Plant Diversity in The Valmiki Ramayana

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Plant diversity in the Valmiki Ramayana
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PLANT & ANIMAL DIVERSITY
IN VALMIKI’S RAMAYANA
M. Amirthalingam
published by
C.P. ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION CENTRE
1, Eldams Road, Alwarpet, Chennai 600 018.
E-mail : cpreec@gmail.com
Website : www.cpreec.org
1
© 2013 C.P.R. Environmental Education Centre, Chennai
All rights reserved
ISBN : 978-81-86901-20-5
Layout & Cover design : R. Sathyanarayanan

Maps by : Y. Venkatesh
No part of this publication may be reproduced without permission from

The C.P. Ramaswami Aiyar Foundation
1 Eldams Road, Alwarpet, Chennai - 600 018.
Phone : 91-44-24346526 / 24337023
Fax : 91-44-24320756
Email : cpreec@vsnl.com
Website : www.cpreec.org / www.cpreecenvis.nic.in
This book is printed on paper made of bagasse, an agricultural waste.

Cover: Centre: “Rama, Sita and Lakshmana in the Forest”, painting by Raja Ravi Varma.
Clockwise from top left: Hanuman langur, Ashoka tree, Spotted deer and Banyan tree.
2
MESSAGE
Plant and Animal Diversity constitutes the foundation for sustainable livelihoods
and human happiness. The Sage Valmiki has described beautifully the value and wonder
of biodiversity in his epic, The Ramayana. I am happy that the C.P.R. Environmental
Education Centre has captured the spirit of Valmiki’s Ramayana in this timely and
wonderful book. I congratulate the authors and I hope the book will be widely read.
It will become an important stimulus for spreading the conservation ethos among the
younger generation.
Chennai Dr. M. S. Swaminathan

Chairman
3
4
PREFACE
The Ramayana is a great epic which knows no boundaries of religion or nation.

It has taught the values of life and behaviour to men and women over centuries, across
India and South-East Asia. There is no finer example in the world of a multi-religious,
international culture than the Ramayana. Scores of generations of adults and children
have watched performances and listened to narrations of the great epic over 3,000
years, to learn the importance of an ethical life. This has been the cornerstone of life
in India and South-East Asia. Many kings in these countries have taken the name of
Rama, cities and islands have been named after persons and places in the epic and
symbols of Vishnu (whose incarnation is Rama) have been royal emblems across the
region. The story of the Ramayana is enacted more often than any other story of the
world. It is performed by Hindus, Buddhists and Muslims. It is the most important
cultural tradition of Thailand, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Myanmar, Nepal and India.
It has also been widely prevalent in Singapore, Malaysia and Vietnam. The Ramayana is
the great bond of culture which unites India and the countries of South East Asia.
In February 2013, the C.P. Ramaswamy Aiyar Foundation organized

a RAMAYANA FESTIVAL to celebrate the role of the great epic in the culture of India and
South-East Asia. The Ramayana Festival included an exhibition of the FLORA AND
FAUNA OF THE RAMAYANA, organized by C.P.R. ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION
CENTRE (CPREEC) from February 1 to 24, 2013.
The Ramayana is geographically very correct. Every site on Rama’s route is still
identifiable and has continuing traditions or temples to commemorate Rama’s visit.
Around 1000 BCE, no writer had the means to travel around the country inventing a
story, fitting it into local folklore and building temples for greater credibility.
Valmiki knew his flora and fauna as well and he knew his geography. CPREEC
documented the many species that he had mentioned in the Ramayana and found that
the same still existed in the same places as the epic.
Valmiki mentions that Rama, Lakshmana and Sita were alerted to be careful
when they enter the Dandaka-aranya, which was full of lions and tigers. But there are
no lions in that area today. The tigers which were there a few years ago have also been
killed by poachers. However, at the Bhimbetka Rock Shelters, we found a prehistoric
painting of a lion and a tiger together, which corroborates Valmiki’s text.
The Ramayana is a useful source of information, giving details not only about
mammals like monkeys, bears, etc., but also about insects and plants. The epic mentions
why some trees became sacred. Interestingly, if Rama describes the plants, Sita speaks
5
about the welfare of animals and against hunting for sport. She did not ask Rama to kill
the golden deer. She merely wanted to play with it. Who would not, if they found such
a strange animal? Valmiki the biologist speaks as Rama the botanist and Sita the
zoologist.
The panels that were prepared for the exhibition have been included in this
book. Students of schools and colleges came in droves to see and learn from them.
We have reproduced all the panels, providing information about the flora and
fauna, maps and various forest types like Chitrakuta, Dandaka-Aranya, Kishkinda,
Oshadhi-parvatam, Panchavati and Lanka’s Evergreen forests.
One of the events at the RAMAYANA FESTIVAL was International Conference

on “THE RAMAYANA IN LITERATURE, SOCIETY AND THE ARTS”.
M. Amirthalingam’s presented a paper on “ Plant diversity in Valmiki’s

Ramayana” at the Conference. It is of unique value, presenting the authenticity of
the Ramayana and Valmiki’s rich knowledge of local flora and fauna.
Dr. P. Sudhakar, the co-author, was invaluable in tracing the botanical and
modern names for several of the plant species, which are named in Sanskrit. It was not
enough to find the equivalents: he had to check whether the existing English/Latin
equivalents fitted Valmiki’s description of the plant. In many cases, we found that the
popular translations did not match the plant as it is known, and he had to find the
correct equivalents.
At this point, it is worth examining who were the Vanaras, popularly called
monkeys. According to the epic, they were the inhabitants of the ‘vana’, the cultivated
forests. The word for monkey in Sanskrit is ‘kapi’, not vanara. We are told that that the
armies of Vali and Sugriva marched with the monkey emblem on the flags. Even
Jambavan, the so-called bear, is called a vanara, or forest dweller. An author who knew
his flora and fauna so well could not mistake a bear for a monkey. Obviously, the
Vanaras – Vali, Sugriva, Hanuman, Jambavan and their people – were forest dwellers
who helped Rama in his war. Much later, they were designated as monkeys. But that
development was not bad either. At least it resulted in the protection of primates and
bears from human cruelty, a fate of several animal species.
We are happy to publish this book, a compilation of the panels and the paper
presented at the Conference. The scientific correctness of the epic should be sufficient
rebuttal for those who claim that the Ramayana is a myth and legend.
Nanditha Krishna
Director
C.P. R. Environmental Education Centre
6
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
My sincere thanks to Dr. M.S. Swaminathan for his Message, which has made
this book very special.
I would like to acknowledge my indebtedness to Dr. Nanditha Krishna,

Hon. Director of C.P.R. Environmental Education Centre, for her invaluable guidance
and inspiration and for her stimulating interest in this research and help at
various stages of this book. This book would not have been possible but for her
encouragement.
Writing on the biodiversity of Valmiki’s Ramayana would have not been

possible without having the appropriate research experience and involvement in this
subject area. In this regard, I am grateful to C.P.R. Environmental Education Centre
for assigning this work on “Plant and Animal diversity in Valmiki’s Ramayana” to me.
This was essential to complete the study of the Ramayana and its important role in
the biodiversity.
I am grateful to my colleagues Mrs. S.P. Vijayakumari and Mr. V. Kamesh Raj for
library assistance, Mr. R. Sathyanarayanan for his work on the computer and in
preparing the manuscript and Mr. Y. Venkatesh for the design and art work.
Finally, my sincere thanks to my former classmate and co-author,

Dr. P. Sudhakar, for identifying the botanical names of the plants described in this
book.
Chennai M. Amirthalingam
7
8
CONTENT
Introduction .............................................................................11
Plant Diversity in Valmiki’s Ramayana ......................................13
Animal Diversity in Valmiki’s Ramayana ...................................39
Conclusion ...............................................................................46
Reference .................................................................................47
Forest types of India in the Ramayana ......................................49
Chitrakuta Tropical Deciduous Forest ......................................50
Dandaka-Aranya Tropical Deciduous Forest .............................54
Panchavati Tropical Dry Deciduous Forest ................................58
Kishkinda Dry ans Moist Deciduous Forest ..............................62
Oshadhiparvatam Alpine Region Semi Forest ............................66
Lanka Evergreen Forest ............................................................69
9
10
INTRODUCTION
All living beings existing on earth, along with plants, animals, microbes, soil,
water etc., along with their genes and ecosystems make up the biodiversity of the
earth. The term biodiversity means the different types of life forms which includes
the terrestrial, aquatic and ecological composites of which they are a part. The
relationship between humanity and nature and its ecological balance can be deduced
from the flora, fauna and water source of a particular period.
One of the great epics of Sanskrit literature, Valmiki Ramayana is replete with
superb descriptions of nature’s glory. It hinges on two major events, namely Rama’s
fourteen year exile in the forests and the rescue of Sita from captivity in Lanka. The
stage of the epic includes a wide swathe of territory that stretches from present day
Uttar Pradesh through Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Karnataka up to Lanka
beyond the sea. It is obvious that such a large chunk of territory would cover a wide
range of biological and non-biological phenomena.
In this analysis, an attempt is made to highlight the four major ecosystems,

namely, the tropical deciduous forests, the dry and moist deciduous forests, the evergreen
tropical forests of Sri Lanka and the Alpine region semi- forests (Himalayan), with details
of geographical distribution, principal flora and fauna, water elements and their
environmental importance.
An amazing fact about the Ramayana is that it is geographically accurate in spite

of the passage of two thousand years. The various sites visited by Rama during his
sojourn in the forest can still be identified and many have temples to commemorate
his visit. It is obvious that no writer in the pre-historic period could have travelled
around the country inventing the story and building temples to authenticate it. The
descriptions of flora and fauna are especially graphic.
There is a distinction between the terms ‘vana’ and ‘aranya’. Vana is often
used in the sense of a cultivated forest, whereas ‘aranya’ is used to denote the
wilderness. In the first category fall Chitrakuta and Panchavati, while Dandaka-aranya
comes under the second description. In fact, a section of the Ramayana is entitled
‘Aranya-kanda’ and deals with the fourteen year exile of Rama and Sita in the forest.
The purpose of this book, the central theme, is to investigate and explain the
various flora and fauna that have been so vividly described by Valmiki in his Ramayana.
An arresting feature of this study is the fact that many of the species described by
Valmiki so many centuries ago are still extant and form the basis for their study by
many present day scholars and researchers. The accuracy of their description and
distribution continue to attract the attention of modern day scholars.
It is hoped that the present book will serve as a guide post and the basis on
which future scholars may base their endeavours.
11
The Ramayana was written by Valmiki around 1000 BCE. Since the major
events of the epic took place in the forest, one can identify India’s forest wealth from
the text. I have endeavoured to give a comprehensive list of the plants mentioned in
the Valmiki Ramayana. Rama mentions those plants that have certain sacred qualities,
those which are used for medicinal purposes and others which are commonly found
plants of the particular geographical region. Also, the names of a large number of
plants - trees, shrubs, climbers, tubers and fruits - are scattered throughout the text.
All the references are from Srimad Valmiki Ramayana, translated and presented
by Sri Desiraju Hanumanta Rao (Bala, Aranya and Kishkindha kanda) and Sri K.M.K.
Murthy (Ayodhya and Yuddha kanda) with contributions from Durga Naaga Devi and
Vaasudeva Kishore (Sundara kanda) retrieved from http://www.valmikiramayan.net/.
12
PLANT DIVERSITY IN VALMIKI’S RAMAYANA
From the various plant varieties described in the epic, as Rama travels from
Ayodhya to Lanka, through the forests of Chitrakuta, Dandaka-aranya, Panchavati,
Kishkindha, Lanka and even the Himalayan mountains situated “beyond Kailasa” from
where Hanuman brought the famed sanjivani, it is obvious that the epic could only
have been written by a person with a deep and intimate knowledge of the land and its
vegetation.
FOREST TYPES IN THE RAMAYANA
In the Ramayana, the forest in general is described as shanta (calm), madhura

