Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

The formal classroom lecture is usually centralized to the teaching of science and

engineering, supported by tutorial and laboratory classes, and in later years, student

projects. In this environment the opportunities for discussion are often restricted to the

supporting activities and generally have to be student initiated. This can create a number

of problems for both lecturer and students: the lecturer may be unaware that students are

having difficulties, and students are not able to discuss those difficulties.

Laboratories are so vital to an engineering degree that no one could even consider

teaching an engineering course without and accompanying laboratory. Engineering

programs required science and mathematics, but drafting and laboratory fieldwork

remained integral parts of the curriculum.

The Commission on Higher Education (CHED) CMO (Circular Memorandum

Order) 37 Outcomes-based Education (OBE), Series of 2012 and CHED CMO 46 Quality

Assurance, Series of 2012 guidelines, policy and standards were therefore integrated with

CHED CMO 24, Series of 2008, Article III, Section 4, which specifies that the program

should provide practical applications as evidence by laboratory, design, project study,

computer exercises and practicum courses that would help the student to work well whether

1
independently or as part of a group. The main objective of which is to continuously monitor

and improve the education of these future generation.

Many industries bring into commercial business the fabrication of modules. Hytec

Power Incorporation fabricates many learning modules dealing with the different fields of

engineering like electrical, electronics, mechanical and civil engineering, into the area of

electronics engineering. Hytec Power Incorporation constructs trainer module for

interactive multipurpose electronics circuits. Fabricated modules from industrial company

maybe great in terms of functionality and character of presentation but taking into account

the cost of these modules from company and the complexity of operation is not economical

and appropriate for school’s curriculum outline.

Applications of switching theory in engineering practice, which means the

development of switching theory and logic design, dates back to the introduction of

transmission, storage, and processing of information in digital form. Basically the

importance of logic gates is to help us mankind to build a versatile device with the use of

binary number system. In digital electronics, logic circuits and switching theory play an

important role because it serves as a foundation for a certain device such as the

microcontroller. Logic gates are primarily implemented using electronic components

acting as switches.

It will be helpful to future engineering students to improve modern technologies

with minimum error. The same idea was used decades later for the improvement of modern

technologies.

2
 Nowadays, modern technologies play an important role among students to enhance

their knowledge and skills on electronic circuits especially the use of logic circuits through

the introduction of several modules. School is a social agency, which is entrusted with the

task of transmitting the cultural values to the upcoming generation. Curriculum is such a

tool used by the school to achieve these objectives. Constant effort is needed to make this

useful and to evaluate its effectiveness.

The researchers will endeavor to come up with a study that will determine the

effectiveness, adaptability and compatibility of the Logic Circuits and Switching Theory

training module used in their laboratory activities designed previously for the Bachelor of

Science in Electronics Engineering (BSECE) program only. This course is also a core

course in the Bachelor of Science in Computer Engineering (BSCpE) and Bachelor of

Science in Electrical Engineering (BSEE) programs. . It provides the needs of the students

to easily understand the topics because it covers all the topics involved in the said course.

Conceptual Framework

The researchers make use of the three stages known as the IPO (Input-Process-

Output) in discussing the flow of the study. The paradigm of the study has shown in the

figure below.

At the first stage of the diagram, it shows the contents of the study. It consists of

the following requirements according to the course syllabus based from CMO 24, series of

2008; the principles and theories of the course, other components such as testing equipment

and, of course, the laboratory experiments.

3
 In the second stage of the diagram, which was the process, it has the development

stage that has involved different steps and procedures with regards to the development of

the study. It consists of the planning, analysis, circuit designing and simulation, assembly

and construction of the module, beta testing and troubleshooting.

The output of the study was the proposed analysis on the effectiveness,

compatibility, and adaptability of the Logic Circuits and Switching Theory training module

towards the implementation of the new engineering curricula in the post K-12 era. Below

is the paradigm of the study.

