Sedimentology (1997) 44, 479-506

Hurricane control on shelf-edge-reef architecture around

Grand Cayman
P A U L BL ANCHON* a n d B R I A N JONES
Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton T6G 2E3, Canada
*Present address: Department of Geological Sciences, Indiana University, IN 47405, U S A (E-mail:
blanchonain diana ,ed u )

ABSTRACT
Rimming the outer shelf of Grand Cayman is a submerged, 8 7 km long shelf-edge
reef that rises to within 1 2 m of mean sea level. It consists of an array of
coral-armoured buttresses aligned perpendicular to shore and separated by
steep-sided sediment-floored canyons. Individual buttresses have a diverse
coral-dominated biota and consist of three architectural elements: a shield-like front
wall colonized by platy corals, a dome-shaped crown colonized by head corals, and
a shoreward-projecting spur covered by varying amounts of branching coral.
Buttresses are commonly fronted by coral pinnacles that, in some areas, have
amalgamated with buttress walls to produce pinnacle-and-arch structures.
As margin orientation changes, shelf-edge-reef architecture shows systematic
variations that are consistent with changes in fetch and height of hurricane waves.
Along margins exposed to fully developed storm waves, shelf-edge-reef buttresses
are deep, have large amplitudes, and are dominated by robust head corals. These
characteristics are consistent with hurricane-induced pruning of branching corals
and the flushing of significant quantities of sand from buttress canyons by return
flows. Along margins impacted by fetch-limited storm waves, reef buttresses are
shallower, have intermediate-amplitudes, and have a significantly higher proportion
of branching corals. These characteristics are consistent with less coral pruning and
sand flushing by weaker hurricane waves. Along margins fully protected from storm
waves, the buttresses-canyon architecture of the shelf-edge reef breaks down
producing a series of shallow, undulating, branching-coral-dominated ridges that
merge laterally into an unbroken belt of coral. These characteristics correspond
with negligible amounts of pruning and flushing during hurricanes.
In addition to differences between margins, local intra-marginal changes in
shelf-edge reef architecture are consistent with changes in the angle of
hurricane-wave approach. Open sections of the shelf-edge reef, which face directly
into storm waves, are pruned of branching corals and the fragments swept back
onto the shelf producing extensive spurs. By contrast, on more sheltered, obliquely
orientated sections, storm-waves sweep debris along and off shelf producing little
or no spur development. Instead, the debris shed seawards accumulates in front of
the buttress walls and initiates the development of coral pinnacles.
Over time, repeated buttress pruning and canyon flushing during hurricanes not
only controls reef architecture but may also influence accretion patterns. Vertical
accretion is limited by the effective depth of storm-wave fragmentation. Once
this hurricane-accretion threshold is reached the reef moves into a shedding
( 2997 International Association of Sedimentologists 479
480 P. Blanchon and B. Jones
phase and accretes laterally via pinnacle growth, amalgamation, and infilling.
Consequently, the reef steps out over its own debris in a kind of balancing act
between lateral growth and slope failure - a pattern widely recognized in
ancient reefs.
INTRODUCTION
Ever since early explorers charted them for navi-
gational purposes, the study of modern reefs has
largely concentrated upon those that preferen-
tially develop in the surf zone and form natural
breakwaters. Yet in addition to ‘breakwater reefs’,
several studies have also reported the existence of
a submerged reef type that preferentially develops
along the edge of shelves in deeper, quieter water
(Macintyre, 1967, 1972; Goreau & Goreau, 1973;
Ott, 1975; Rigby & Roberts, 1976; Hubbard et al.,
1976; Morelock et al., 1977; James & Ginsburg,
1979; Burke, 1982; Roberts & Murray, 1983; Hine
& Steinmetz, 1984; Holmes & Kindinger, 1985;
Hubbard et al., 1986; Lidz et al., 1991). For
example, James and Ginsburg (1979) described a
submerged reef ‘ridge’ on the edge of the Belize
shelf rising from z 35-15 m below mean sea level
(rnsl). They noted that the ridge had a diverse
coral cover with ‘. . . a luxuriance that equals that
of the shallow water spurs and grooves . . .’ (James
& Ginsburg, 1979; p. 63), and concluded that it
was not simply a veneer over an antecedent sub-
strate but was a separate structure that preferen-
tially developed along the shelf edge to depths
of 65 m.
Although luxuriant coral growth had been
eported earlier at similar depths (Goreau & Wells,
1967), it was widely considered that significant
reef accretion could not occur in waters deeper
than 15 m due to the relatively slow rates of coral
calcification below this depth (Newel1 & Rigby,
1957; Macintyre, 1972). The discovery of luxuri-
ant submerged reefs in such deep and prohibitive
shelf-edge locations was therefore difficult to
explain. Early attempts centred on the idea that
shelf-edge reefs were either nucleated upon ante-
cedent bedrock ridges (Goreau & Burke, 1966;
Purdy, 1974) or barrier reefs that had established
on shelf edges during glacially lowered sea level
(Macintyre, 1967, 1972; Adey et al., 1977). In both
cases, the reefs were unable to keep pace with
subsequent sea-level rise due to their slow accre-
tion rates, and became stranded in deeper water
where they continued to develop under a lower
wave-stress regime (Roberts et al., 1975). In
essence, shelf-edge reefs were widely considered
to be immature parts of the ‘main’breakwater-reef
4 ) 1997 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedirnentology, 44, 479-506
system that were ‘. . . still striving to reach depths
of optimum growth conditions’ (Macintyre, 1967;
p. 468; Macintyre, 1972; Hubbard, 1988). Subse-
quent drilling showed, however, that shelf-edge
reefs were not simply veneers over relict sub-
strates, but owed much of their relief to rapid
accretion of deep-water corals (Macintyre et al.,
1981). Although some shelf edge reefs nucleated
upon relict breakwater reefs (Adey et al., 1977;
Hubbard et al., 1986) and antecedent topography
(Lidz et al., 1991), others were found that appar-
ently had no such foundation (Macintyre et al.,
1981; Hubbard, 1989; Fairbanks, 1989).
Clearly, the very existence of shelf-edge reefs
with thick cores of deep-water coral demonstrates
that neither relict breakwater reefs, nor anteced-
ent topography, are a prerequisite for submerged
reef development. Therefore the question of what
controls shelf-edge reef architecture and develop-
ment nccds to be reconsidered. Unfortunately,
investigations of shelf-edge reefs have been some-
what parochial and localized in scope. Despite
extensive drilling, there have been no systematic
analyses of their architectural variation or con-
sideration of controlling processes. To address
these deficiencies we focus on a shelf-edge reef
(SER) around Grand Cayman and present the
first complete architectural analysis, document-
ing morphological variation, coral zonation, and
structure around the island. We find that variation
in SER architecture correlates with differences in
fetch and angle of hurricane-wave approach. By
considering hurricane impact on a geological time
scale, we outline a preliminary model of SER
accretion and propose that modern SERs are
actively accreting laterally in a way that appears
similar to many ancient reefs.
SETTING
Climate
Located in the north-west Caribbean Sea between
Jamaica and Cuba, Grand Cayman is a small
(197 km’), low-lying (max. 1 7 m above msl),
riverless island (Fig. 1). It enjoys a subhumid,
tropical, and orographically unmodified ocean
climate that is dominated by moisture-laden air
masses of the North-east Trade-Wind System.
Like many other Caribbean islands subject to this
 Hurricane control on shelf-edge-reef architecture 481