(sweet), raudra (anger) and vibhatsa (fearful), which reflect the four sentiments that
dominate the entire forest environment (Lutgendorf, 2001). There are thick forests,
namely Chitrakuta, Dandaka-aranya, Panchavati, Kishkindha (Pampa sarovar) and
Lanka. The descriptions in the Ramayana reflect the supremacy of nature. The area of
its scope ranges from Ayodhya in modern Uttar Pradesh to Sri Lanka. Hence, it gives us
a comprehensive idea of the different natural regions that fall within this area. The area
covers four major ecosystems: tropical deciduous forest, dry and moist deciduous forest,
evergreen tropical forests of Lanka and alpine region semi forests (Himalayan)
(Mira Roy, 2005). Table 1 gives the details of the plants mentioned in the Ramayana.
The Ramayana describes in detail the flora and fauna, water elements, forests,
plants, animals and birds. There are also passages which describe the land surface,
biodiversity, vegetation, degrees of wilderness, etc. There are two in forest types which
are described: the principal forest and sub-forest. Chitrakuta and Dandaka-aranya
can be called the principal forest, whereas Panchavati can be described as a stretch of
the principal forest, the so-called sub-forest. The major part of the narrative takes
place in Dandaka-aranya.
The forest landscapes include the water elements in the form of rivers, lakes,
streams, ponds, aquatic plants like the lotus and water lilies, etc. The forests described
are generally deciduous and water occupies an important place in them. The continuous
flow of water from waterfalls and springs helps to maintain the moisture content.
The thick forest acts as a conserving element in the hydrological cycle.
Rama’s first halt is at Chitrakuta, also known as the maha vana or great forest,
and his next halt was at Dandaka-aranya where he constructed an ashram. In the
Ramayana (Aranya kanda), ashrams are described as aranyaisca mahavrksaihpunyaih
sveduphalairvritam, which means abounding in tall trees, sacred trees and in sweet
fruit-bearing trees (2.1.5).
13
From the above description it can be seen that the entire narrative is not uniform.
The reason may lie in the difference in the physical characteristics of the forests. In the
Lankan evergreen forests, the predominant species appears to be the ashoka tree
(David Lee, 2001).
TROPICAL DECIDUOUS FOREST
During the first phase of his exile, sage Bharadwaja advised Rama to settle in the
Chitrakuta forest, which is situated at a distance of ten krosas from Prayaga (2.54.28,
29). Chitrakuta is a hill, to the north of which flows the Mandakini River (2.93.8; 2.92.11).
The forest comprises beautiful flowering trees which surround it on all sides. Valmiki’s
graphic account includes both edible and non-edible types of vegetation like the mango,
beal, jackfruit, jujube, myrobalan and a type of sour-fruit called bhavya (Dillenia). The
diverse plants include flowering trees like lodhra (lodh tree), nipa (Nipa palm), tilka (Rice
or Redwood tree); hardwood trees like arista (Neem), asan (Indian Kino) or bijaka (Indian
kino tree), dhanvan (Berry fruit), madhuka (Indian butter tree), tinisa (Sandan) and
varana (Bamboo); grass types like venu (Bamboo) and vetra (Giant Thorny Bamboo) and
five oshadis, namely Svetakanthakari (Salanum xanthocarpum), Brahmi (Herpestis
monniera), Katuka (Gentiana kuroo), Ativisha (Aconitum heterophyllum) and Hilamocika
(Euhydra hincha) (2.54.29; 2.94.4-13; 2. 94.18).
Rama’s next halt was at Dandaka-aranya where he constructed an ashram. The

forest of this name is situated in parts of present day Madhya Pradesh, Odisha and
Andhra Pradesh. The name owes its origin to the demon Dandaka who once lived there.
Another origin could be from the danda plant. Danda-trina, a type of long grass, flourishes
in this region. Danda also means rows of trees. In the Aranya kanda the ashramas are
described as “aranyaisca mahavriksaihpunyaih sveduphalairvritam”, which means
abounding in tall forest trees, sacred trees and in sweet fruit-bearing trees (2.1.5).
Important plant species found in the forests are darbha, the sacred grass [3-1-2],
madhuka (Indian butter tree), shala (Sal tree), dhava (Axle wood), ashvakarna (Gurjan
Balsam), kakubha (White Marudah), bilva (Bengal quince), tinduka (Indian persimmon),
patala (Trumpet tree) and badari (Indian jujube) (4.11.74).
TROPICAL DRY DECIDUOUS FOREST
The next stop is Panchavati, from where Sita was abducted. It is situated on the
banks of the River Godavari. There was a forested plain called samam which comprised
of fruit yielding, flowery, aromatic and hardwood trees. The commonly found tree species
were shala (Sal tree), palmyra palm, tamala (West Indian Bay tree), date palms, jackfruit,
punnaga (Alexandrian laurel), sweet mango, ashoka, tilaka (sesame), ketaka (screw pine),
champaka (champak), sandalwood, niipa (burflower-tree), lakucha (monkey jack), dhava
(axle wood), ashwakarna (gurjan balsam), khadira (acacia), shami (Indian mesquite),
14
kimsuka (flame of the forest) and patala (Trumpet tree) (3.15.16-18). The area was also
abundant in the sacred holy basil and the aquatic lotus (3.5.11). The presence of
cereals in this region like barley, wheat and sali rice (winter rice) are also mentioned.
DRY AND MOIST DECIDUOUS FOREST
During the course of their wanderings in search of Sita, Rama and Lakshmana
come across Kabandha, who directed them westwards, towards the Pampa sarovar
(lake) and Kishkindha. This lake lies to the west of the Rishyamukha hill and east of the
Matanga hill. Even today, these hills are known by their original names. Beyond this
hilly forest there lay another vana (woodland), which, in its beauty, resembled the
celestial gardens of Indra and Kubera. The Pampa sarovar is situated beyond this place.
Presently, it is located in the Bellary district of modern Karnataka state, where Pampa
sarovar is situated. The fauna and the flora and water sources and their quality and
purity are highlighted in the epic. The climate, especially in the month of Chaitra
(March – April), was exceedingly pleasant. The vegetation of this region is of the dry and
moist deciduous type.
During their sojourn in the forest, the two princes attracted the suspicion of
Sugriva since they were clad in ascetic robes and were yet carrying weapons of war.
Hence he deputed Hanuman to find out the purpose of their presence in the forest.
The two princes, on their part, told Hanuman the story of their exile in the forest and
the abduction of Sita by Ravana. After the initial suspicions were dispelled, a pact of
friendship between Rama and Sugriva was sealed over the ritual fire. Rama agreed to
kill Vali and, in turn, Sugriva agreed to assist Rama in the search for Sita.
The forest comprised several common fruit-yielding varieties like the jambu
(rose-apple), priyala (Almondette tree), banyan, plaksha (Indian fig), panasa (jackfriut),
pipala (Pipal), amra (mango); rakta chantana (redsandal), sandalwood, nagakesari
(Ironwood Tree), tilaka (red wood), naktamalaka (Indian beech), blue ashoka, mandara
(white bauhinia), kadamba (Common bur-flower), karavira (Indian oleander), agnimukhya
(Indian marking nut tree), tinduka (Wild Mangosteen) and dhava (Axle-wood), punnaga
(Alexandrian Laurel), vanjula (rattan cane), ciribilva (Bengal quince), bakula (Indian
medaller), champaka (Champak), ketaki (screw pine), sinduvar (Five leaved chaste tree),
lodhra (Asiatic Sweetleaf), uddalaka (Bird lime tree), sirisa (woman’s tongue), syandana
(Sandan), hintala (cycas), kurabaka (Red- amaranth), salmali (Red Silk-Cotton). There
was also a luxuriant vana (forest) which resembled those in heaven. Full blown lotuses
and lilies and padmaka (Himalayan wild cherry) added to the beauty of the lake.
Flowering creepers like malathi (Rangoon creeper) and mallika (Arabian jasmine),
vasanthi & madhavi (Helicopter flower, hiptage), entwined themselves around the trees.
The beauty of the forest was further enhanced by the presence of trees like kimsuka
(Flame of the forest), ankola (Sage leaf alangium), kuranta (Porcupine-flower), curanaka,
15
paribhadraka (Indian coral trees), kovidara (Mountain-ebony), mucukunda (Cork leaved
bayer) and arjuna.
THE HIMALAYAN ALPINE REGION
This is a vast tract of territory said to be located between the two mountains
Kailasha and Rishabha. The area is supposed to have covered thousands of yojanas
(Yuddhakanda, 74.30-31;61-63). Kailasha is situated beyond the trans-Himalayan region.
This is confirmed by the reference to Hanuman’s crossing the Himalayas to reach
Kailasha. There are three jointed mountains in the trans-Himalayan region, namely
Kailasha, Rishabha and Mahodhaya (Oshadhi mountain) (Yuddhakanda, 74.31-33;
101.31-33). This mountain had a thick growth of forest on the southern side where
the main plants having curative properties were found. These have been described as
“glowing” and “aromatic”. The whole area was suffused with a pleasant aroma. Valmiki
has given importance to the Oshadhi peak since it was the home of several medicinal
plants. It is also been mentioned in the epic that during the battle between Ravana’s
army and Rama’s army, Lakshmana was wounded and fell unconscious. As suggested
by physician Sushena, Hanuman rushed to the Dronagiri hills and fetched four plants:
Mrita sanjeevani (capable of restoring the dead to life), Vishalyakarani (capable of
extracting weapons and healing all wounds inflicted by weapons), Suvarnakarani
(restoring the body to its original complexion) and Sandhani, the great herb (capable of
joining severed limbs or fractured bone) (6.74.29-34).
EVERGREEN FOREST OF LANKA
No major differences can be distinguished between the tropical deciduous forests

and the evergreen Lankan forest also known as green wood. The two main characteristics
of the Lankan forests are the natural and the naturalized forests.
The natural forests comprise mainly sub-forest. The other features of the natural
forests are rock plants, sufficient water sources and their biodiversity. These may be
defined as the ancillaries to the ecology of these natural forests. The forests plants are
also given an important place in the narrative of the Lankan dense-green wood. Some
of the plants which may be mentioned are sarala (Chir Pine), karnikara (Bayur tree),
karjura (Wild date palm), priyala (Almondette Tree), muculinda (Baringtonia) kutaja
(Bitter olearnder), ketaki (Screw pine), priyangu (Beauty berry), nipa (nipa palm),
saptacchada (Indian devil tree), asana (Indian kino), kovidara (mountain ebony) and
karavira (Oleander).
The naturalized forest is best described in the graphic account of the ashoka
vana, named after the principal plant, the ashoka. It is a naturalised evergreen forest;
16
hence it possesses all the characteristics of the forest ecosystem. In the layout of this
naturalised forest, large open spaces (bhoomibhaga) occupy an important place.
Biodiversity excels in the propagation and acclimatization of various plants

comprising of the following:-
1. Varieties of Ashoka of different colours viz, golden, fiery red, dark coloured (anjana)
blue (niila) and skin colour (kecit) (V.R.5.15.10).
2. Champaka (Champak), sandana (Sandalwood), bakula (Indian medaller), bhavya