4
 INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

Logic Circuits and

Switching Theory
Laboratory Course Development
Syllabus and simulation
Theories and of experiments
Concepts in Logic on the training Logic Circuits and
Circuits and module Switching Theory
Switching Theory Training Module:
Effectiveness
Components and towards Outcomes-
Tools, Software and Analysis of
Based Quality
Testing Equipment simulation Assurance System in
results the Post K-12
Experiments based Engineering
from CHED Curricula
Memorandum Beta Test
Order CMO 24,
Troubleshooting
Series of 2008
Policies, Standards, Acceptability
Test result
and Guidelines for
OBE, CMO 37,
Series of 2012 and
QA, CMO 46, Series
of 2012

Figure 1.1 Paradigm of the study

Statement of the Problem

The purpose of this study is to determine the effectiveness, compatibility, and

adaptability of the Logic Circuits and Switching Theory (LC& SW) training module in the

new engineering curricula. This research aims to achieve the following objectives.

1. What are the data requirements of the training module as to:

5
 a. the experiments of the course LC&SW L based upon CHED CMO 24

series 2008;

b. the theories, concepts, and principles involved in LC&SW;

c. the equipment, test instruments, and materials needed for each

experiment in LC&SW L based upon CMO 24 series 2008;

d. the time allotment for each experiment in a semester basis?

2. What is the scope and sequence of the laboratory manual?

3. What is the extent of accuracy of the laboratory manual based on simulation test?

4. What is the effectiveness of the training module in terms of the quality of content,

potential effectiveness as a teaching-learning tool, and ease of use based on the

guidelines, policies, and standards provisioned in CHED CMO 37, OBE, and

CHED CMO 46, Quality Assurance (QA)?

Significance of the Study

The significance of this study was to set awareness to the management of the

effectiveness of a module for Logic Circuits and Switching Theory and the well-designed

Laboratory Experiment Manual; its weaknesses so that they will know where to make

improvements. After working for its improvements, it may lead them to a greater level of

security and fast increase of modernization. It was very important to have a rich knowledge

based in order to build a strong foundation for the future of this method of education. It

delivered the intervention procedures so that it is provided to builds upon an existing

foundation of professional preparation.

6
 The main beneficiaries were the Electronics Engineering students in Colegio De

Dagupan, subject instructor and also the researchers. This Experiment Manual helped the

instructor especially in teaching logic circuits to disseminate lectures to students, and have

an experiment relating to its contents. It may also serve as a basis to other students to

visualize what the teacher is trying to explain. For the researchers, was that it can enhance

their research capabilities as they conduct an actual study on the project.

Scope and Limitations

The study deals with the course Logic Circuits and Switching Theory. This

Laboratory Experiment Manual covers all the topics discussed regarding the said subject.

It is based on the course syllabus in relation with CHED Memorandum Order or CMO No.

24, series of 2008 that serves as our guide for putting the subject matter content in our

module. The researchers considered that the students must achieve the following

objectives: define and identify important logic switching circuit theories and terminologist,

use Boolean algebra and logic gates, apply minimization technique in designing

combination circuits in solving related problem, and design combinational and/or

sequential digital system or subsystems.

The researchers endeavored to determine the effectiveness, compatibility, and

adaptability of the training modue for LC&SW L. The manual for instructor features

information, operation and proper handling of the module, and also the expected data and

results of the experiments. However, the manual for students features the different steps

and procedures in order to perform the following experiments: diode digital logic gates,

transistor digital logic gates, integrated digital logic gates, flip flop, registers and counters.

7
Definition of Terms

Binary Number System. One of the topic in logic circuits and switching theory. It is a

base 2 number system in the logic circuits that has 2 possible digit values, logic 0

and logic 1.

Boolean Algebra. It is a method to express logic in a mathematical context. Instead of

dealing with numeric quantities as in ordinary algebra, it is used to represent the

truth value of a statement by assigning logic symbols 0 and 1 to two possible truth

values false and true.

Content Requirement. This section consists of the topics required to make a valid module

that deals with the contents of the subject matter.

Development stage. In this stage, it involves the different steps and procedures of the

development of the study itself. It consists of analysis and planning on how to

construct and assemble the module.

Learning Module for Logic Circuits and Switching Theory. It is the finished product

of the study. A well-designed and functional learning module for logic circuits and

switching theory.

Logic Circuits and Switching Theory. It is a subject that tackles the analysis of circuits

that deals with the logic gates that performs a logical operation on one or more

logical inputs. It requires knowledge with basic electronics, number system and

familiarization with the semiconductor components.