1997 International Association of Sedimentologists,

i') Sedimentology, 44,479-506
482 P. Blanchon and B. Jones
system, its climate is distinctly seasonal (Burton,
1994). During the wet season (May to November),
the island is subject to hot temperatures (averag-
ing 2 29°C) frequent showers (averaging 4-8 mrn
day - I ) , high humidity, and easterly or south-
easterly winds (averaging 4-5 m s '). During the
~ coasts), a moderate energy protected-windward
dry season (December to April), temperatures
fall slightly (averaging 25"C), showers are less
frequent ( < 3 mm day I ) , and winds move to the
~ Each margin type can be further divided accord-
east and north east (averaging 5-6 m s ').
Cyclonic disturbances are common during both
seasons. During the dry season, low-intensity
storms associated with continental cold fronts
approach Grand Cayman from the west to north-
west (known locally as Nor'westers). During the
wet season, more intense storms and hurricanes
approach Grand Cayman from the east or south-
east along one of the two major hurricane
paths that traverse the Caribbean (Hubbard, 1988;
Woodley, 1992).The path crossing Grand Cayman
extends west-north-west from Puerto Rico over
Jamaica towards the Yucatan Peninsula and so
hurricanes almost always approach Grand
Cayman from an easterly direction. Historical
records confirm this easterly approach and show
that 38 hurricanes have affected Grand Cayman
over the last 264 years (Fig. 2). This high fre-
quency indicates that hurricanes are important
agents of change in reef environments and should
therefore be considered as a continuous force over
geological time (Woodley, 1992; Blanchon et a].,
1997).
Oceanography
Its small size and micro-tidal setting mean that
wind waves and large-scale oceanic currents play
the dominant role in water movement around
Grand Cayman. Sheltered from high-latitude
swell by the Greater Antilles, the island's wave
field is a product of the North-east Trades and
swell generated in the east and south-east
Caribbean. Consequently, during fair-weather,
eastern and southern margins receive long-fetch
waves with the highest and most enduring energy
( 2 4 x 10" ergs s - I ) , whereas the northern margin
receives fetch-limited waves of moderate energy
( = 0.9 x l o q ergs s '). Only the western margin is
fully protected from this easterly wave field and
it correspr Tdingly receives the least energy
(=O-O8 x 1 ergs s - ') (Roberts, 1974). During
storms and hurricanes, the wave field has a simi-
lar configuration because of the predominantly
easterly approach of cyclonic systems (Fig. 2).
This means that only the southern and eastern
( 1997 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedmentology, 44,479-506
margins are impacted by fully developed storm
waves due to the greater fetch.
The easterly approach of storm and fair-weather
wave fields results in three margin types: a high
energy exposed-windward margin (east and south
margin (north coast), and a low energy leeward
margin (west coast) (Blanchon & Jones, 1995).
ing to the relationship between local shelf orien-
tation and the angle of wave approach; shelf
sections with an east-facing component are fully
exposed to approaching waves and are therefore
described as open, whereas sections with a west-
facing component are more protected from
approaching waves and are described as sheltered
(Fig. 1).
Superimposed on storm and fair-weather wave
activity are large-scale ocean currents. The main
current affecting Grand Cayman is a west-flowing
tributary of the Caribbean Current that enters
through the Windward Passage between Cuba and
Haiti. By the time it reaches Grand Cayman this
tributary is a moderately strong unidirectional
'
flow that averages 30 cm s - and can be detected
down to ~ 3 0 m 0 (Darbyshire et al., 1976). Fixed,
continuously recording current meters deployed
on the shelf flanking the south-west coast dernon-
strate that it is a tidally enhanced drift with a
coherent but lagged response to wind stress
(Roberts et al., 1975). It has a weak but distinct
periodicity that corresponds to the tidal cycle,
reaching 50 cm s ' in mid cycle and slackening
~
thereafter. Current reversing is generally sup-
pressed except during enhanced biweekly lunar
tides. As the drift current passes around the
island it is deflected up onto the shelf and suffers
a 70% reduction in velocity by the time it reaches
inner parts of the reef-dominated shelf (Roberts
et a]., 1975).
Marine shelf zonation
The marine shelf surrounding Grand Cayman is
usually less than a kilometre wide, and slopes
gradually from shore to the 20 m isobath where it
is abruptly terminated by a vertical wall that
forms the upper-island slope. The narrow shelf is
characterized by two seaward-sloping terraces
separated by a small mid-shelf scarp (Rigby &
Roberts, 1976; Blanchon & Jones, 1995). The
upper terrace, which slopes from 0 to 10 m below
msl, is dominated along the exposed-windward
margin by zones associated with the fringing
reef (Blanchon et al., 1997). Along all other
 Hurricane control on shelf-edge-reef architecture 483
I I I I I l , l l l l i l ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 1 ( 1 1 1 /