(neem), nagakesara (Cobras saffron, Iron wood tree), sala (Sal), uddalaka (Indian
cherry) are mentioned, apart from all types of seasonal fruits and flowers and
mango groves.
3. Kalpa vriksha (Santanaka) which is excellent in fragrance and the continuous
oozing of juice from them is described as entwined with hundreds of creeping
plants.
4. The lily forest, which covers the entire water surface.
The evergreen ashoka vana might be described as a garden where nature is

portrayed in all its glory. The forest departments in various parts of India have excelled
in planting these types of nature gardens. In these forest gardens, generally, the vegetable
compositions are both native and exotic (Mira Roy, 2005).
EDIBLE AND NON-EDIBLE PLANTS
Valmiki’s graphic account includes both edible and non-edible types of vegetation
like the mango, beal (Bengal quince), jackfruit, jujube, myrobalan and a type of
sour-fruit called bhavya (Dillenia), campaka (Champak), chandana (Sandalwood tree),
nagakesara (Cobras saffron, Iron wood tree), sala (Sal), uddalaka (Indian Cherry) and
mango groves (5. 5.43, 38; 5.15.2, 3,115).
SACRED PLANTS
According to the Ramayana, there were several types of sacred trees: the rathya
vriksha or roadside trees (II, 3.18, 50.8; V. 12.18, 22-29); and the devata nishthana
vrikshas, which were the abodes of deities. These were further divided into the yaksha
chaitya (the yaksha’s tree shrine) and vriksha chaitya (tree shrine). There were also the
chaturpatha varthi vriksha (tree at the junction of crossroads with revetments around
its trunk) and smashana vriksha (tree raised on the burning ghats) (Vyas, 1967).
17
The Ramayana is replete with descriptions of trees and their uses. Sita, on her
way to the forest, worshipped and circumambulated a large banyan tree on the banks of
the River Kalindi, entreating it to enable her husband to fulfil his vow (Agrawala, 1970).
The forest of Dandaka where Rama, Lakshmana and Sita lived and the grove of ashoka
trees where Sita was imprisoned in Lanka is still sacred. In the course of their wanderings
they come across several new trees, which Rama identifies for Sita.
The Valmiki Ramayana mentions the ashoka in many places as the ashoka vatika,
that is, the garden of ashoka trees. There are several references to the ashoka: it was a
decorative tree of Kaikeyi’s palace (the other is campaka); a tree of Pancavati (3.15.17;
3.42.31); Sita was kept in the ashoka vatika, the garden of (predominantly) ashoka
trees. The term probably meant: a private palace garden that would enable the visitors
get rid of their grief by its sheer beauty, there being an ashoka vanika in Rama’s palace
also; a remover of grief (3.60.17); very beloved of Sita, behind whose branches she was
hiding (3.62.3); agnimukhya ashoka that had flame (i.e. scarlet) red flowers (there being
a blue of rilashoka mentioned in the previous line and elsewhere also and also a golden
flowered i.e. yellow type) (3.73.4,5a); bunches of ashoka flowers look like burning coals
(4.1.29); flowers at spring (5.14.3); they destroy grief and are full of flowers from the root
onwards, hence removing grief by their very splendour (5.75); in the ashoka vanika (of
Ravana) there were ashokas that had flowers (yellow) like golden vessels, others
glowing red, still others resembling the glow of the blue steady flame of nilanjana (or the
oil lamp before the gods) and all of these were in the thousands(5.15.10, 11). Three
types are clearly mentioned, the scarlet red, the most common, the blue mentioned in a
few places and a golden yellow which is mentioned only here. Ravana looked grand, like
a mountain beautified with ashoka trees in plenty with their red leafy sprouts and
scarlet red flowers (5-22-28).
There were strict injunctions against the felling of trees in Lanka. Ravana said
that he had not cut down a fig tree in the month of Vaisakha (April - May). Hence, he
wondered why this cruel fate had befallen him. The Ramayana observes that even during
the reign of Ravana, the planting of trees was considered a worthy objective. There was
a popular belief that the cutting of trees would bring about the destruction of the wood
cutter and his family. As a consequence, the cult of the sacred tree developed in India
(Bhatla, et.al., 1984).
The dharbha grass (cotton wool grass) had to be cut in bunches and spread out
as a seat with the pointed ends eastwards for sacred purposes (1.3.2); but towards the
right in the performance of shraaddha (2.104.8). The leaf blade was elongated and
pointed with sapphire-like lustre and was fresh since Rama used a shred from its seat
as a missile (5.38.29). Sita prayed to her mother Dharani the earth goddess, to take her
back into her bosom. Her son Kusha (Cotton wool grass) ran forward to save his mother
18
but could grasp only her hair. The hairs turned into grass and were named after Kusha
as he had tried to save her. Since then the grass is held sacred and is used in various
rituals.
The Ramayana makes several references to the worship of sacred plants and
trees like the tulsi (Sacred basil), pipal, banyan and Indian gooseberry.
The Banyan was the tree of Panchavati (3.13.21), a model of majesty to which
Sita compared Rama himself (3.47.34). Rama often compared the campaka flowers to
Sita’s neck (3.60.32).
The Ramayana describes the sleshmaataka (Indian Cherry) vana, a forest of

sleshmaataka trees found around Gokarna where once Shiva was concealed as a stag.
The Ramayana describes wooden ritual posts one of which was made of sleshmaataka
(Indian cherry) wood as stipulated (1.14.22-23).
When Rama and Lakshmana were scouring the forest for Sita, they came across
a badari (Indian jujube) tree. They asked the tree whether it had perchance seen Sita.
The tree answered in the affirmative and pointed out the direction in which Sita had
gone. Being pleased, Rama blessed the tree and gave it a boon that it would not die
under any circumstances. In another incident, Rama came across Sabari, a poor tribal
woman who was his great devotee. The poor lady tasted each and every badari fruit to
see whether it was tasty before offering it to Rama. Rama was not offended, saying that
if anything was offered to him with a pure heart and genuine love, it was clean and
pure. Since then the fruit has been regarded as sacred and is included in religious
ceremonies.
The kalpa vriksha and parijata (Night jasmine) originated during the samudra
manthana or “churning of the ocean”. It is believed that the parijata (Night jasmine) tree
grows in Indra’s paradise and its scent perfumes the world. The trifoliate leaves
symbolize the Trimurti, the middle leaflet representing Vishnu, the right and left
Brahma and Shiva respectively. Usually, Hindus never offer fallen flowers in prayer
but in the case of the parijata (Night jasmine), fallen flowers are picked up and offered
to the gods (1.45.17 – 1.45.45).
ECONOMICALLY USEFUL PLANTS
Punnaga (Alexandrian laurel) was a valuable garden tree and its flowers yielded
scented materials (5.10.23).
19
The bamboo is mentioned as a common forest tree (6.12.56) found growing on
the banks of the river Yamuna (2.55.8). Dry bamboos were used for making rafts to
cross the river (2.55.14). It was used to make pillars and rafters in cottage construction
(3.1.21): Lakshmana used the bamboo to make the pillars of the straw cottage he
constructed for Rama and Sita (3.15.21-23).
Six poles of bilva (Bengal quince) tree were erected as sacrificial posts (1.4.22).
The fruit was edible (2.94.8); it was one of the trees used for bridge construction (6.22.55).
The poles of the Cutch tree were erected as yupas in the yagna (1.4.2).
The Indian mesquite is a large tree in the Panchavati forest (3.15.18); its spreading
branches were used to make the roof of Rama’s cottage at Panchavati (3.15.22).
The bakula (Indian medaller) was used for constructing bridges (6.22.59).
The mango’s fragrant flowers were added to food to make delicacies (5.10.25);
and the wood was used to make weapons of war (6.59.77).
The large leaves of the palmyra palm were used for thatching Rama’s cottage in
Panchavati (23.35.13). The leaves which were large in size could be used as a fan (5.56.36).
It was also used as rafters in bridge construction (6.39.3). Another important use of
these leaves was as a long and hefty weapon in war (6.77.61).
The sal trees were mighty and majestic (2.20.32, 3.60.21), with leaves that were
large and wide and were, therefore, used to thatch Rama’s parnashala (leafy abode)
(2.19.19). The sal tree could also be uprooted and used as a mighty weapon of war
[5.44.12-13).
The breeze that wafts through the sandal trees is very invigorating and cleans
the atmosphere with the intoxicating scent of sandal (2.71.28).
The arjuna tree during the rains exudes a pleasant fragrance (4.30.25). Giant
arjuna trees were used in bridge construction (6.22.56).
The charming wild cinchona tree found in abundance in the Chitrakutaa forest
(2.94.9) bore flowers that scented the whole forest (4.28.41).
Bharata’s chariot is recognized by a flag with a kovidara (mountain ebony)

ensign. It is also called raktapushpa (Fire flame bush), literally meaning blood-flower.
Lakshmana tells Rama of the arrival of Bharata’s chariot bearing a flag with the emblem
of the kovidara tree. He also says that the flag could come under their control in a battle
(2.96.18-21).
20
The wind bore the fragrance of padma saugandhika (lotus) (4.1.104) and the
water reservoirs were charming with fully blown padma saugandhika (Lotus), kumuda
(Indian water lily) and utpala (Indian blue lotus or water lily). Rama’s chariot was as
steady as the stalks of padma (Lotus) flowers (6.107.16).
Jasmines, water-lilies and red oleanders had grown on the banks of the Pampa,
and were giving out the fragrance of nectar [4-1-76]. Glorious Hanuman saw the city of
Lanka which looked like heaven, decorated by moats filled with lotuses and water-lilies
(5-2-14).
MEDICINAL PLANTS
The story of the sanjeevani plant is narrated in the Ramayana. During the battle,
Lakshmana was struck by an arrow and fainted. Sushena, the medicine man of the
Vanaras (91-6-19; 6-101-37-39) instructed Hanuman to rush to the Dronagiri hills to
fetch four plants: Mrita sanjeevani (capable of restoring the dead to life), Vishalyakarani
(capable of extracting weapons and healing all wounds inflicted by weapons),
Suvarnakarani (restoring the body to its original complexion) and Sandhani, the great
herb (capable of joining severed limbs or fractured bone) (6.74.29-34). Hanuman was
despatched to the Himalaya Mountains to fetch the Sanjeevani plants which could
revive Lakshmana. Hanuman could not identify the particular plant; therefore, he lifted
the entire Dronagiri Mountain and brought it to Lanka.
Recent research has zeroed in on three species as the possible species for the
Sanjeevani herb. These are Cressa cretica (Pola pola, Cretan alkaliweed)), Selaginella
bryopteris (Asian spikemoss) and Desmostrichum fimbriatum (Jiwanti) (or Rudanthi,
Sanjeevani Bhooti and Jeevaka) plant species which can be identified with the legendary
Sanjeevani (Ganeshaiah, et.al., 2009; Reena, Antony and Rini Thomas, 2011).
Besides Sanjeevani, there are five other medicinal plants mentioned in the
Chitrakuta hill regions: Svetakanthakari (Solanum virginianum), Brahmi (Bacopa
monnieri), Katuka (Picrorhiza kurrooa), Ativisha (Aconitum heterophyllum) and
Hilamocika (Euhydra hincha).
There were valuable medicinal plants found in the Chitrakuta forest, namely
Heart leaved moonseed (Tinospora cordifolia), Gymnema (Gymnema sylvstre), Prickly
chaff-flower (Achyranthes aspera), Indian Squill (Urginea indica), Black musali
(Curculigo orchioides), Wild yam (Dioscorea bulbifera), Ticktree (Desmodium gangeticum),
Ivy guard (Coccinia grandis), Cordia macleodii, Indian laurel (Litsea glutinosa), Indian
21
Trumpet (Oroxylum indicum), Trumpet flower (Stereospermum suaveolens), Indian kino
tree (Pterocarpus marsupium), Arjun (Terminalia arjuna), Belliric myrobalan (Terminalia
bellirica), Ink nut tree (Terminalia chebula), Peacock’s tail (Actiniopteris radiate), Nut
grass (Cyperus rotundus), Purple fleabane (Vernonia cinerea), Country Mallow (Sida
cordifolia), Jungle grape vine (Ampelocissus latifolia), Panicled peristrophe (Peristrophe
paniculata), Sickle senna (Cassia tora), Lollipop climber (Diplocyclos palmatus), Coat
buttons (Tridax procumbens), Gulf leaf-flower (Phyllanthus fraternus), Asian scalystem
(Elytraria acaulis), Black night shade (Solanum nigrum), Blue wiss (Teramnus labialis),
Five-leaf chaste tree (Vitex negundo), Indian mallow (Abutilon indicum), Broom creeper
(Cocculus hirsutus), Indian Sarsaparilla (Hemidesmus indicus), Indian Gentian
(Enicostemma hyssopifolium), Hogweed (Boerhavia diffusa), Yellow-berried Nightshade
(Solanum virginianum), East Indian screw-tree (Helicteres isora), Bengal quince (Aegle
marmelos), Sage leaved alangium (Alangium salvifolium), etc.
CULTURALLY IMPORTANT PLANTS
The deodar is worshipped as a divine tree. The word deodar can be split into two
- ‘deo’ meaning ‘deva’ or ‘God’ and ‘daru’ denoting ‘tree’. Thus it got the name deodar.
A forest predominantly covered by devadaru (Deodar) is believed to be a suitable place
for the Hindu sages and their families who were great devotees of Lord Shiva. The
sages preferred this type of forest to perform penance. However, Sanskrit literature
mentions this forest as Darukavana. For example, in the Kishkinda kanda of the
Valmiki Ramayana, mention is made of Rama instructing his followers to search for
Sita and Ravana in the forests covered by lodhra trees (lodh tree), padmaka (Sour
cherry, Himalayan wild cherry) trees and in the woods of devadaru (Deodar) trees
(4.43.13).
The ashoka tree finds mention in the Ramayana as the ashoka vana/vatika
(grove of the ashoka tree) in Lanka, where Sita was held in captivity by Ravana. It is
believed that Sita spent her sorrowful days under an ashoka tree and thus preserved
her chastity. It destroys grief and is full of flowers from the root upwards, removing
grief by its very splendour (5.75). In the Bala kanda (37- 40) there is a description of
a forest that was rid of a curse and was shining beautifully with champaka (champak),
ashoka, punnaga (Alexandrian laurel), jasmine and other flowers. The fruit of the
sitaphala (Custard apple) symbolized fertility.
A gudi is a long pole at the top end of which a coloured silk cloth is pleated and
fixed with a silver or brass pot. It is then decorated with a small garland of flowers and
twigs of the neem tree.
22
The sandal tree is used as a cosmetic anointment with aguru (Eagle wood, Aloe
wood) (2.15.33). Its breeze is wafting and cleans with the intoxicating scent of sandal
(2.71.28). It is a tree of Panchavati (3.15.18).
The sides of the deer Maaricha were the colour of madhuka (Indian butter tree)
flowers (3.42.17).
OTHER PLANTS
Valmiki also mentions the names of several trees found on Chitrakuta hill in the
Ramayana. These are amra / mango (Mangifera indica), jamun / Indian black plum
(Syzygium cumini), asna / Crepe Myrtle, Pride of India (Lagerstroemia parviflora), lodh /
Symplocos racemosa, chironji / Almondette tree (Buchanania lanzan), kathal / Jackfruit
(Artocarpus heterophyllus), dhawa / Axle-wood (Anogeissus latifolia), dhak / Flame of
the forest (Butea monosperma), ankol /Sage leaf alangium (Alangium salvifolium), bhavya
/ Dillenia (Dillenia indica), tinsa / Rangoon creeper (Ougenia oogeinensis), bel / Bengal
quince (Aegle marmelos), tendu / Gaub persimmon (Diospyros melanoxylon), bans /
Bamboo (Dendrocalamus strictus), kasmri / Malay bush-beech (Gmelina arborea), Arista
/ Neem (Azadirachta indica), sakhua / Sal Tree (Shorea robusta), barun /Spider tree
(Crateva unilocularis), mahua / Indian butter tree (Madhuca longifolia var. latifolia), tilaka
/(Wendlandia exerta), ber / Indian jujube (Zizyphus mauritiana), aonla / Indian
Gooseberry (Phyllanthus emblica), kadamb / Burflower-tree (Anthocephalus chinensis),
bent / Slender rattan (Calamus rotung), indrajau /Conessi, Tellicherry bark (Holarrhena
pubescens), bijak / Pomegranate (Punica granatum), and neebu / Bigarade Orange (Citrus
aurantifolia), among other flowering, fruiting and shade giving trees.
FLOWERING SEASONS OF THE PLANTS
Ashoka normally flowers in spring (5.14.3). Flame of the forest refers to a mountain
tree, beautiful with its garlands of flowers, blooming at the end of winter (2.63.9). Madhuca
(Indian butter tree) blooms in spring (6.4.79). The fruit of the mango tree is in full
blossom at the commencement of spring (5.14.3). Marking nut tree (bhallaalaaka) and
beal (Bengal quince) were the other plants (Ayodhya kanda, 56. 6-9).
We have documented a total of 182 plant species in Valmiki’s Ramayana. Out of