8
 Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Switching theory was a theoretical basis for logic design that is a discipline in very

foundations of computer sciences. However, it was closely related to signal processing and

system theory. Switching circuit theory is the mathematical study of the properties of

networks of idealized switches. Such networks may be strictly combinational logic, in

which their output state is only a function of the present state of their inputs; or may also

contain sequential elements, where the present state depends on the present state and past

states; in that sense, sequential circuits are said to include "memory" of past states. The

important class of sequential circuits is state machines. Switching circuit theory is

applicable to the design of telephone systems, computers, and similar systems.

Circuit switching is a methodology of implementing a telecommunications

network in which two network nodes establish a dedicated communications channel

through the network before the nodes may communicate. The defining example of a circuit-

switched network is the early analog telephone network. When a call is made from one

telephone to another, switches within the telephone exchanges create a continuous wire

circuit between the two telephones, for as long as the call lasts. Circuit switching contrasts

with packet switching that divides the data to be transmitted into packets transmitted

through the network independently.

9
 In packet switching, instead of being dedicated to one communication session at a

time, network links are shared by packets from multiple competing communication

sessions, resulting in the loss of the quality of service guarantees that are provided by circuit

switching. In circuit switching, the bit delay is constant during a connection, as opposed to

packet switching, where packet queues may cause varying and potentially indefinitely

long packet transfer delays. No circuit can be degraded by competing users because it is

protected from use by other callers until the circuit is released and a new connection is set

up. Even if no actual communication is taking place, the channel remains reserved and

protected from competing users.

History and Development

The binary number system was refined by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (published in

1705) and he also established that by using the binary system, the principles of arithmetic

and logic could be combined.

In an 1886 letter, Charles Sanders Peirce described how logical operations could

be carried out by electrical switching circuits. Eventually, vacuum tubes replaced relays

for logic operations. Lee De Forest's modification, in 1907, of the Fleming valve can be

used as AND logic gate. Ludwig Wittgenstein introduced a version of the 16-row truth

table as proposition 5.101 of Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (1921). Walther Bothe,

inventor of the coincidence circuit, got part of the 1954 Nobel Prize in physics, for the first

modern electronic AND gate in 1924. Konrad Zuse designed and built electromechanical

logic gates for his computer Z1 (from 1935–38). Claude E. Shannon introduced the use of

10
Boolean algebra in the analysis and design of switching circuits in 1937. Active research

is taking place in molecular logic gates

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switching_circuit_theory)

In the paper A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits of 1938,

Claude Shannon showed that the two-valued Boolean algebra can describe the operation

of switching circuits. The principles of Boolean algebra are applied to switches, providing

mathematical tools for analysis and synthesis of any switching system. Ideal switches are

considered as having only two exclusive states, for example, open or closed. In some

analysis, the state of a switch can be considered to have no influence on the output of the

system and is designated as a "don't care" state. In complex networks it is necessary to also

account for the finite switching time of physical switches; where two or more different

paths in a network may affect the output, these delays may result in a "logic hazard" or

"race condition" where the output state changes due to the different propagation times

through the network.

Diode Digital Logic Gates

Diode logic (DL) or diode resistor logic (DRL) is a logic family that uses only

diodes and the resistors in the implementation of the logic functions. AND and OR

functions can be implemented using the diode logic very easily. The main drawback of the

diode logic family is that it is not complete. The inverter (NOT) function cannot be

implemented using diode logic.

11
 Diode logic gates utilize the properties of a semiconductor diode in forward or

reverse bias conditions. These gates have limited use due to the obvious logic level shift

when gates are connected in series. They can, however, be useful for adding a gate or two

to complex circuitry without adding integrated circuit chips. This type of logic circuit is

rarely found in integrated form.

Transistor Digital Logic Gates

Diode-transistor logic (DTL) gates uses diodes in the input stage and a bipolar

junction transistor as an output stage. The output BJT stitches between its cut-off and

saturation regions to create logic 1 and 0, respectively. DTL circuits are rarely found in

integrated circuits today.

Transistor-transistor logic (TTL) is commonly found in relatively low speed

applications. TTL uses bipolar transistors in the input and output stages. The input diodes

are replaced by a BJT with a multiple-emitter structure and switches between the various

modes of BJT operation.

The logic level shift problem of DL gates is not present in DTL and TTL gates so

that gates may be connected in series indefinitely. If a gate drives several similar gates in

parallel problems may occur: the maximum number of gates that can be driven in parallel

is identified as the "fan-out" of a gate. Various internal configurations of the internal

circuitry of a gate can vary the fan-out of the gate.