~A
0 Storm (wind velocity > 13 m s-')
Q0
2 -50 Hurricane (wind velocity > 32 m s-1)
c
0
-
u Hurricanes with severe sea states (breaching of 5-m-
6 high cliffs at Pedro and Little Pedro Points)
-40
z 00 Direct hits (eye passing within 10 km of G. Cayman)
Q

fc #@
- -30
m
.0.a,
I

5-
3
-20

5
-10 0 8
0 .
C0
0 .
,01 I I I I I I I I I l 1 I I I I I I

Fig. 2. Frequency and tracks of tropical cyclones passing within 80 km of the Cayman Islands. (A) Frequency data
show that hurricane recurrence interval is ~7 years (38 in 264 years). Recurrence of direct hits on Grand Cayman (i.e.
passing within 10 km) is ~ 2 years
0 but times between these range from 1 to 55 years. [Data compiled from Hirst,
1910, Williams, 1970, Clark, 1988, and Burton, 1994: Note, only hurricanes confirmed by at least two of these sources
were used; prior to 1887 only hurricanes are recorded - see Blanchon (1995) for historical accounts]. [B) Tracks of
hurricanes affecting Grand Cayman for the last 1 2 0 years (after Woodley, 1992). Note that 95% of the hurricanes
approach Grand Cayman from the east, generating an easterly wave field (for further information on hurricane tracks
see Blanchon, 1995).

margins, however, fringing reef development sists of a barren bedrock pavement traversed by
is less extensive and the upper terrace con- erosional furrows (Blanchon & Jones, 1995). The
:(,' 1997 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 44, 479-506
484 P. Blanchon and B. ]ones
upper terrace terminates at a mid-shelf scarp
(10-15 m below msl), which is commonly
obscured by active coral growth and sediment
accumulation.
In all areas, the lower terrace, which slopes
from ~ 1 5 - 3 0m below nisl, is a zone of active
coral growth and sediment accumulation associ-
ated with the SER (Blanchon & Jones, 1995).
These deposits are underlain by a bedrock terrace
that slopes seawards from the base of the mid-
shelf scarp to ~ 4 m0 below msl. This buried
terrace-scarp unit, which is the geomorphic
equivalent of the upper terrace and coastal cliff,
formed during a 'slowstand' in the Holocene sea-
level rise between = 10-7.5 ka (Blanchon & Jones,
1995; Blanchon & Shaw, 1995). The lower terrace
is bounded by a sub-vertical escarpment that
extends from the shelf break at 20-50 m, to upper
parts of the island slope at 115-145 m below msl
(Rigby & Roberts, 1976; Messing & Platt, 1987).
METHODS
Grand Cayman is ideal for an analysis of shelf-
edge reef architecture because: (1) its terraced
shelf and environments are representative of
many islands in the Caribbean-Atlantic reef prov-
ince (cf., Land & Moore, 1977; James & Ginsburg,
1979; Grammer & Ginsburg, 1992); (2) the reef is
developed around the full perimeter of the island;
and (3) in most areas, it is accessible from shore.
This allowed us to assemble physical and biologi-
cal data from 16 transects on all sides of the island
(Fig. 3). For each transect, aerial photographs
( 1 : l O 000 and 1:6000) were used to calculate spur
frequency, using the method of Roberts (1974),
and aerial coverage of the SER across the shelf.
Continuous 8-mm-video transects were recorded
vertically over the reef with scuba to a depth of
4 0 m below msl. The video camera, equipped
with a wide-angle lens, was held ~2 m from the
reef surface in order to give a constant frame area
of 2m'. Estimates of coral coverage and form
abundance were made, to the nearest 5%, from a
frame-by-frame analysis of each video transect.
Reef morphology was assessed qualitatively from
video traverses run laterally along the seaward
side of the reef for a distance of = 750 m, and
quantitatively using depth-sounding profile grids
obtained over each site (Blanchon &Jones,1995).
For each grid, depth measurements from profiles
(accurate to within f 0-15m) were averaged for
individual SER features; this was more accurate
than arbitrarily choosing a 'representative' profile.
( 1997 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedmentology, 44, 479-506
The internal structure and foundation of the
SER was investigated using seismic profiles, a
diver-operated sediment drill-probe, and a coring
drill (Jones et d., 1992; Blanchon & Jones, 1995).
Seismic data acquisition was largely from the
leeward and exposed-windward margins (Fig. 3).
In all, 25 cores of a metre or less were obtained
from dead coral substrates on all margins around
the island in water 16-26 m deep (Fig. 3). Corals
in the cores, which are all aragonite with traces of
high Mg calcite, yielded uncorrected radiocarbon
ages of < l o 0 0 years BP with most having I4C
activities sufficiently low that an age of <300
years was assigned.
A R C H I T E C T U R E O F A SHELF-EDGE
REEF
Morphology
Rimming the shelf around Grand Cayman is an
impressive build-up of coral that extends virtu-
ally unbroken along the 8 7 km long perimeter of
the island (Fig. 1).This SER occupies the outer
200 m of the lower terrace and extends over and
down the shelf escarpment to a depth of z 75 m.
Nowhere does the reef reach the surface and, at its
maximum elevation, is still only 1 2 m below msl.
The SER consists of a closely spaced series of
large, coral-armoured buttresses dissected by
steep-sided, sediment-floored canyons (Fig. 4). In
plan, the buttresses are ~ 1 0 m0 long and 10 m
wide and have a wedge shape that tapers shore-
ward. Although their long axes are generally
aligned 90" to the shelf edge, they can deviate
* 20" from this (Roberts, 1974). In profile, the
buttresses have vertical to steeply sloping front
walls that typically rise from 2 4 0 m on the upper
part of the shelf escarpment into waters ~ 2 m0
deep (Fig. 4B). From there, buttresses flatten out
and extend shoreward across the lower-shelf
terrace at an average depth of ~ 2 m.5
Each buttress consists of three architectural
elements; a wall, a crown, and a spur (Fig. 4B).
The wall rises steeply from ~ 4 m0 forming a near
vertical, shield-like escarpment that commonly
overhangs in its upper sections (Fig. 5A). The
sides, and more rarely the backs, of the buttresses
are also bounded by steeply sloping walls. Being
shaded for most of the day, these substrates
generally receive low light. Turbulence is also
reduced at these depths with the only water
movement being related to the westward drift
or more local ebb-tidal currents. In both cases
 Hurricane control on shelf-edge-reef architecture 485