the 182 plant species, 105 species are trees, 5 are small trees, 8 are shrubs, 22 are
herbs, 1 is a species of creeper, 15 species are climbers, 6 are grasses and 20 are
aquatic herbs.
23
24
Table-1
PLANTS IN THE RAMAYANA
S.No. Sanskrit Common Name Botanical Name Family Name Habit Reference
Name in
Ramayana
1. Abhisutah Soma, Moon Sarcostemma Apocynaceae Creeper 1.14.6

plant brevistigma
2. Agnimukh Indian marking Semecarpus Anacardiaceae Tree 3.73.52;
/ Bhallatak nut tree anacardium 2.56.7
3. Aguru Eagle wood, Aquilaria Thymeleaceae Tree 2.15.33
Aloe wood agallocha
4. Aja Bishop’s-weed Trachyspermum Apiaceae Herb 2.91.67

ammi
5. Ambuj, Lotus Flower Nelumbo nucifera Nelumbonaceae Aquatic 2.30.25;
Amburuh; Herb 7.8.9;
Arvind 3.75.21
6. Amlaki Indian Phyllanthus Phyllantaceae Shrub 2.91.51
Gooseberry officinalis
7. Ankol Sage leaf Alangium Cornaceae Tree 2.94.8
alangium saviifolium
8. Arista Neem Azadirachta Meliaceae Tree 2.94.9
indica
9. Arjuna Arjun, White
Marudah Terminalia arjuna Combretaceae Tree 3.60.14;
4.1.81;
4.27.10;
4.28.4;
4.28.9;
4.28.41;
4.30.25;
6.4.80;
6.22.56;
6.39.4;
7.42.4
10. Arni Nutgrass Clerodendrum Laminaceae Shrub 2.30.23
phlomidis
11. Asana Bastard Terminalia
myrobalan tomentosa Combretaceae Tree 2.94.8
12. Ashoka Ashoka Saraca asoca Fabaceae Tree 2.10.13;

3.60.17
13. Ashvakarna East Indian Dipterocarpus Diptero- Tree 1.24.15;

copaiba balsam, turbinatus carpaceae 2.99.15;
Gurjan 6.22.56;
6.43.20;
25
Name in
Ramayana
6.55.77;
6.75.23;
6.76.66
14. Ashwatha Pipal tree Ficus religiosa Moraceae Tree 2.91.49
15. Atimuktaka Phobi nut-tree Hiptage Malpighiaceae Climber 3.75.24

benghalensis Shrub
16. Baan Tall cane, Saccharum munja Poaceae Herb 4.30.56

Bengal cane
17. Badari Indian jujube Zizyphus Rhamnaceae Tree

mauritiana
18. Bakula Indian Medallar Mimusops elengi Sapotaceae Tree 3.60.22;

3.75.16;
4.1.78;
4.27.18;
4.42.7;
5.10.23;
5.14.43;
6.4.79;
6.22.59;
6.59.3;
7.42.5
19. Bhallataka Cashew nut Anacardium Anacardiaceae Tree 2.56.7

occidentale
20. Bandhujiv Copper-cups Pentapetes Malvaceae Herb 4.30.62

phoenicea
21. Barhi Halfa grass Desmostachya Poaceae Herb 2.87.20

bipinnata
22. Bhandir Banyan tree Ficus Moraceae Tree 3.75.24

benghalensis
23. Bhavya Dillenia, Dillenia indica Dilleniaceae Tree 2.94.8

Elephant-apple
24. Bhurjpatra Himalayan Betula utilis Betulaceae Tree 2.94.24

Birch,
Himalayan
silver birch
25. Bibhitak Beach-almon, Terminalia

Balliric bellirica Combretaceae Tree 2.91.49
myrobalan
26. Bijpur Citron, Citrus medica Rutaceae Tree 2.91.30

Buddha’s-Hand
26
Name in
Ramayana
27. Bilva Bengal quince Aegle marmelos Rutaceae Tree 1.4.22;

1.24.15;
2.56.71;
2.94.8;
3.11.74;
3.60.13;
6.22.57
28. Bimb Little gourd / Coccinia grandi Cucurbitaceae Climber 5.15.29

Ivy gourd
29. Candana Sandal Tree Santalum album Santalaceae Tree 2.15.33;

2.71.28;
3.15.18;
2.76.16;
3.35.21;
4.27.17
30. Chaitya Pipal tree Ficus religiosa Moraceae Tree 2.71.42
31. Champaka Champac, Michelia Magnoliaceae Tree 2.10.13;

champaca 3.15.17;
6.4.72-73;
3.60.32;
6.39.3;
3.15.14-15;
3.15.17
32. Chanak Bengal gram, Cicer arietinum Fabaceae Herb 7.91.20

Chick pea
33. Chirabilva Indian-elm, Holoptelea Ulmaceae Tree 3.11.74;

Jungle cork tree integrifolia 4.1.78;
6.4.79
34. Chuta Mango Mangifera indica Anacardiaceae Tree 2.91.30;

3.3;4.1.80;
5.10.25;
5.14.3;
6.4.72;
6.59.77;
7.42.2
35. Dadima Pomegranate Punica granatum Lythraceae Small 3.60.21;

Tree 6.22.59;
7.42.5
36. Darbha Cotton wool Imperata Poaceae Herb 4.26.5

grass cylindrica
27
Name in
Ramayana
37. Dhanwan phalsa Grewia asiatica Malvaceae Shrub 2.94.9
38. Dhava / Button tree Anogeissus Combretaceae Tree 1.24.15,16;

Syandana latifolia 3.15.18 &
3.60.21;
2.94.9;
4.1.18
39. Devadaru Deodar tree Cedrus deodara Pinaceae Tree 4.43.13
40. Godhuma Bread wheat Triticum aestivum Poaceae Grass 3.16.16
41. Hari- Sandalwood Santalum album Santalaceae Tree 2.65.8

chandaba
42. Hintal Mangrove Date Phoenix paludosa Arecaceae Tree 4.27.18

Palm
43. Indivar Blue lotus Nymphaea Nymphaeaceae Aquatic 2.2.53

nouchali Herb
44. Ingudi Desert date Balenites Balanitaceae Small 2.50.28

aegyptiaca Tree
45. Jambu Jambolan, Syzygium cumini Myrtacea Tree 2.55.15;

Black plum, 2.91.51;
Java-plum 3.73.3;
14.28.19;
4.20.30;
7.42.5
46. Japa China-rose Hibiscus Malvaceae Shrub 6.106.23

rosasinensis
47. Jati Catalonian Jasminum Oleaceae Climber 2.91.51

jasmine, grandiflorum
Royal jasmine
48. Jeevaka Jiwanti Flickingeria Orchidaceae Herb 6.74.33

fimbriata
49. Kadali Banana Musa paradisiaca Musaceae Herb 2.20.3;

2.117.80;
3.36.13;
3.42.22;
3.62.4;
3.42.13;
6.123.47
50. Kakubha Arjun, Terminalia arjuna Combretaceae Tree 3.60.14,15;

White Marudah 1.24.15;
4.27.24
28
Name in
Ramayana
51. Kalaguru Eagle wood, Aquilaria Thymelaeaceae Tree 5.29.3

Aloe wood agallocha
52. Kaleyak Saffron, Crocus sativus Iridaceae Herb 7.42.2

Autumn crocus
53. Kalhar Water lily Nymphaea lotus Nymphaeaceae Herb 4.30.36
54. Kalpa
vriksha Indian kapok Salmalia
/Silk Cotton malabarica Malvaceae Tree 4.34.5
Tree
55. Kamala Lotus Flower Nelambium Nymphaeaceae Aquatic 3.11.50
speciosum Herb
56. Kanchan Mountain-ebony Bauhinia Fabaceae Tree 4.50.29

-vriksha variegata
57. Kapith Elephant-apple, Limonia Rutaceae Tree 2.9120

Wood Apple acidissima
58. Karanji Indian beech Pongamia pinnata Fabaceae Tree 6.4.73
59. Karir Caper plant Capparis Capparaceae Small 6.22.59

deciduas Tree
60. Karnikara Hathipaila Pterospermum Malvaceae Tree 2.29.23

acerifolium
61. Karpur Camphor tree / Cinnamomum

Japanese camphora Lauraceae Tree 4.28.8
camphor
62. Karvira Oleander/ Nerium indicum Apocynaceae Shrub 3.73.4

Rose-laurel
63. Kash Fodder cane / Saccharum Poaceae Grass 2.88.22

Wild sugarcane spontaneum
64. Kashmari Malay Gmelina arborea Laminaceae Tree 2.94.9

bush-beech /
Gmelina
65. Kataka The clearing Strychnos Loganiaceae Tree 3.75.24

Nut Tree potatorum
66. Ketaki Padang Pandanus Pandanaceae Tree 2.94.6;

fascicularis 3.15.17;
3.75.24;
4.1.77;
29
Name in
Ramayana
4.27.10;
4.28.8-9;
4.42.11;
6.4.77-78;
67. Khadira Black catechu / Senagalia catechu Fabaceae Tree 1.4.2;

Betel-nut palm 3.15.18
68. Kharjura Date sugar Phoenix sylvestris Arecaceae Tree 3.15.16;

palm/Wild Date 4.2.9
Palm
69. Kichak Giant Thorny Bambusa bambos Poaceae Tall 4.43.37