12
Integrated Digital Logic Gates

In the Integrated Circuits (IC) inputs and outputs occur as voltage levels. These

voltage levels may be measured by some instruments and depending on the predefined

voltage ranges they are accepted as logic-1 or logic-0. The two digits in the binary system,

1 and 0, are called bits, which is contraction of binary digit.

Electronic digital circuits are also called logic circuits. Logic gates are the basic

building blocks for forming digital electronic circuitry. Some of the basic logic gates are

AND, OR, NOT (Inverter), NAND and NOR Gates.

The AND gate is one of the basic gates from which all functions are constructed. It

is a multi-input circuit that may have two or more than two inputs in which the output is a

logic-1 only if all inputs are logic-1. The output produces a logic-0 signal if any input is

logic-0.

The OR gate is another of the basic gates from which all logic functions are

constructed. It is also a multi-input circuit that may have two or more than two inputs in

which the output is a logic-1 when any of the inputs is a logic-1. Its output becomes logic-

0 if all input signals are logic-0.

The inverter (NOT circuit) performs the operation called inversion or

complementation. The inverter changes one logic level to the opposite level. In terms of

bits, the output is logic-0 when input is logic-1, and the output is logic-1 when the input is

logic-0.

The NAND gate is a popular logic element because it can be used as a universal

gate; that is, NAND gates can be used in combination to perform the AND, OR and inverter

13
operations. The NAND gate is simply AND followed by INVERTER gate. Therefore,

NAND gate produces a logic-0 output only all inputs are logic-1. When any of the inputs

is logic-0, the output will be logic-1.

The NOR gate, like the NAND gate, is a useful logic element because it can also

be used as a universal gate, that is, NOR gates can be used in combination to perform the

AND, OR and inverter operations. Then it is simply OR followed by INVERTER gate.

Flip-flops

A flip-flops o latch is a circuit that has two stable states an can be used to store state

information. A flip-flops is a bi-stable multivibrator. The circuit can made to change state

by signals applied to one or more outputs.

Flip-flops can be divided into common types: The SR (Set-Reset), D (Data or

Delay), T (Toggle) and JK types are the common ones. The behavior of a particular type

can be described by what is termed the characteristic equation.

Registers

Registers are group of flip flops where each flip flops is capable of storing one bit

of information. The basic function of a register is to hold information in a digital system

and make it available to the logic elements for the computing process.

Register are synchronous circuit thus all flip flops are combined to form a register

to store whole data words.

14
Counters

A counter is a sequential circuit that counts, that means it proceeds through a pre-

defined sequence of states where the state of the circuit is determined by the state of all its

flip flops. The most basic counter will simply increment by 1 with every clock pulse, so

after 100 it will go to 101.

Number Systems

Digital logic may work with “1s and 0s”, but it combines them into several different

groupings that form different number systems. The different types of number system are

binary, decimal, octal, hexadecimal and binary coded decimal or BCD.

Binary is a base two system (each bit represents a power of two), digits are 0 and

1. Decimal is a base-10 system in which each digit represents a power of ten. Octal is a

base eight (each digit represents a power of 8), digits are 0-7, and each requires three bits.

Hexadecimal or ‘Hex’ is a base 16 (each digit represents a power of 16), digits are 0 through

9 plus A-B-C-D-E-F representing 10-15. Binary-coded decimal or BCD is a four-bit

number similar to hexadecimal, except that the decimal value of the number is limited to

0-9.

Logic Gates

A logic gate is an idealized or physical device implementing a Boolean function;

that is, it performs a logical operation on one or more logical inputs, and produces a single

15
logical output. There are several logic gates that used in digital circuits. Basic logic gates

are OR Gate, AND Gate and NOT Gate, universal logic gates are NOR Gate and NAND

Gate, other logic gates are Exclusive-OR Gate and Exclusive-NOR Gate. Logic gates are

primarily implemented using diodes or transistors acting as electronic switches, but can

also be constructed using electromagnetic relays (relay logic), fluidic logic, pneumatic

logic, optics, molecules, or even mechanical elements.