Fig. 3. Transect map, showing location of video profiles, sonar profile grids, selected seismic lines, and shelf-edge-reef
cores. Marine sites and cores are numbered after Natural Resources Unit dive-site mooring installations (see Blanchon,
1995 for coordinates). Where moorings are absent, marine sites and cores are named after prominent land marks.

currents rarely exceed 30 cm s and are usually
<10cm s p l (Roberts et al., 1975; Darbyshire
et al., 1976). The crown, which forms the upper
part of the buttress, is a broad, gently rounded
dome that rises into waters 15-20 m deep. It has a
slightly asymmetrical profile toward its seaward
side, and is delineated from the wall by an abrupt
break in slope. This shallow, well-illuminated
part of the buttress is affected by unidirectional
currents induced by the westward drift and local
ebb-tidal currents. The spur, which starts where
the crown flattens and begins to slope shoreward,
tapers back onto the lower terrace (Fig. 4A). Spur
length ranges from a few metres to the width of
the terrace (150-300 m) and, in general, the longer
the spur the lower its amplitude. Light levels and
turbulence are similar to the crown.
( ' 1997 International Association of Sedimentologists, Srdimrntology, 44, 479-506
Buttresses are separated by narrow canyons that
are commonly floored with skeletal sand- and
cobble-sized sediment (Figs 4C & 5B). These
features, which begin as flat sandy areas between
spurs, narrow and steepen in gradient toward the
shelf edge. Canyon walls are sub-vertical to over-
hanging and commonly converge to produce tun-
nels. Locally, canyons may be blocked by coral
debris that is shed from adjacent buttresses, but
most remain open and extend down to the upper
parts of the shelf-edge escarpment at 40-50 m.
Canyon light-levels, which are controlled by
buttress amplitude and spacing, are generally
low. Turbulence is also low, but currents
( ~ 3 cm
5 s-') can be funnelled into the canyons
as a result of interference between the westward
drift and buttresses (Roberts et al., 1977).
486 P. Blanchon and B. Jones

Fig. 4. General shelf-edge-reef architecture. (A) Aerial photograph showing terraced nature of shelf and extent
of shelf-edge reef (site Sp.B). (B & C) Sonar profiles showing morphology of terraces, architectural elements of
buttresses, and buttress-canyon relations (site N2).

Structure foundation of reef growth on the seaward side is

The position of the SER over the shelf break
means that it is flanked by the gently sloping
lower terrace on one side and the sub-vertical
shelf escarpment on the other. On the lower
terrace, loose skeletal sand accumulates behind
the SER buttresses and builds up reducing the
vertical expression of the reef to only a few metres
(Fig. 6). But this limited relief is misleading
because seismic profiles show that if the sand
were removed the reef's vertical expression
would be some 10-15 m (Fig. 6). Furthermore, the
( 1997 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 44, 479-506
deeper and seems to be associated with a narrow
terrace at 60-70 m (Darbyshire et al., 1976). From
this depth, coral cover rapidly increases and
buttress walls become distinct at ~ 4 m0 in
most areas. The vertical expression of the SER
on its seaward side could therefore be as much
as 40 m.
Although seismic data reveal little about the
internal features of SER buttresses, scuba obser-
vations offer valuable insight. In many areas,
pinnacles of coral rise from the slope just in front
of the buttress wall (Fig. 7 ) . These structures,
 Hurricane control on shelf-edge-reef architecture 487

Fig. 5. General views of shelf-edge reef. [A) View of buttress-canyon array looking shoreward (buttress crown at 18 m
below msl, site N18 =I00 m west of N22). (B) View looking shoreward up a steep, narrow, canyon (site GB in 36 m
of water; M . cavernosa in foreground is 50 cm tall)

founded in waters as deep as 50 m and rising up
to 25 m, are bounded by vertical to overhanging
walls that commonly widen and mushroom out in
their upper sections (Fig. 7C). Where the upper
part of the shelf-edge escarpment is a moderately
inclined slope, pinnacles are located up to 30 m
seaward of the buttresses. Where the slope is
more steeply inclined, however, development
starts closer to the buttress, and pinnacles
commonly amalgamate with the wall or crown to
produce a characteristic arch (Fig. 7C). In some
areas a series of these pinnacle-and-arch struc-
tures are commonly observed one in front of the
other at the base of the buttress.
Biota
The benthic community on the SER, which is the
most diverse of any found in the island’s marine
environments, is largely composed of stony
corals, sponges, soft corals, gorgonians, fleshy
algae, and calcareous algae. Of these, stony corals
dominate and, of the 47 scleractinian species
t 1997 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 44,479-506
identified, 33 are found on the SER alone (Hunter,
1994). Although the SER corals have been
described on the basis of their common associ-
ations (Hunter, 1994), our approach is to classify
them on the basis of form (Fagerstrom, 1987,
1991). This has the advantage of allowing differ-
ent parts of the same reef to be compared in terms
of both physical and ecological processes.
We identified 10 coral forms that fell into three
general form groups (Fig. 8). Estimates of the
percentage cover of each form type, as well as
total percentage of coral cover, show systematic
changes over each buttress (Fig. 9). Although
relations are more difficult to discern when all
forms are plotted (Fig. 9A), the three form groups
are systematically distributed, with walls domi-
nated by platy-forms, crowns by domal forms, and
spurs by branching-forms (Figs 9B & 10). Total
coral coverage for the wall and spur zones is
typically between 30 and 40%, whereas crown
coverage is 60-70% (Fig. 9B). Also, coverage
decreases towards the end of the spurs and to the
base of the wall where it is as low as 20%.
488 P. Blanchon and B. Jones

Fig. 6. Seismic profiles over lower terrace and shelf-edge reef with half-size interpretations. (A & B) Profiles from
leeward margin show thick accumulations of sand trapped behind the shelf-edge reef. (C) Profile from exposed-
windward margin shows less sand behind a spur-dominated shelf-edge reef. Reef and sand deposits in all profiles
overly an intermittent reflector that slopes gently seaward from base of mid-shelf scarp.