Bamboo grass
70. Kimsuka Bastard-teak / Butea Fabaceae Tree 2.63.9;

Bengal kino monosperma 2.63.8,9;
4.1.82;
5.15.8;
5.54.34;
6.40.14
71. Koot – Rohitak Aphanamixis Meliaceae Tree 4.40.39

shalmali polystachya
72. Kovidara Mountain-ebony Bauhinia Fabaceae Tree 2.84.3

variegata
73. Kritmal Golden shower, Cassia fistula Fabaceae Tree 4.27.18

Purging cassia
74. Kulitha Horse gram Dolichos biflorus Fabaceae Herb 7.91.20
75. Kurant Porcupine- Barleria prionitis Acanthaceae Herb 4.1.80 – 81

flower
76. Kurav Bluebell / Barleria cristata Acanthaceae Herb 3.60.21

Philippine-violet
77. Kusha Spear Grass Imperata Poaceae Grass 6.21.1,10;

(Darbha) cylindrica 1.3.2;
2.104.8;
3.11.50;
5.38.29;
78. Kushtha Red water lilly Nymphaea Nymphaeaceae Aquatic 2.94.24

pubesceus Herb
79. Kutaj Fever pod Holarrhena Apocynaceae Small 4.28.4

pubesceus Tree
30
Name in
Ramayana
80. Kuvalaya Blue lotus Nymphaea Nymphaeaceae Aquatic 3.75.20

stellata Herb
81. Lakuch Monkey jack Artocarpus Moraceae Tree 3.15.18

lakoocha
82. Lodh Lodh tree Symplocos Symplocaceae Tree 2.94.8

racemosa
83. Lodhra Asiatic Sweetleaf Symplocos Symplocaceae Herb 4.43.13

crataegoides
84. Madhuka Indian butter Madhuca Sapotaceae Tree 2.94.9;

tree longifolia 3.11.74;
3.15.21;
3.42.17;
6.4.79;
7.42.3
85. Mallika Sambac jasmine Jasminum Oleaceae Climber 2.9.51

sambac
86. Malti Rangoon creeper Aganosma Apocynaceae Climber 2.91.51

calycina
87. Mandar Indian coral Erythrina Fabaceae Tree 7.26.5

tree/ orientalis
Tiger’s-claw
88. Maskar Black pepper Piper nigrum Piperaceae Climber 3.15.21
89. Maskar Giant Thorny Bambusa bambos Poaceae Tree 3.15.21

Bamboo
90. Muchu- Hathipaila Pterospermum Malvaceae Tree 4.1.80 – 81

kunda acerifolium
91. Mugda Black gram Vigna mungo Fabaceae Herb 7.91.19
92. Naag Ironwood Tree / Mesua Calophyllaceae Tree 3.73.4

Mesua nagassarium
93. Nagakesara Mesua / Mesua ferrea Calophyllaceae Tree 2.94.9;

Ironwood Tree 3.15.18;
3.60.12;
4.27.18;
4.28.41;
5.2.10;
6.4.73;
6.39.4;
7.42.4
31
Name in
Ramayana
94. Naktamala Indian Pongamia pinnata Fabaceae Tree 4.1.82

pongamia /
Karanja
95. Nalin, Lotus Flower Nelumbo nucifera Nelumbonaceae Aquatic 2.112.15;

Nalini Herb 4.30.35
96. Narikel Coconut Cocos nucifera Arecaceae Tree 3.35.13
97. Neelotpala Blue lotus Nymphaea Nymphaeaceae Aquatic 3.42.16

nouchali Herb
98. Neelvriksha Indigo Cryptocarya Lauraceae Tree 3.73.4

wightiana
99. Neeraj Lotus Flower Nelumbo nucifera Nelumbonaceae Aquatic 6.109.2

Herb
100. Neevar Asian rice Oryza sativa Poaceae Grass 2.61.5
101. Nichul Indian oak, Barringtonia

Freshwater acutangula Lecythidaceae Tree 3.75.24
mangrove
102. Nimb Neem Azadirachta Meliaceae Tree 2.35.16

indica
103. Nipa Burflower-tree Neolamarckia Rubiaceae Tree 2.94.9

chinensis
104. Nivara Bur-flower Neolamarckia Rubiaceae Tree 3.11.74

cadamba
105. Nyagrodha Banyan tree Ficus Moraceae Tree 2.52.68;

benghalensis 2.55.23;
2.55.23;
3.13.21;
3.35.27
&36;
3.47.34;
3.73.3;
3.75.24;
6.4.73
106. Padma Lotus Flower Nelumbo nucifera Nelumbonaceae Aquatic 3.1.6

Herb
107. Padma White water-lily Nymphaea alba Nymphaeaceae Aquatic 2.50.20;

Herbs 3.15.1;
32
Name in
Ramayana
3.75.20,21;
3.15.11;
4.1.3;
4.1.7;
4.1.104;
6.107.16
108. Padmak Sour cherry / Prunus Rosaceae Tree 2.76.16

Himalayan cerasoides
wild cherry
109. Padmini Blue Lotus Nymphaea Nymphaeaceae Aquatic 3.60.5

nouchali Herb
110. Panasa Jack fruit Artocarpus Moraceae Tree 2.91.30;

integrifolia 2.94.8;
3.73.3;
3.60.21;
3.73.3;
7.42.3;
6.31.29;
3.15.16
111. Pankaj Lotus Flower Nelumbo nucifera Nelumbonaceae Aquatic 3.8.14

Herb
112. Pari- Erythrina Fabaceae Tree 3.73.5

bhadrak orientalis
113. Parijat Night jasmine Nyctanthes Oleaceae Tree 7.42.3

arbortristis
114. Parnas Holy basil Ocimum Laminaceae Herb 3.15.18

tenuiflorum
115. Patala Trumpet flower Stereospermum Bignoniaceae Tree 1.24.15;

suaveolens 3.15.18;
4.1.80;
6.4.80
116. Pippala Pipal Ficus religiosa Moraceae Tree 3.11.38
117. Pippali Indian long Piper longum Piperaceae Climber 3.11.29

pepper
118. Priyak Indian Kino Tree Pterocarpus Fabaceae Tree 2.71.12

marsupium
119. Priyal Buchanania Anacardiaceae Tree 2.94.8

lanzan
33
Name in
Ramayana
120. Priyangu Chirauli-nut tree Aglaia Meliaceae Tree 4.26.27

elaeagnoidea
121. Pumnaga Alexandrian Calophyllum Calophyllaceae Tree 2.9.24;

Laurel inophyllum 3.15.16;
3.75.23;
4.50.25;
5.10.23;
5.14.9-10
122. Pundarik Lotus Flower Nelumbo nucifera Nelumbonaceae Aquatic 2.87.2

Herb
123. Pushkara Lotus Flower Nelumbo nucifera Nelumbonaceae Aquatic 2.4.41

Herb
124. Rajiv Blue lotus Nymphaea Nymphaeaceae Aquatic 3.11.77

nouchali Herb
125. Rakta- Blue lotus Nymphaea Nymphaeaceae Aquatic 3.42.16

padmoptala nouchali Herb
126. Raktoptala Blue lotus Nymphaea Nymphaeaceae Aquatic 4.43.40

nouchali Herb
127. Ranjak Henna Lawsonia inermis Lythraceae Shrub 6.4.79
128. Rudanthi Littoral bind Cressa cretica Convolvulaceae Herb 2.46.3

weed
129. Sala Sal Tree Shorea robusta Diptero- Tree 1.15.12;

carpaceae 1.17.8;
2.96.11;
2.98.16;
2.20.32;
3.60.21;
2.19.19;
2.17.10;
3.11.74;
3.15.13-18;
3.35.13;
4.5.18;
4.16.23-24;
5.44.12-13
130. Sallaki Indian Boswellia serrata Burseraceae Tree 2.55.8

frankincense
tree
131. Santanaka Red Silk-Cotton Bombax ceiba Malvaceae Tree 5.14.26
34
Name in
Ramayana
132. Saptachad Devil tree Alstonia scholaris Apocynaceae Tree 4.30.30
133. Saptaparna Devil tree Alstonia scholaris Apocynaceae Tree 3.75.24
134. Sarala Chir Pine Pinus roxburghii Pinaceae Tree 2.76.16
135. Sarj Sal Tree Shorea robusta Diptero- Tree 4.27.10

carpaceae
136. Sarshap Celery cabbage Brassica Brassicaceae Herb 2.25.28

campestris
137. Shaivalaam Seaweed Green moss Green moss Aquatic 2.50.12

Plant
138. Shalmall Red Silk-Cotton Bombax ceiba Malvaceae Tree 2.68.19;

/ Indian kapok
139. Shami Jandi Prosopis cineraria Fabaceae Tree 3.15.18;

3.15.18;
3.15.22;
140. Shar Tall cane Saccharum Poaceae Grass 3.15.22

bengalense
141. Shatpatra Lotus Flower Nelumbo nucifera Nelumbonaceae Climber 2.26.11
142. Sheet Camphor tree / Cinnamomum

Japanese camphora Lauraceae Tree 2.88.7
camphor
143. Shinshapa Indian Dalbergia sissoo Fabaceae Tree 2.91.51

rosewood /
Sissoo
144. Shirisha Woman’s tongue Albizia lebbeck Fabaceae Tree 4.1.81
145. Shukla Lodh tree Symplocos Symplocaceae Tree 3.75.23

racemosa
146. Shyam Thorn-apple Datura metel Solanaceae Herb 4.30.62
147. Sindhuwar Toothbrush tree Salvadora oleoidesSalvadoraceae Tree 4.1.77
148. Sleshmaa- Indian cherry Cordia myxa Boraginaceae Tree 1.14.22-23

taka
149. Sthagara Putranjiva Putranjiva Putranjivaceae Tree 2.94.25

roxburghii
150. Surakta Chinese Vitex negundo Laminaceae Shrub 3.73.5

chastetree
35
Name in
Ramayana
151. Tagar Crape Jasmine Tabernaemontana Apocynaceae Shrub 7.26.6;

divaricata 2.94.24;
152. Takkol Crape Jasmine Tabernaemontana Apocynaceae Tree 3.35.22

divaricata
153. Tala Palmyra-palm Borassus Arecaceae Tree 2.91.50;

flabellifer 23.35.13;
3.44.16;
3.60.18;
4.40.53;
5.18.11;
5.56.36;
6.22.56;
6.39.3;
6.67.159;
6.77.61
154. Tamala West Indian Garcinia Clusiaceae Tree 2.91.50;

Bay tree xanthochymus 3.15.16;
3.35.23;
4.27.17;
4.27.17;
4.42.11;
6.39.3
155. Tamala Sour Pimenta Myrtacea Tree 2.91.50

mangosteen racemosa
156. Tandula West Indian Garcinia Clusiaceae Tree 3.16.17

Bay tree xanthochymus
157. Tila Asian rice Oryza sativa Poaceae Perennial 2.69.10

Herb
158. Tilaka Sesame Sesamum

orientale Pedaliaceae Herb 2.91.50
159. Tilaka Red beadtree Adenanthera Fabaceae Tree 3.60.16

pavonina
160. Timida Lodh tree Symplocos Symplocaceae Tree 4.27.18

racemosa
161. Timisha Ash gourd/ Benincasa Cucurbitaceae Climber 2.94.8;

White-pumkin hispida 3.15.15;
3.15.18;
4.1.92
162. Tinduka Indian Diospyros Ebenaceae Tree 1.24.15;

persimmon / malabarica
Mountain ebony (D. glutinosa) 3.11.74;
3.11.77-78;
36
Name in
Ramayana
3.13.11;
3.13.21;
3.13.21-22;
3.15.2;
3.15.5;
3.15.10
163. Tinisha Sandan Desmodium Fabaceae Tree 3.11.74;

oojeinense 3.15.16;
4.1.82;
4.27.18;
6.2.72;
6.4.81;
6.22.56
164. Tunga Sandan Desmodium Fabaceae Tree 7.42.2

oojeinense
165. Uddalaka Coconut Palm Cocos nucifera Arecaceae Tree 4.1.81
166. Udumbara Cluster Fig Ficus racemosa Moraceae Tree 2.14.34;

