSECITY IS THE MOTHER OF INVENTION”
1. Which enhance the easiness in working condition and leads to very advantages.
2. If any problem occurred in any existing system, difficult to find and its rectification
take more time which leads to loss of production.
3. The more problems, the more reduction in the production rate at the sometime less
problem will increase the production rates by increasing availability of working
system.
4. Success or failure in any system depends on reliability and in addition to that
economics place a vital role in any system.
By this live project work, we have to learn the practical knowledge about the
industry and the process. The mainly, our project problem is solved by the calculation
of the pressure and load acting on the particular process in the plunger brackets and
cassette working analysis. By this project we put a pressure relief valve then improve
the life and efficiency of the cassette parts like, hydraulic pipes line, plunger
connections, plunger seals etc. Of these efficiency is improve then automatically
improve the production rate.
For this problem, pressure relief valve puppet type is the best and suitable
solution for reducing the plunger failures, bracket failures and other parts of the
cassette will be ensured safe and improve the life time.

72 | P a g e