Framework cavernosa and Siderastrea siderea. Many of the

under surfaces of these corals are colonized by a
Cores used to investigate the framework character diverse community of epi- and endobionts. The
of the SER come mostly from buttress crowns. epibionts show two distinct associations; one
Although the short length of cores means that consisting of sclerosponges (dominated by
any assessment of framework is superficial, two Ceratoporella sp.), cemented brachiopods, and
types are evident (Fig. 11). In the first framework encrusting foraminifera (Carpentaria sp.),and the
type, domal forms dominate and consist mostly other of coralline algae and encrusting foramin-
of Montastrea annularis with subordinate 111. ifera (Homotrema rubrum). Similar associations
? , 1997 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 44,479-506
 Hurricane control on shelf-edge-reef architecture 489

Fig. 7. Pinnacle development in front of shelf-edge-reef buttresses. (A) Profile of pinnacle in early stages of
development growing at base of wall ( e30 m depth, site N14). (B) Plan view of pinnacle in late stages of development
joining front of buttress crown and still showing original gap ( z1 5 m depth, site N33). (C) Profile of buttress base
shows distinctive pinnacle-and-arch structure formed when pinnacle ‘mushrooms’and amalgamates with wall. Note
that pinnacle toppled into wall at some stage ( ~ 3 m0 depth, site N14).

are found in cryptic and semi-cryptic reef cavities this low density framework are smaller and partly
in shallower reefs elsewhere on the island (Logan, filled by sediment, they still harbour abundant
1981). The second framework type consists of epibionts (Fig. 11).
Acropora cervicornis branches with a matrix of Collectively, the core evidence suggests that,
skeletal sand and gravel. Although the cavities in at least superficially, the buttress crowns have
( 1997 Intc,mational Association of Sedmentologists, S ~ d i r ~ i m f d o g y 479-506
44,
490 P. Blanchon and B. Jones

Fig. 8. Ten common coral forms found on shelf-edge reef with representative species. These forms, which make up
over 95% of coral forms present, are divided into 3 form groups: domes, branches, and plates. Note that several
species, particularly Montastrea, have more than one growth form.

Fig. 9. Coral form zonation and

coral cover across a typical
shelf-edge reef buttress (site N10).
(A) Normalized abundance of forms
from wall to spur (form
abbreviations defined in Fig. 8);
few relations are apparent.
(B) Same plot showing only form
groups. Note distinct zonation with
platy forms dominating wall,
domes dominating crown, and
branches dominating spur. Line
shows variation in coral cover,
with typical high cover over crown,
decreasing down to base of wall
and end of spur.
1997 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 44, 479-506
 Hurricane control on shelf-edge-reef architecture 491

Fig. 10. General views of buttress zones showing form zonation of corals. (A) Shingled and encrusting platy forms
dominate wall (30 m depth, site S31]. (B) Long and short branching forms dominate spur ( x i 5 m depth, site N18).
(C) Low-domal forms dominate crown. Corals up to 1 m in diameter (z20 m depth, site N31).

an open framework with large, cryptic shelter
cavities enclosed by the overgrowth and coales-
cence of either domal or branching corals. Indi-
vidually, the core evidence does not allow us to
draw any conclusions regarding the spatial vari-
ability of framework type because many of the
cores were preferentially taken from dead domal
corals during a mooring installation program.
ARCHITECTURAL VARIATION
Architecture of the SER varies systematically as
margin orientation changes. As a result, distinct
reef styles are found on the exposed-windward,
protected-windward, and leeward margins. This
architectural variation is evident from buttress
depth, amplitude, area, spur frequency, and form
abundance [Figs 1 2 , 13 & 14).
Exposed-windward margin
The SER along the exposed-windward margin
has the deepest buttresses, the largest buttress
,('\ 1997 International Association of Sediinentologists, Sedimentology, 44,479-506
amplitudes, the most extensive aerial coverage,
and the greatest proportion of domal corals than
any other margin (Fig. 15). Buttresses generally
slope from ~ 1 to5 ~ 2 0 m (crown to spur) and
have an average amplitude of 1 2 m , although
some have amplitudes of 30 m or more. Buttress
crowns develop in relatively deep waters averag-
ing 2 2 m and usually have a broad, gently
inclined seaward face (Fig. 14). In open (east
facing) sections of the margin, buttress spurs
have a high frequency (1 spur every 27m), and
cover more than half of the lower terrace [up to
1 7 ha), extending across its full width to merge
with spurs on the upper-terrace. Along sheltered
(west facing) sections of the margin, however,
spur length, frequency, and coverage values are
significantly lower (average spur frequency of 1
every 75 m and coverage of <8 ha).
Coral cover on exposed-windward buttresses is,
on average, slightly higher than on other margins
(Fig. 13). Crowns have the highest cover of all (up
to 95%), and domal forms account for 70-95%
of the forms present. Spurs also have a high
492 P. Blanchon and B. Jones

Fig. 11. Framework character of selected shelf-edge-reef cores. Main type shown is domal-coral-dominated
framework with large open cavities lined with cryptic associations of epi- and endobionts. Other framework types
include branch-dominated framework (e.g. core W5). This type is not as well represented because most cores were
preferentially taken from head corals on buttress crowns during a mooring-installation program. Note, cores W11 and
W56 contain Gorgonian roots/hold-fasts. Identification and dating is presently underway to determine significance of
these features.