2.55.14
167. Ushir Cus-cus grass Vetiveria Poaceae Herb 2.7.2;

zizanioides 3.42.23;
4.1.73;
92.92.23;
4.50.26;
3.49.30;
4.1.21
168. Utpala Indian blue Nymphaea Nymphaeaceae Aquatic 3.8.2;

lotus caerulea plant 5.13.16
169. Vaitas Blue lotus Nymphaea Nymphaeaceae Aquatic 2.55.15

nouchali Herb
170. Vamsa Bamboo Bambusa Poaceae Tall 2.94.9;

Varan arundinacea grass 2.55.8;
2.55.14;
3.15.21;
5.56.34;
6.12.56
171. Vanir Rattan cane Calmus rotang Arecaceae Climber 4.27.18

palm
37
Name in
Ramayana
172. Vanjul Rattan cane Calmus rotang Arecaceae Climber 3.11.74

palm
173. Vanjula Sandan Desmodium Fabaceae Tree 3.11.74;

oojeinense 4.50.25
174. Vansh Ashoka Saraca asoca Fabaceae Tree 2.55.14
175. Vasanti Three-lived-caper Crataeva nurvala Capparaceae Small 4.1.77

Tree
176. Vata Banyan tree Ficus Moraceae Tree 3.75.24

benghalensis
177. Venu Jasmine Jasminum

officinale Oleaceae Climber 2.38.7
178. Vetra Giant Thorny Bambusa

Bamboo bambos Poaceae Tree 2.94.9
179. Vishalya- Rattan cane Calmus rotang Arecaceae Climber 2.25.38

karni palm
180. Vistar Bread flower Vallaris Apocynaceae Shrub 2.20.28

solanacea
181. Vrutta Cotton wool Desmostachya Poaceae Grass 2.59.24

grass bipinnata
182. Yav Arabian jasmine Jasminum Oleaceae Climber 3.16.16

pubescens
38
ANIMAL DIVERSITY IN VALMIKI’S RAMAYANA
Valmiki in his Ramayana describes flora, water elements and forest plants in
detail. India’s great epics are replete with references to beautiful mountains, lakes,
rivers and forests. There are passages which describe the land surface, biodiversity,
vegetation, degrees of wilderness, etc. The descriptions in the Ramayana reflect
the supremacy of nature. The area of its scope ranges from Ayodhya in modern Uttar
Pradesh to Sri Lanka. The area covers four major ecosystems: the tropical deciduous
forests, the dry and moist deciduous forests, the evergreen tropical forests of Sri Lanka
and the Alpine region semi forests (Himalayan) (Roy, Mira, 2005).
Table 2 gives the details of the animals mentioned by Valmiki in his Ramayana.
Valmiki describes the fauna - animals and birds – as extensively as he does the plants
of his epic.
There are several technical terms used in the Ramayana. A common example is
that of vana and aranya which are inter changeable and appear to be synonymous.
The term vana is used to describe a cultivated forest which can otherwise be classified
as sub-forest. The term aranya means wilderness. The characteristics of aranya or
forest are reflected in the meaning itself. Other characteristics of the forest may be
described in terms of land surface, biodiversity, vegetation, wilderness, etc., A good
example is the warning given by Rama to Sita of the many dangers that are to be found
in the forest where wild animals like lions, snakes and scorpions and thorny bushes
abound (Ayodhya kanda, Adhyaya, 28). The wilderness in particular is described as
raudra (fury) and vibhatsa (terror). These terms are among those which are used to
describe the four rasas or sentiments which pervade the forest (Lutgendorf, 2001).
Valmiki’s Ramayana contains not only very accurate descriptions of the flora but
also that of the fauna.
CHITRAKUTA FOREST AND HILL
In the Ramayana, Chitrakuta has been described as Maha-vana or great forest.

However, it is not a forbidding wilderness. On the contrary, Valmiki’s description of
Chitrakuta reflects a purity and spirituality about the place. There are two natural
ecosystems in this place, i.e., the hill Chitrakuta and the river Mandakini. Valmiki
often uses the term ramya (beautiful) and stirtha or punya (spiritual abode) to describe
this beautiful landscape. In fact, the sage Bharadvaja advises Rama to settle in the
Chitrakuta forest during the first phase of his exile.
Valmiki has given a graphic account of the hill and its environs (Ayodhya kanda:
54.29; 94.4-13). As far as fauna is concerned Valmiki has made pointed references to
39
both carnivores and herbivores. The elephant, different types of deer, bear and monkeys,
the tiger and the cheetah find special mention, as also the deer which was the most
common animal found in this forest. Among the birds, the peacock, cuckoo and small
cranes are the species described.
The meandering river and its serene surroundings provided the natural habitat
for various aquatic birds like Rathanga (ruddy Sheldrake), Kaarandava (coot), Krauncha
(pond heron), Plava (heron), Hamsa (swan) and Natyuha (gallinule) as well as the more
common species like the cuckoo and Cakora which provided a melodious background
to the landscape and thus added to its natural beauty.
Among the animals that find mention in the Chitrakuta forest are Golangula (cow
tailed monkey), Karandava (Coot), Koyasthi (Green-bill coucal), Kraunca (Pond heron),
Mahisha (Buffalo), Natyula (Gallinule), Plava (could be grey heron), Prisata (Spotted
deer) and Riksha (bear). He has also mentioned singing birds such as Kokila (Indian
Koel), Mayura (Syn. Varhi peacock) and a migratory bird like Siarasa (Indian crane). He
has described a number of aquatic and land birds. This establishes the fact that
Valmiki was not only a keen botanist but also a zoologist.
ANIMALS IN THE DANDAKA-ARANYA
The Dandaka-aranya forest has now been identified as comprising of parts of

present day Madhya Pradesh, Odisha and Andhra Pradesh. The vegetation of this
region may be classified as Tropical deciduous. The term Dandaka-aranya seems to
derive from danda-trina, a type of long grass which grows in this region. Danda also
means rows of trees. This would indicate that the area was thickly forested. In this
region Valmiki has also mentioned a diverse and numerous animals such as the
elephant and deer of different types, Prisata (Spotted deer), Riksha (bear), Sarasa
(Indian crane), Simha (Lion), Vyaghra (tiger), Srmara (Indian wild boar), Taraksu (hyena),
Vanara (Indian monkey), Varaha (pig), Vrka (wolf), Dvipi (Panther), Gavaya (Goyal ox),
and Gokarna (cow eared deer) and Mrga (roe deer) and Golangula (cow tailed monkey)
all find mention. Besides, he has enumerated the different types of birds found in
Dandakaranya such as Mayura ( Syn. Varhi peacock), Sarasa (Crane) and aquatic
birds such as Rathang (Ruddy Sheldrake), Karandava (coot), Kraunca (pond heron),
Plava (Heron), Hamsa (Swan), Natyuha (Gallinulle) and Vultures (Harsh-voiced). He has
also mentioned Jhilika (Cricket), a leaping orthopteran insect family (Grillidae). Both
the tiger and lion lived here in Valmiki’s time, a fact attested on the rock paintings of
Bhimbetka.
40
PANCHAVATI
Panchavati has now been located on the banks of the river Godavari in modern
Maharashtra. The vegetation can be described as tropical dry deciduous. Diverse types
of animal and bird species have been mentioned by Valmiki. These include the Hamsa
(swan), Karandava (Coot), Kraunca (Pond heron), Mayura (Syn. Varhi peacock), Mrga
(roe deer) and Sarasa (Indian crane).
KISHKINDA
This forest is situated in the Bellary district of the present Karnataka state.
The Pampa sarovar or lake finds mention in the Aranya kanda as well as the Kishkinda
kanda. It is situated to the east of Matanga hill and to the west of Rishyamukha hill.
It is interesting to note that these hills are called by the same names even today. The
Pampa lake is a perennial source of water. The water is free from gravel, slime and
weeds. The commonly found species in this region include swans, ducks, krauncha,
ospreys and other water birds. Fish of rare variety like vakratunda (Blunt nosed fish,
Snouted porpoise / Garra mullya), rohita (Red-carps / Cyprinus carpio), nalamina
(Spiny eel / Mastacembelus armatus ) are found in plenty in the sarovar.
An animal species that finds prominent mention in Kishkinda is the monkey.

Though it may be difficult to conceive of Hanuman and Sugriva as mere monkeys
they can be described as intelligent apes apart from being mythological heroes.
Brockington (1984) has established a relationship between some names of monkeys
and that of the mountains. For example, Anjaneya (Hanuman) is named after Anjanagiri,
a mountain on the southern side of Kailasa; Jambavat is mentioned as the ‘king of
bears; but there is a mountain by name Jambunada, with a similar name; but these are
later developments, reminiscent of a great time when man was a part of the nature, an
inseparable combination.
Vanaras are vana nara, or people of the forest, who carried the monkey – kapi -
on their flag. Jambavan the bear is called a Vanara. Even an ignoramus knows the
difference between a bear and a monkey, and Valmiki, with his extensive knowledge
about flora and fauna, could not have mistaken a bear for a monkey. Obviously, they
were forest dwellers who helped Rama in his quest for Sita. It is likely that Hanuman’s
super-human achievements – flying across the setu to Sri Lanka, flying to the Himalayas
to fetch the Sanjivani mountain - were inconceivable for a mere mortal. As it involved
swinging through the air and climbing trees (in Ravana’s ashoka vana), the nearest
animal with those abilities was the monkey, and the Vanaras, in time, came to be
associated with the monkey, which was their clan emblem or totem.
41
LANKA
The Lankan evergreen forest was situated in the island kingdom of Lanka, now
known as Sri Lanka. The natural evergreen forest comprised mainly sub-forest. Some
of the common animal and bird species that were found in these forest were kokila
(Indian Koel), mayura (Syn. Varhi peacock), mriga (roe deer), cakravaka ; rathahva
(ruddy shelduck), hamsa (swan), sarasa (Indian crane), duck, cakra and natyuha.
Valmiki has studied and documented the great diversity of animal species of his
times in his great epic, the Ramayana. The pi-chart below indicates the number of
animals in each species that are enumerated by Valmiki. It is apparent that he knew
more about birds and mammals than about fish, insects or reptiles.
42
Table-2
ANIMAL IN THE RAMAYANA
S.No. Sanskrit Common Name Zoological Name Family Name Habit Reference
Name in
Ramayana
1. Kraunca Pond heron Ardeola grayii Ardeidae Aquatic 4-43-25-27

bird
2. Kokila Indian Koel Eudynamys Cuculidae Bird 5-15-3
scolopacea
3. Chatak Pied crested Climator jacobinus Cuculidae Bird 2-56-9
cuckoo
4. Koyasthi Green-billed Centropus Cuculidae Bird 5-1-46
coucal chlororhynchos
5. Sarasa Indian crane Grus antigone Gruidae Bird 3-73-12
6. Cakravaka Ruddy goose Anas casarca Anatidae Aquatic 5-16-30
or Bramany bird
duck
7. Rathadhva Ruddy shelduck Tadorna Anatidae Bird 5-16-30
ferruginea
8. Shikhii Peacock Pavo cristatus Phasianidae Bird 3-46-3
10. Cakravaka Ruddy gees Chloephaga Anatidae Aquatic 4-11-39
rubidiceps bird
11. Rathahva Ruddy shelduck Tadorna Anatidae Aquatic 5-16-30
ferruginea bird
12. Kraunca Pond heron Ardeola grayii Ardeidae Aquatic 3-35-18
bird
14. Plavaah Crane Grus antigone Gruidae Aquatic 3-73-12
bird
15. Cakravaka Ruddy goose or Anas casarca Anatidae Aquatic 3-35-18
Bramany duck bird
16. Hamsa Swan Cygnus olor Anatidae Bird 3-73-12
17. Mayura Peacock Pavo cristatus Phasianidae Bird 4-16-18
18. Kraunca Pond heron Ardeola grayii Ardeidae Aquatic 3-73-12
bird
or Bramany bird
duck
20. Hamsa Bar-headed Anser indicus Anatidae Aquatic 3-49-31
goose bird
21. Natyuha White breasted Amaurornis Anatidae Aquatic 6-39-9
waterhen phoenicurus bird
insularis
22. Kuravya- Ospreys Pandion haliaetus Pandionidae Aquatic 3-73-12
hiva bird
43
Name in
Ramayana
23. Kokila Asian Koel Eudynamys Cuculidae Bird 4-1-23