Sequential Circuits

Sequential logic circuits have some form of inherent "Memory" built in to them and

they are able to take into account their previous input state as well as those actually present,

a sort of "before" and "after" is involved. They are generally termed as Two State

or Bistable devices which can have their output set in either of two basic states, a logic

level "1" or a logic level "0" and will remain "Latched" indefinitely in this current state or

condition until some other input trigger pulse or signal is applied which will change its

state once again. Sequential Logic circuits can be divided into 3 main categories: First, is

the Clock Driven which is a synchronous circuit that is synchronized to a specific clock

signal. Second is the Event Driven which is an asynchronous circuit that reacts or change

state when an external event occurs. Third is the Pulse Driven which is a combination of

synchronous and asynchronous.

16
Universal Logic Module by James Clark (2003)

Music synthesizer contains more than just the circuits involved in the generation of

sound. In addition to the oscillators, filter, envelope generators and the like, are other

circuits whose job it is to reconfigure the audio chain and to control when and how various

events occur. These circuits are usually logical in nature and are implemented most often

in software, with microprocessor are not used. Instead logical operations are implemented

with collection of small and medium complexity logic gates. And in Nord Modular patches

there are no microprocessor modules to be had, so one is forced to construct logic

processing structures out of the basic logic modules that are available.

The Nord Modular provides only the most basic logic functions - AND, OR, XOR,

and NOT (or Inversion). Fortunately, one can make any Boolean function (logic function)

out of AND gates and NOT gates alone. In this module it shows a "Universal Logic

Module", which can implement any of the 16 different possible Boolean (logical) functions

of 2 inputs. The different logical functions are selected with the two 1-of-4 switches,

according to the desired output.

Logic Circuit Structure with an Introduction to Computer Aided Design (CAD) Tools

This study presents the basic structure of combinational logic circuits, and

introduces the use of computer aided design (CAD) tools in modern circuit design.

Combinational logic circuits use networks of logic gates to produce outputs that change in

strict relation to input changes; that is, an output can only change state immediately after

an input changes state. In a combinational circuit, some input signal changes propagate

17
through the logic gates and interconnections and produce output signal changes, while

some input changes may have no effect on outputs; further, the same input patterns will

always produce the same outputs. In contrast, outputs from a “sequential circuit”, or a

circuit that contains memory devices, can change irrespective of input signal changes, and

the same input patterns applied at different times can produce different outputs. All

combinational circuits can be expressed in two forms: an OR’ing of AND’ed terms, or an

AND’ing of OR’ed terms. Since these general forms, called “Sum of Products” (or SOP)

and “Product of Sums” (or POS), can be used to express any combinational logic

requirement, we will examine them in some detail.

CAD tools are an indispensable design resource used by electrical engineers on a

daily basis. They allow engineers to easily create picture-based or text-based circuit

definitions, perform circuit simulations, and implement circuits in a variety of

technologies. Because CAD tools allow engineers to work with “virtual” circuits before

constructing them, more time can be spent studying different solution methods and circuit

architectures, and less time on building and rebuilding prototypes. Although CAD tools

have been used for generations, they are still being modified and improved on a regular

basis. As technologies and methodologies advance, new tools are being developed to take

advantage of them. It is safe to say that practicing engineers will need to learn and apply

many different CAD tools over their career.

(http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream)

18
Optical Logic Devices

Several research groups have been working for building optical devices. A wide

variety of optical components are required in order to perform every function currently

carried out by electronic circuits. These include polarization splitters, polarization rotators,

TE/TM mode converters, straight and bent wave guides, Semiconductor Optical

Amplifiers, side coupled resonator filters, tunable Fabry Perot filter, isolators, time delay

components, phase shifters. As evidenced by an abundance of literature describing design,

building and operation of the above components, significant progress has been achieved

for future optical domain applications. However, for various reasons, successes in this area

have been limited to special-purpose applications, and the general-purpose optical

computer has been evasive. The major problem with optical transistors, logic gates,

switches, or other nonlinear devices serving similar purposes, is the large amount of heat

that would be generated by the high energy consumption of optical devices. For developing

all optical systems, the ultimate practical devices are required to be small (micron or sub-

micron), fast (ps), low switching energy, operable at room temperatures, and incorporable

into an integrated system. At present no optical device has achieved all of these

requirements.