( 1997 International Association of Sedirnentologists, Srdimmtology, 44, 479-506

 Hurricane control on shelf-edge-reef architecture 493

Fig. 12. Variation in buttress depth (m below msl), amplitude (m), area (ha), and spur frequency (number in buttress
icons) measured from sonar profiles and aerial photographs over shelf-edge reef. Trend in buttress depth and
amplitude shows distinct architectural styles for each margin (amplitude determined from average crown vs. canyon
depth on sonar). Exposed-windward buttresses are deeper and have larger amplitudes than either protected-
windward or leeward margins. Note covariance between local margin orientation (opedsheltered), buttress area, and
spur frequency along both windward margins. Open sections of reef have large buttress areas and high spur
frequencies (low numbers), but both parameters decrease markedly as margins become more sheltered.

proportion of domal forms although cover is
lower (Fig. 13).
Being bound by vertical, sometimes overhang-
ing, front and side walls, buttresses are separated
by correspondingly deep, narrow, and vertically
sided canyons that plunge from the backs of the
buttresses at z 2 5 m, to the fronts at ~ 4 m, 5 20% on walls and spurs (Fig. 13).
where they open onto the sub-vertical shelf-edge
escarpment (Fig. 14).
Protected-windward margin
Buttresses along the protected-windward margin
typically extend into shallower water, have inter-
mediate amplitudes, moderate spur development,
and upper surfaces are dominated equally by
domal and branching corals (Fig. 16). In general,
they slope gently seawards from z l 4 to z 1 6 m
and only have average amplitudes of z 7 m
(Figs 1 2 & 14). These buttresses typically have
symmetrical dome-shaped crowns that develop
in waters as shallow as 16 m-significantly
shallower than along the exposed-windward
margin (Fig. 14). Along open sections of the mar-
gin, spur frequency is high (1spur every 1 9 m) but
again decreases as the margin becomes sheltered
(1every 90 m; Fig. 1 2 ) .
Protected-windward buttresses have a tripartite
C] 1997 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedirnentology, 44, 479-506
coral-form zonation: platy corals dominate the
walls, domal corals dominate crowns, and
branching corals dominate spurs (Fig. 13). The
coral cover in these form zones, although slightly
lower than other margins (48%), commonly
reaches ~ 9 0 % in crown areas but is as low as
Intervening canyons are typically narrow and
bounded by overhanging buttress walls. With
lower buttress amplitudes, however, canyons are
much shallower than those along the exposed-
windward margin, sloping from ~ 1 to8 z 2 5 m
before terminating abruptly at the shelf break
(Fig. 14). Along open sections, the narrow
canyons are overgrown and commonly roof-over
forming tunnels. In more sheltered locations,
however, canyons tend to remain open.
Leeward margin
Although mostly protected, certain parts of the
leeward margin are exposed to rare moderate
south-west and north-west swell (the latter
especially during Nor’westers). Consequently, the
style of SER architecture is variable. Typically,
however, it is characterized by shallow low-
amplitude buttresses, little spur development,
and a dominance of branching corals (Fig. 1 7 ) .
494 P. Blanchon and B. Jones

Fig. 13. Variation in coral form and cover measured from video transects over shelf-edge-reef buttresses. Several
relations are apparent: walls are invariably dominated by platy corals; branching corals gradually increase in
proportion from leeward, through protected-wind, to exposed-windward margin; crowns on windward margins are
dominated by domal forms. Note, site Sp.B is transitional between leeward and protected-windward margins; its
coral form zonation is typically leeward, whereas its morphology is protected-windward in character (cf., Fig. 14).

Along embayed and fully protected sections of
the leeward margin, the characteristic buttresses-
canyon architecture of the SER breaks down and
buttresses merge into a continuous belt of coral
devoid of canyons. Buttresses in these merged
areas form subtle ridges with an average ampli-
tude of 3-4 m that slope gently seaward from z 14
to z.20 m (Fig. 14). Also, the wall is not vertical,
as on other margins, but forms a moderate 60-70"
slope. This gradually flattens to become a diffuse
crown at depths of 15-20m and then slopes
gently up onto the lower terrace where there is a
sharp junction with the sand deposits of the lower
terrace. Spurs are infrequent (1 every 200 m), but
where present, only extend a limited distance
onto the terrace.
The style of the SER along slightly less shel-
tered parts of the leeward margin is similar to
;X 1997 International Association of Sedinientologists, Sedimentology. 44,479-506
sheltered parts of the protected-windward mar-
gin, and consists of a moderate to low amplitude
buttress-canyon array.
As in other areas, the highest coral cover on
leeward buttresses is over crowns and decreases
down the wall and toward the back of the reef
(Fig. 13). Form zonation, however, differs sig-
nificantly from other areas. The gentle change
in slope from the wall to crown is mimicked by
a gradual change in form types. Also, crown
and spur zones are difficult to differentiate be-
cause both are dominated by branching corals.
Branching forms are even common on the wall
(Fig. 13).
At rare sites, the SER along the leeward margin
is broken by very broad canyons that are aptly
named 'sand chutes' or 'rivers-of-sand' by divers.
These chutes are deep and slope from z 15-40 m.
 Hurricane control on shelf-edge-reef architecture 495

Fig. 14. Selected sonar profiles over shelf and shelf-edge reef showing variation in buttress depth, amplitude, and
morphology. Along-shelf profiles were taken over apex of buttress crowns. Note decrease in buttress amplituc! from
exposed-windward to leeward margin, and 60-70" sloping wall along leeward margin. Also, note variation in .rown
depth and morphology: exposed-windward crowns are deeper and have a gently inclined seaward face.

On either side of the chutes, buttresses have
significant relief with their side walls rising
steeply from 40 to 20 m below msl.
CONTROLS O N SHELF-EDGE-REEF
ARCHITECTURE
The inheritance hypothesis
Although attempts to explain submerged SER
development are few, they have largely centred
around the idea that architecture does not reflect
present-day processes but is an inheritance of
erosional or constructional processes that oper-
ated when sea level was lower. Roberts (1974), for
example, found a correlation between buttress
orientation and properties of the wave field
around Grand Cayman. From this he concluded
that SER architecture was controlled by the
location of drowned spur-and-grooves that devel-
( 1997 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sdmentology, 44, 479-506
oped during the early Holocene (Roberts et a1
1975; p. 249). This idea was essentially based on
Munk and Sargent's (1954) discovery that spur-
and-grooves around Bikini Atoll correlated with
the vectorial properties of trade-wind waves.
Roberts et al. (1975) speculated that similar wave-
controlled spur systems developed around Grand
Cayman and were recolonized by deeper-water
corals during late Holocene sea-level rise
producing a SER with an inherited architecture.
The distribution of wave power and shallow-
water spurs around Grand Cayman are, however,
very different to those of Bikini Atoll. First, unlike
the uniform, high-energy wave field affecting
Bikini, that affecting Grand Cayman is hetero-
geneous and wave power is significantly reduced
by variations in fetch. Second, and more impor-
tantly, spur-and-groove structures around Bikini
are specific surf-zone features associated with the
development of algal ridges - structures that are
496 P. Blanchon and B. Tones