scolopacea
bird
26. Rathahva Ruddy shelduck Tadorna Anatidae Aquatic 5-16-30
ferruginea bird
27. Mayura Peacock Pavo cristatus Phasianidae Bird 2-15-42;
4-1-39
28. Hamsa Swan Cygnus olor Anatidae Aquatic 5-9-36
bird
29. Natyuha Duck Cygnus Anatidae Bird 4-1-28
buccinator
30. Kuraraah Fish-hawk Pandion haliaetus Pandionidae Bird 3-73-12
31. Jhilika Cricket Acheta domestica Gryllidae Insect 1-24-13
32. Bhramaraa Black bees Apis mellifera Apidae Insect 5-9-36
-hiva
33. Golangula Cow tailed Catrol vancliechin Atelidae Mammal 6-46-21
Langurs
34. Gopuccha Sacred Langoor Catrol vancliechin Atelidae Mammal 1-17-18
(Black monkey)
35. Karandava Coot Ursus thibetanus Ursidae Mammal 4-13-8
36. Prishata Spotted deer Axis axis Cervidae Mammal 2-93-2
37. Riksha Bear Ursus thibetanus Ursidae Mammal 3-14-23
38. Tathaa Bear Ursus thibetanus Ursidae Mammal 6-120-9
39. Simha Lion Panthera Leo Felidae Mammal 1-24-14;
Persica 3-43-4
40. Sr mara Indian wild boar Sus scrofa Suidae Mammal 3-43-2
41. Tarakshu Hyena Crocuta crocuta Hyaenidae Mammal 2-94-7
42. Harayah Indian monkey Macaca mulatta Cercopithecidae Mammal 6-120-14
43. Varaha Boar Sus scrofa Suidae Mammal 2-110-4
44. Vrka Wolf Canis lupus Canidae Mammal 2-15-36
45. Dvipi Panther Panthera tigris Felidae Mammal 2-94-7
46. Gavaya Goyal ox Bos gavaeus Bovidae Mammal 4-65-2
47. Gokarniih Cow-eared deer Cervus elaphus Cervidae Mammal 5-17-11
48. Mahisha Buffalo Bubalus bubalis Bovidae Mammal 4-46-3
49. Prishata Spotted deer Axis axis Cervodae Mammal 3-43-12
50. Vrka Wolf Canis lupus Canidae Mammal 2-15-36
51. Vyaghra Tiger Panthera tigris Felidae Mammal 3-14-25
tigris
52. Gavaya Wild ox Bos gavaeus Bovidae Mammal 4-41-3
53. Mahisha Buffalo Bubalus bubalis Bovidae Mammal 4-46-3
54. Karandava Coot Ursus thibetanus Ursidae Mammal 4-13-8
55. Mrga Roe deer Capreolus Cervidae Mammal 3-14-23
capreolus
56. Prishata Spotted deer Axis axis Cervidae Mammal 2-93-2
44
Name in
Ramayana
57. Mrga Roe deer Capreolus Cervidae Mammal 3-43-4

capreolus
58. Ashva Horse Equus ferus Equidae Mammal 1-14-2
caballus
59. Rishabha Bull Bos Taurus Bovidae Mammal 3-73-19
indicus
60. Camaraah Himalayan yak Bos grunniens Bovidae Mammal 3-43-11
61. Vaanaraah Monkey Macaca mulatta Cercopithecidae Mammal 6-120-10
62. Timinakrajh Whales Neophocaena Balaenidae Mammal 5-1-74
-ushhaah phocaenoides
63. Ruruun Sapphire- Boselaphus Cervidae Mammal 3-73-38
blue Rurus tragocamelus
(A deer)
64. Nagaah Serpent - - Reptile 7-1-75
65. Rohita Red-carps Cyprinus carpio Cyprinidae Fish 3-73-14;
4-41-41
66. Nalamina Spiny eel Mastacembelus Mastacem Fish 3-73-14
armatus belidae
67. Vakratunda Blunt nosed fish, Garra mullya Cyprinidae Fish 3-73-14
Snouted porpoise
45
46
47
CHITRAKUTA
48
CHITRAKUTA
Location : Chitrakuta is located on the borders of Chitrakuta district of

Uttar Pradesh and Satna district of Madhya Pradesh
Climate : The climate was influenced by the presence of waterbodies such as

rivers, lakes, streams, ponds, etc. This helped to maintain the cool
climate. Further, the thick forest helped to sustain the hydrological
cycle.
Rainfall : The area was fed by the south-west monsoon.
Vegetation : Chitrakuta was the principal forest. It could be classified as Tropical

Deciduous. The forest landscape included water sources in the
form of rivers, lakes, streams, ponds, aquatic plants like the lotus
and water lilies, etc. The forests are generally deciduous and water
occupied an important place in them. The continuous flow of water
from waterfalls and springs helped to maintain the moisture
content. The thick forest acted as a conserving element in the
hydrological cycle.
There is an extensive description of Chitrakuta. It was also known as the

Mahavana or the great forest. Wild animals are frequently mentioned. Rama’s first camp
was in Chitrakuta. This was situated on a hill to the north of which flowed the Mandakini
River. The camp was surrounded by a forest with beautiful flowering trees.
49
CHITRAKUTA - FLORA
The vegetation comprised of
❖ Edible and non-edible types like Mango, Bengal quince, Jackfruit, Jujube,
Myrobalan and a type of sour-fruit called bhavya
❖ Flowering trees like lodhra, nipa, tilaka; hardwood trees like arishta (neem),
asan or bijaka, dhanvan, madhuka, tinisa and viarana
❖ Grasses like venu and vetra (Bamboo)
MEDICINAL PLANTS :
Svetakanthakari, Brahmi, Katuka, Ativisha and Hilamocika, Heart leaved moon-

seed, Gymnema, Prickly chaff-flower, Indian Squill, Black musali, Wild yam, Ticktree,
Ivy guard, Cordia macleodii, Indian laurel, Indian trumpet, Trumpet flower, Indian kino
tree, Arjun, Belliric myrobalan, Ink nut tree, Peacock’s tail, Nut grass, Purple fleabane,
Country mallow, Jungle grape vine, Panicled peristrophe, Sickle senna, Lollipop climber,
Coat buttons, Gulf leaf-flower, Asian scalystem, Black night shade, Blue wiss, Five-leaf
chastetree, Indian mallow, Broom creeper, Indian Sarsaparilla, Indian gentian, Hogweed,
Yellow-berried nightshade, East Indian screw-tree, Bengal quince, Sage leaved alangium,
etc.
Elephant Apple Bamboo
Burflower Tree Bengal quince
50
CHITRAKUTA - FAUNA
The common fauna found in the Chitrakuta forest included the golangula (cow tailed
monkey), karandava (Coot), kokila (Indian Koel), koyasthi (green-bill coucal), kraunca
(pond heron), mahisha (buffalo), mayura (peacock), natyula (gallinule), plava (could be
grey heron), prishata (spotted deer), riksha (bear), sarasa (Indian crane), simha (lion),
srmara (Indian wild boar), taraksu (hyena), vanara (Indian monkey), varaha (pig), vrka
(wolf), cakravaka rathahva (ruddy shelduck), dvipi (panther), gavaya (goyal ox), and
gokarna (cow-eared deer).
Lion Monkey
Gallinule Deer
bear Indian Cuckoo
51
DANDAKA-ARANYA
52
DANDAKA-ARANYA
Location : Dandaka-aranya forest included parts of present day Madhya Pradesh,

Odisha and Andhra Pradesh.
Climate : It was a monsoon-fed region, the heaviness of the rain depending on the
location and the topography.
Rainfall : The amount of rainfall also varied drastically from year to year. The thick
forest was also instrumental in maintaining the hydrological cycle.
Vegetation : The classification of the forest is Tropical Deciduous. Dandaka-aranya

derives its name from Danda-trna, a type of long grass which is
abundant in this region. Danda means rows of trees; it seems to
indicate that the area was thickly forested.
A number of sub-forests were also present in which a single species like

Madhukavana (Indian butter tree) predominated.
The forest of Dandaka-aranya comprised tall forest trees, sacred trees and sweet
fruit bearing trees. The vegetation was highly divergent in nature. However, the
common sala and madhuka were also noticed. Flowery and fruit yielding trees were
also abundant.
53
DANDAKA-ARANYA - FLORA
Some of the predominant plant species are madhuka (Indian butter tree), shala
(sal tree), dhava (axle wood), ashvakarna (gurjan balsam), kakubha (white marudah),
bilva (Bengal quince), tinduka (Indian persimmon), patala (Trumpet tree) and badari
(Indian jujube).
Wood Apple Jujube
Indian butter Tree Sandal Wood
Axle Wood Cannon Ball Tree
54
DANDAKA-ARANYA - FAUNA
Jhilika (Cricket), a leaping orthopteran insect family (grillidae); mahisha (buffalo),

prishata (spotted deer), sarasa (Indian crane), vrka (wolf), vyaghra (tiger), bhrngaraja
(fork-tailed shrike), cakravaka rathahva (ruddy shelduck) and gavaya (goyal ox).
Spotted Deer Indian Crane
Lion Bengal Tiger
Ruddy goose Ruddy Shelduck
55
PANCHAVATI
56
PANCHAVATI
Location : Panchavati was located on the banks of River Godavari in modern

Maharashtra.
Climate : Rama arrived at Panchavati in the hemanta or pre-winter season,

when the dew was cold, the crops due for harvesting and a lighted
fire was very welcome (4-16-1). Hemantha ritu sets in after the
passage of sharad ritu (autumn) (4-16-4). Although the climate of
Panchavati was very pleasant, the summers were as hot as the rest
of the Deccan Plateau.
Vegetation : The vegetation was Tropical dry deciduous. There were hills and
woodlands all around.
57
PANCHAVATI - FLORA
There was a forested plain called Samam which comprised of fruit yielding,
flowery, and aromatic and hardwood trees. The area was also abundant in the aquatic
lotus. The presence of cereals like barley, wheat and sali rice (winter rice) is also
mentioned.
Bare Caper Silk Cotton Tree
Indian Laburnum Bay Cedar
Chickpea Rice
58
PANCHAVATI - FAUNA
Various type of animal and bird species inhabitated this forest. Among these
were hamsa (swan), karandava (coot), kraunca (pond heron), mayura (peacock),
mriga (deer), sarasa (Indian crane) and cakravaka (ruddy sheldrake).
Indian Cuckoo Indian Crane
Swan Duck
Peacock Deer
59
KISHKINDA
60
KISHKINDA
Location : The Bellary district of present Karnataka state. The Pampa Sarovar
(lake) is also situated here.
Climate : In Valmiki’s Ramayana, Rama exclaims to Lakshmana that he feels

that the trees that bear the flowers after winter are competing with
each other (4-1-91). Pampa is pleasant to Rama because of its
delightful forests replete with various kinds of flowers and the
cool, bubbling streams (4-1-6). Hence, it is clear that the climate of
Kishkinda was very agreeable. When Rama reached the place.
Vegetation : The vegetation of this region was dry and moist deciduous.
61
KISHKINDA - FLORA
The forest comprrised of several common fruit yielding varieties: jambu, priyala,
banyan, plaksha, panasa, pipal, amra; rakta candana, sandalwood, nagakesari, tilaka,
naktamalaka, blue ashoka, mandara, kamba, karavira, agnimukhya, tinduka, dhava,
punnaga, vanjula, ciribilva, hintala, curabaka, salmali, There was also a luxuriant vant
(forest) which “resembled those in heaven”.
Full blown lotuses and illies and Padmaka (Himalayan wild cherry added to the
beauty of Pampa lake.
Flowering creepers like Malathi, Mallika, Vasanthi and Madhavi entwined

themselves around the trees.
The beauty of the forest was further enhanced by the presence of trees like
Kimsuka, Ankola, Kuranta, Curanaka, Paribhadraka, Kovidara, Mucukunda and Arjuna.
Flame of the Forest Jack Fruit
Champaka Jasmine
62
KISHKINDA - FAUNA
There was a beautiful fresh water lake called pampa sarovar inhabitated by swans,
ducks, ospreys, krauncas, cakravakas (Red geese), black bees, deer and bears. Beautiful
fish like rohita, nalamina and vakratunda were a source of food. The cool, clear waters
of Pampa lake, which were fragrant with the scent of lotuses, quenched the thirst of
the inhabitants. Ferocious tigers and the humble deer roamed the surrounding forest.
Pond Heron
Hanuman Langur Ospreys
Sloth Bear Rohita Fish
63
OSHADHIPARVATAM
ALPINE REGION SEMI FOREST
64
OSHADHIPARVATAM
ALPINE REGION SEMI FOREST
Location : Trans-Himalayan
Climate : Extremely cold in winter, with snowfall
Vegetation : This is a vast tract of territory located between the mountains