Most of the research groups have studied logic gates which responds to only one

stimulus namely either electrical or optical signals. Some of these investigations are only

a sort of interpretations for the optical logic. Most of them cannot be cascaded. In this view,

it is thought that there is a need to develop logic gates which can respond to both optical

and electrical signals and cannot be cascaded so that complex hybrid opto-electronic

19
systems can be built. The thought process behind visualizing these hybrid logic gates and

demonstration of these ideas through building logic circuits using discrete components

forms the content of this study. The study aims at explaining the importance of Electro-

Optical hybrid concept and then attempts at how this new branch of hybrid opto-electronics

has to be developed.

20
 Chapter 3

METHODOLOGY

This section presents the methods used in order to search for and examine the

usability of the proposed laboratory experiment manual for the learning module in the

student’s achievement in logic circuits and switching theory as well as to let students for

better understanding and further analysis of the gathered data. Included here are research

design, data gathering procedure and instrumentation and data collection.

Research Design

This research was a descriptive-experimental study on logic circuit and switching

theory wherein it is more concern on descriptive and developmental experimented study.

Knowledge units were also determined as guide for the developers of the content and

presentation of the learning module. Beyond actual design the researcher must account for

the feasibility of the study such as the cost of the project, time, feedback and foresight of

the students, faculty, administration and other individuals of Colegio de Dagupan. It was

substantiated with available textbooks and through the Internet.

Source of Data

The data needed for the study was researched and cited from different sites

which contains electronic books that are highly – related to Logic Circuits and Switching

21
Theory. Also, reliable sources such as technical blogs updated by known engineers

accessed via Internet, magazines, and related articles and literatures are also considered as

sources of data for the study. The School of Engineering also has its own part in

contributing with the sources by the production of the course syllabus and also the past

manuals of the experiments related to the course subject.

The researchers also consulted their adviser for clarifications regarding the data,

agreement and suggestions of ideas that led to the improvement of the study. The research

department of the institution also helped the researchers by guiding them in the process of

the making of the study in terms of the technicalities in paper writing.

Library Research. The researchers have taken enough time to used library

resources to enable information gathering from books, articles, magazines for the study.

Through these mediums, researchers were able to gather on the related information and

also make it as a reference guide for this study. The library also gives opportunity for the

researchers to take notes of the previous studies that helped them construct the format and

structure of this study.

Syllabus. This gives the course outline that determines the scope and the limitations

of the laboratory subject. The course syllabus is based from CHED Memorandum Order,

CMO no. 24 series of 2008.

Brainstorming. The researchers made efforts to find a solution for a specific

problem by gathering a list of ideas. The researchers will be open about the possible

problem that may encounter during the study. Through this, they could formulate a valid

solution to the corresponding problem.

22
 Simulation. It’s a tool to virtually investigate the behavior of the system. A

simulation is an attempt to model a real life or hypothetical situation so that it can be studied

to see the system works. The simulation software used by the researchers in this study is

the Multisim and Tina.

Block Diagram. The researchers tried to simplify their study into a detailed block

diagram. It is typically used for higher level, less detailed description that is intended to

clarify overall concepts.

Instrumentation and Data Collection

This section served as guide for the researcher in the development of the module.

It interprets the construction of the prototype and the components to be used to ensure the

project’s reliability. Thus, it affects the prototype through the results which will be obtained

from the testing.

Internet Access. Internet is the biggest source of information and data. The

researchers had also conducted a research through the internet to gather more information

that can be used in the development of the learning module. It was through this instrument

that the researchers search for related studies and theories that was used in developing this

learning module.

Consultation. The consultation of the researchers to the adviser, dean and other

people who have knowledge about the learning module helped a lot for the possibility of

this study. They advised the researchers on how to make their study more efficient, feasible

and reliable. The adviser helped the researchers with the development of the research

23
problem, which should be clearly defined to the students and adviser. They recommended

published or unpublished references and people in authority for a thorough understanding

of the research. The adviser had also provided the researchers with information necessary

in carrying out the research and guided them throughout the whole research.

Beta Testing. It was pre-determine the actual output to the desired objectives of

the study. It greatly helped the researchers in their decision-making when the prototype

had malfunctioned and to perform the troubleshooting that is needed to achieve the desired

stable outputs of the module.

24
 Data Collection

Analysis of Data

Experiment Design
Troubleshooting

Simulation

Evaluation of results
NO

Was the expected output

Beta Testing and function met?

YES
Conclusion

Laboratory Experiment Manual for theLogic

Circuits and Switching Theory Trainer

Figure 3.1 Methodology Flowchart

25