Fig. 15. Schematic summary of shelf-edge-reef architecture along exposed-windward margin. Buttresses are high
amplitude, aerially extensive, and dominated by robust domal corals. Crowns are typically deeper than 2 20 m and
have gently sloping seaward face. Note how spur length diminishes as local margin orientation changes from open
to sheltered

restricted to high-energy wave climates (Geister, Potential of present-day processes

1977; Adey, 1978). These algal-dominated struc-
tures are absent in moderate to low-energy wave
climates like Grand Cayman. Instead they are
replaced by A. palmata-dominated reefs that
develop spur-and-groove only in the most open
locations along the exposed-windward margin
(Blanchon & Jones, 1995). Although it is possible
that exposed-windward buttresses could have
nucleated on relict spur-and-groove, it is highly
unlikely that those along the protected-windward
margin, and parts of the leeward margin, have
such foundations because of the absence of shal-
low spurs or indeed any coral growth on the
upper-terrace in these areas (Blanchon & Jones,
1995). Consequently, the distribution of SER
buttresses around Grand Cayman is inconsistent
with the inheritance hypothesis.
C,: 1997 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 44, 479-506
If relict reef foundations cannot fully account for
SER architecture then an alternative might be that
present-day processes are responsible. Besides
fair-weather waves, which have a minimal affect
on deep parts of the shelf (Roberts et al., 1975),
the only other physical agent with any potential
to affect SERs are hurricanes. Unfortunately,
studies of hurricane impact on SERs are few
(Woodley et al., 1981; Harmelin-Vivien &
Laboute, 1986; Kobluk & Lysenko, 1992; Hubbard,
1992; Blair et al., 1994). Nevertheless, when
combined with hindcast data (Hernandez-Avila
et al., 1977; Kjerfve et al., 1986) and in sifu water
column measurements (Snedden et al., 1988;
Hubbard, 1992), these studies allow a coherent
picture of processes acting on SERs during
hurricanes to be reconstructed.
 Hurricane control on shelf-edge-reef architecture 497

Fig. 16. Schematic summary of shelf-edge-reef architecture along protected-windward margin. Buttresses have
moderate amplitudes, moderate aerial coverage, and are dominated by domal corals on crowns and branching corals
on spurs. Crowns are typically shallower than the exposed-windward margin and form simple mounds. Spur length
diminishes as local margin orientation changes from open to sheltered.

Upon approaching a shallow shelf, hurricane or redistribution of significant quantities of sand

winds cause a build-up of water along the coast,
producing a positive storm surge and generating a
compensatory return current (Swift et a]., 1986).
Across narrow shelves, where there is insufficient
time for the Coriolis force to cause lateral deflec-
tion, return currents flow directly offshore at
velocities of up to 1.5 m s p l (Hubbard, 1992).
These powerful return flows are usually channel-
ized and augmented by storm-wave oscillation
controlled by storm-wave height and frequency
(Nummedal, 1991).Together, the return and oscil-
lation currents produce a combined-flow regime
characterized by unidirectional pulsing currents
(Swift et al., 1986) that can attain velocities of up
to 4 m s - ' at depths of ~ 3 m0 (Kjerfve et al.,
1986; Hubbard, 1992; Blair et al., 1994). The main
impact of such severe combined flows on SERs is
the suspension and mobilization of large volumes
of sediment that accumulates between and behind
SERs. Several studies have reported the removal
( 1997 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedmentology, 44, 479-506
from SER canyons and outer-shelf sand plains at
depths of at least 3 0 m (Kirby-Smith & Ustach,
1986; Hubbard, 1992; Blair et al., 1994). In
addition to the powerful return flows, extreme
turbulence associated with large hurricane waves
can cause extensive fragmentation and pruning of
structurally weak branching and platy corals to
depths of 3 0 m (Hernandkz-Avila et al., 1977;
Randall & Eldredge, 1977; Woodley et al., 1981;
Tunnicliffe, 1983; Kjerfve et al., 1986). Stronger
domal colonies can also be damaged by saltating
projectiles to depths of 23 m (Kobluk & Lysenko,
1992) and show abrasion by sand to 3 0 m
(Kirby-Smith & Ustach, 1986; Hubbard, 1992).
Furthermore, wave turbulence may induce debris
flows from SERs that damage coral growing as
deep as 90 m (Harmelin-Vivien & Laboute, 1986;
Woodley et al., 1981).
Such common reports of sand flushing, coral
pruning and abrasion damage in waters as deep as
498 P. Blanchon a n d B. Tones

Fig. 17. Schematic summary of shelf-edge-reef architecture along leeward margin. Buttresses-canyon architecture
breaks down and buttresses merge laterally producing a belt of branching coral. Buttresses are still discernible as
low-amplitude ridges. Note coral ledges at rr 25 m extending seaward from sloping wall; significance of these features
is unclear (see also seismic profile F116N in Fig. 6).