Kailasha and Rishabha. Kailasha is situated beyond the trans-
Himalayan region. This is confirmed by the reference to Hanuman’s
crossing the Himalayas to reach Kailasha. There are three jointed
mountains in the trans-Himalayan region: Kailasha, Rishabha and
Mahodhaya (Oshadhi or Aushadhi) mountains. This mountain had
a thick growth of forest on the southern side where plants with
curative properties were found. These have been described as
“glowing” and “aromatic”. The whole area was suffused with a
pleasant aroma. Valmiki has given importance to the Oshadhi peak
since it was the home of several medicinal plants.
65
OSHADHIPARVATAM
SANJEEVANI
The Ramayana says that during the battle between Ravana’s army and Rama’s
army, Lakshmana was wounded and fell unconscious. As suggested by Ravana’s
medicine man Sushena, Hanuman rushed to the Dronagiri hills and fetched four
plants: Mrita sanjeevani (capable of restoring the dead to life), Vishalyakarani (capable
of extracting weapons and healing all wounds inflicted by weapons), Suvarnakarani
(restoring the body to its original complexion) and Sandhani, the great herb (capable of
joining severed limbs or fractured bone). Hanuman could not identify the particular
plant; therefore, he lifted the entire Dronagiri Mountain and brought it to Lanka.
There are three possible species that can be identified as the Sanjeevani herb:
Cressa cretica (Rudravanti or Rudanti), Selaginella bryopteris (Bhooti Sanjeevini) and
Flickingeria fimbriata (Jeevanti or Jeevaka).
Selaginella Littoral Blind Weed Creeping tick trefoil
66
LANKA EVERGREEN FOREST
67
LANKA
EVERGREEN FOREST
Location : It was situated in the island kingdom of Lanka, now

known as Sri Lanka
Vegetation : It fell under two categories:
❐ The natural evergreen forests. The natural forests comprised mainly

sub-forests. The other features of the natural forests were rock plants,
sufficient water sources and their biodiversity. These may be defined as
the ancillaries to the ecology of these natural forests.
❐ The naturalized forest of Ravana’s botanical gardens (Ashoka vana). The

garden was named after the predominant species, the Ashoka tree.
Creepers and lianas were also abundant. The foothills were covered by
rainforest.
68
LANKA - FLORA
Some of the plants were sarala, karnikara, kharjura, priyala, muculinda, kutaja,
ketaki, priyangu, nipa, saptacchada, asana, kovidara and karavira.
The naturalized forest is best described in the graphic account of the ashoka vana,
named after the principal plant, the ashoka.
❐ There are four varieties of Ashoka of different colours: golden, fiery red,
dark coloured bakula, bhavya,
❐ champaka, sandana, nagakesara, shala and uddalaka are also mentioned,
apart from all types of seasonal fruits and flowers and mango groves.
❐ kalpa vriksha, which is excellent in fragrance. The continuous oozing of
juice is described as entwined with hundreds of creeping plants
❐ The lily forest, which covers the entire water surface
The evergreen Asoka vana might be described as a garden where nature is

portrayed in all its glory.
Asoka Indian Oak
Coastal boodyarta Poison Nut Tree
69
LANKA - FAUNA
Some common species like kokila (Indian koel), mayura (peacock), mriga (roe deer),
cakravaka: rathahva (ruddy shelduck), hamsa (swan), sarasa (Indian crane), duck, cakra
and natyuha were found in this forest.
Peacock Indian Crane
Duck Roe Deer
Ruddy Shelduck Swan
70
Conclusion
The forest ecosystems found in the epic are not uniform. A point to be noted is
that the epic trait of the narrative ecosystem has been maintained throughout. It is
evident, however, that the narrative is not merely the product of the poet’s imagination
but is consistent, strictly of plants and animals that are not far-fetched. In fact, it can
be stated in all honesty that Valmiki’s botanical and cultural information is authentic.
While the point of the narrative was not to give a botanical account, the very fact
that these botanical details have been mentioned incidentally adds to their authenticity.
This is because there is no poetic or flowery language to cover up the existing facts.
Valmiki always gives additional information, clarifies areas of dispute, points out the
plants’ geography and distribution and gives ethnic information of his time. In particular,
his information regarding the existence of three varieties of ashoka plant, namely red,
yellow and blue have led scholars to restudy the Saraca ashoka. Valmiki also frequently
brings out new and now forgotten uses of plants.
The varying plant varieties and the progressive eco zones, from Ayodhya to Sri
Lanka: the forests of Chitrakuta, Dandakaranya, Panchavati, Kishkindha, Lanka and
the Himalayan home of the famed Sanjivani, prove that the epic was written on the
Indian sub-continent. Valmiki was a keen observer with an intimate knowledge of the
vegetation. The accurate descriptions of the eco-zones and the plants found in each
effectively disprove theories that the Ramayana could have been written anywhere else
or that Lanka was situated in any place other than the Emerald Island, with its tropical
evergreen forest.
Besides the description and distribution of plant varieties he has also described
the animal species which are found in the different types of forests. He has also
differentiated the land and aquatic birds and describes them vividly. Thus Valmiki knew
his botany and zoology; in general it may be stated that he was a great biologist.
Although there are several versions of the Ramayana, Valmiki’s text has always
been regarded as the oldest and most authentic. Unlike the Mahabharata, interpolation
is not a problem in the Ramayana. It has been established that Valmiki’s Ramayana is
the product of a single author. Hence, the text may be regarded as a highly reliable
source for the study of that period.
This survey should be an impetus for further research. Have the eco-zones
changed? Have any plants or animals (like the lion) disappeared? Have new species
appeared and, if so, when, from where and how? The authenticity of the flora and fauna
in Valmiki’s Ramayana is a fascinating source for a study of the changing ecology of
Rama’s route from Ayodhya to Sri Lanka between Valmiki’s time and today.
71
Reference
1. Lutgendorf, P., 2001. “City, Forest and Cosmos: Ecological perspectives from the
Sanskrit epics”, Hinduism and Ecology, ed. Christopher Chapple, Key and Tucker,
Mary Evelyn, pp. 276-278, Oxford University Press.
2. Roy, Mira, 2005, “Environment and Ecology in the Ramayana”, Indian Journal of
Historical Sciience, Vol. 40, No. 1, pp. 9 – 29.
3. David Lee, 2001, “The Natural history of Ramayana”, Hinduism and Ecology, ed.
Christopher Chapple, Key and Tucker, Mary Evelyn, pp.260-61, Oxford University
Press.
4. Roy, Mira, 2005, op.cit. pp. 9 – 29.
5. Vyas, S.N., 1967, India in the Ramayana Age, Atmaram and Sons, Delhi.
6. Agrawala, V.S. 1970, Ancient Indian Folk Cults, Prithvi Prakashan, Varanasi.
7. Bhatla, N., T. Mukherjee and G. Singh, 1984, Plants: Traditional worshipping,
Indian Journal of Historical Sciience, Vol.19, No. 1, pp. 37 - 42.
8. Ganeshaiah, K.N., R. Vasudeva and R.Uma Shankar, 2009, “In search of
Sanjeevani”, Current Science, Vol. 97, No.4, Pp.484 – 489.
9. Reena, Antony and Rini Thomas, 2011, “A mini review on medicinal properties of
the resurrecting plant Selaginella bryopteris (Sanjeevani)”, International Journal of
Pharmaceutical & Life Sciences, Vol. 2, No. 7, Pp. 933 – 939.
10. Roy, Mira, 2005, op.cit. pp. 9 – 29.
11. Lutgendorf, P., 2001. op.cit. pp. 276-278.
12. Brockington, J.L., 1984, Righteous Rama, Oxford University Press, New Delhi.
We have used the following versions of the Ramayana:
i. Srimad Valmiki Ramayana, translated and presented by Sri Desiraju Hanumanta

Rao (Bala, Aranya and Kishkindha kanda), and by Sri K.M.K. Murthy (Ayodhya
and Yuddha kanda) with contributions from Durga Naaga Devi and Vaasudeva
Kishore (Sundara kanda) retrieved from http://www.valmikiramayan.net/.
ii. Chandarashekara Aiyar, N., 2013, Valmiki Ramayana, C.P.R. Publications, The
C.P.Ramaswami Aiyar Foundation, Chennai
72
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Plant diversity in the Valmiki Ramayana

Article · September 2013

Plant diversity View project

Ecological Traditions View project

Layout & Cover design : R. Sathyanarayanan

No part of this publication may be reproduced without permission from

C.P.R. Environmental Education Centre

This book is printed on paper made of bagasse, an agricultural waste.

Chennai Dr. M. S. Swaminathan

The Ramayana is a great epic which knows no boundaries of religion or nation.

In February 2013, the C.P. Ramaswamy Aiyar Foundation organized

One of the events at the RAMAYANA FESTIVAL was International Conference

M. Amirthalingam’s presented a paper on “ Plant diversity in Valmiki’s

I would like to acknowledge my indebtedness to Dr. Nanditha Krishna,

Writing on the biodiversity of Valmiki’s Ramayana would have not been

Finally, my sincere thanks to my former classmate and co-author,

Plant Diversity in Valmiki’s Ramayana ......................................13

Animal Diversity in Valmiki’s Ramayana ...................................39

Forest types of India in the Ramayana ......................................49

Chitrakuta Tropical Deciduous Forest ......................................50

Dandaka-Aranya Tropical Deciduous Forest .............................54

Panchavati Tropical Dry Deciduous Forest ................................58

Kishkinda Dry ans Moist Deciduous Forest ..............................62

Oshadhiparvatam Alpine Region Semi Forest ............................66

Lanka Evergreen Forest ............................................................69

In this analysis, an attempt is made to highlight the four major ecosystems,

An amazing fact about the Ramayana is that it is geographically accurate in spite

FOREST TYPES IN THE RAMAYANA

In the Ramayana, the forest in general is described as shanta (calm), madhura

TROPICAL DECIDUOUS FOREST

Rama’s next halt was at Dandaka-aranya where he constructed an ashram. The

TROPICAL DRY DECIDUOUS FOREST

DRY AND MOIST DECIDUOUS FOREST

THE HIMALAYAN ALPINE REGION

EVERGREEN FOREST OF LANKA

No major differences can be distinguished between the tropical deciduous forests

Biodiversity excels in the propagation and acclimatization of various plants

2. Champaka (Champak), sandana (Sandalwood), bakula (Indian medaller), bhavya

4. The lily forest, which covers the entire water surface.

The evergreen ashoka vana might be described as a garden where nature is

EDIBLE AND NON-EDIBLE PLANTS

The Ramayana describes the sleshmaataka (Indian Cherry) vana, a forest of

ECONOMICALLY USEFUL PLANTS

Bharata’s chariot is recognized by a flag with a kovidara (mountain ebony)

CULTURALLY IMPORTANT PLANTS

FLOWERING SEASONS OF THE PLANTS

We have documented a total of 182 plant species in Valmiki’s Ramayana. Out of

1. Abhisutah Soma, Moon Sarcostemma Apocynaceae Creeper 1.14.6

4. Aja Bishop’s-weed Trachyspermum Apiaceae Herb 2.91.67

12. Ashoka Ashoka Saraca asoca Fabaceae Tree 2.10.13;

13. Ashvakarna East Indian Dipterocarpus Diptero- Tree 1.24.15;

15. Atimuktaka Phobi nut-tree Hiptage Malpighiaceae Climber 3.75.24

16. Baan Tall cane, Saccharum munja Poaceae Herb 4.30.56

17. Badari Indian jujube Zizyphus Rhamnaceae Tree

18. Bakula Indian Medallar Mimusops elengi Sapotaceae Tree 3.60.22;

19. Bhallataka Cashew nut Anacardium Anacardiaceae Tree 2.56.7

20. Bandhujiv Copper-cups Pentapetes Malvaceae Herb 4.30.62

21. Barhi Halfa grass Desmostachya Poaceae Herb 2.87.20

22. Bhandir Banyan tree Ficus Moraceae Tree 3.75.24

23. Bhavya Dillenia, Dillenia indica Dilleniaceae Tree 2.94.8

24. Bhurjpatra Himalayan Betula utilis Betulaceae Tree 2.94.24

25. Bibhitak Beach-almon, Terminalia