30 m clearly demonstrate that, over geological
time, hurricanes have the potential to control the
architecture of SERs.
Hurricane-control hypothesis
We propose that SER architecture around Grand
Cayman is fully consistent with the coral pruning
and sand flushing abilities of hurricane-generated
waves and currents. The covariance between
buttress area, spur frequency, and local margin
orientation (Fig. 1 2 ) for example, is consistent
with the angle of hurricane-wave approach. Open
sections of the SER that face directly into oncom-
ing hurricane waves suffer high levels of coral
fragmentation. The pruned fragments are carried
shoreward over the lower terrace by the extreme
waves and accumulate in the lee of the buttresses,
producing detrital spurs that progressively extend
across the terrace following each storm. As a
result, spurs are not only more common and
( I 1997 International Association of
extensive along open sections of each margin, but
their orientations correlate with vectorial proper-
ties of the island’s easterly wave field (Roberts,
1974). The obliquely oriented sheltered sections
of the SER are also pruned by the storm waves but
the detritus is washed off- or along-shelf, thereby
inhibiting spur formation. Only when storm
waves approach from less common directions
will spurs be produced in these areas. This
buttress-shedding process may also be respon-
sible for the formation of pinnacles. Coral blocks
or detritus that are shed in a seaward direction
accumulate at the base of the buttress wall
(Hubbard et al., 1986). Protected from turbulence
and sedimentation, these sites are ideal for coral
colonization and slow vertical accretion between
storms would easily produce pinnacles over time.
Hurricane pruning of fragile corals from
buttress tops is also consistent with form-
zonation patterns (Fig. 13). The dominance of
robust domal corals on the crowns of windward
Sedimentologists,Sedimentology, 44, 479-506
 Hurricane control on shelf-edge-reef architecture
buttresses indicates that these areas are severely
impacted by storm waves and are regularly
pruned of weaker branching forms. Fragments
of these corals are carried shoreward across the
spur and lodge in crevices and cavities. This
pruning and shoreward transport is a vital process
because fragmentation of branching corals, such
as A. cervicornis, facilitates asexual regener-
ation ( e g Gilmore & Hall, 1976; Shinn, 1976;
Tunnicliffe, 1981; Highsmith, 1982). Hence,
pruning and shedding may explain the higher
proportion of branching forms on buttress spurs.
Alternatively, this higher proportion might be
explained by sand suspension during hurricanes.
The large repository of sand on the lower terrace
would create high stress levels over the spurs for
all but the best adapted branching forms (Hubbard
& Pocock, 1972; Tunnicliffe, 1983). Corals on the
crowns, walls, and pinnacles, however, would be
relatively isolated from such stress because sedi-
ment is flushed off-shelf through the canyons and
effectively by-passes these zones. Buttress crowns
and pinnacles are therefore ideal habitats for
rare, sediment-intolerant corals such as Eusmilia
fastigiata and Meandrina meandrites (Hubbard &
Pocock, 1972).
In addition to explaining local architecture, the
varying intensity of hurricane waves and currents
can also explain inter-marginal variations in SER
architecture around the island. Although hurri-
cane wind speed and duration may be consistent
at any location, the changing fetch around the
island produces significant differences in hurri-
cane wave-height. Thus, the exposed-windward
margin receives the highest and most powerful
hurricane waves, the protected-windward margin
receives moderate hurricane waves, and the
leeward margin receives the weakest waves. As a
result, the destructive effect of hurricanes pro-
gressively decreases from the exposed-windward
to the leeward margin. This is consistent with
trends in both coral-form zonation and crown
depth (Figs 1 2 & 13). Coral-form zonation shows a
progressive decrease in the proportion of branch-
ing corals from leeward, to protected-windward,
to exposed-windward margins that reflects a
progressive increase in the efficacy of buttress
pruning by hurricane waves. Greater crown
depths along the exposed-windward margin are
also explained by increased efficacy of pruning:
larger and more powerful storm waves prune
deeper and therefore may limit or stunt vertical
accretion rates.
Larger storm-waves and greater turbulence
along the exposed-windward margin are also
(C) 1997 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 44,479-506
499
more effective at removing sand from around SER
buttresses (Fig. 18). This explains why buttress
amplitude is larger, and the level of the lower
terrace is deeper, along this margin (Blanchon &
Jones, 1995). In contrast, less efficient sand
removal along protected-windward and leeward
margins means that sand builds up behind the
SER, producing smaller-amplitude buttresses and
a shallower, flatter lower terrace (Figs 1 2 & 14).
This build-up of sand also results in decreased
buttress area as less substrate is available for coral
growth (Fig. 12).
CONTROLS O N SHELF-EDGE REEF
DEVELOPMENT
Antecedent or hurricane control on reef
accretion?
Even though our hurricane-control hypothesis is a
compelling explanation of SER architecture, it
clearly requires evidence that SERs have devel-
oped by the accretion of deep-water framework
before it can be substantiated further. Although
core data from Grand Cayman are insufficient to
make that assessment, drilling on SERs around
other islands provide good data on framework
character and accretion patterns. On St. Croix,
for example, cores recovered from exposed-
windward buttresses found 7 m of domal-coral
framework underlain by a drowned 9 ka-old
A. palmata reef (Adey et al., 1977). Hubbard et al.
(1986) found a similar situation in a drowned
river canyon along the protected-windward mar-
gin on the north side of St. Croix. There, horizon-
tal drilling into the buttress wall in 30 m of water
recovered % 6 m of alternating coral detritus and
domal framework, before passing into drowned
A. palmata framework. This detritus-framework
alternation also had enigmatic reversals in radio-
carbon dates perhaps indicating that the reef had
prograded by slumping (Hubbard et d.,1986). At
another protected-windward location, Hubbard
(1989) also drilled several vertical holes on SER
buttresses at depths of 15-18m, and found in
excess of 4 m of domal framework on the buttress
crown (core CB-2) and 2 m on the spur where it
was underlain by coral detritus (core CB-7). Drill-
ing on SERs around other islands, particularly
Barbados and off the Belize Barrier Reef, has
shown similar accretion patterns. Cores recovered
from the southern (exposed-windward) margin of
Barbados showed that the SER consists of 9 m
of domal framework growing over a 7.5 ka-old
A. palmata reef (Fairbanks, 1989). Furthermore,
500 P. Blanchon and B. Jones

Fig. 18. Base of buttress spur showing erosion of sand by Hurricane Gilbert (Sept. 1988). Lines show = 1m difference
between pre-storm and post-storm sand level ( =20 m depth, site S5; courtesy of Phil Bush).

cores recovered from deeper water demonstrate
that during deglaciation, reefs developed with up
to 14 m of deep-water framework (Fairbanks,
1989). Similarly a core from the Belize SER recov-
ered a 12-m thick section of domal and branching
framework but in this case found no underlying
A. palmata reef (Macintyre et al., 1981).
The cores from St. Croix, Barbados, and Belize
demonstrate that most modern SERs are not deep-
0 1997 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology,
water veneers over an antecedent foundation but
independent structures up to 1 2 m thick with
frameworks composed of deep-water corals. The
thickness of these deep-water frameworks is
therefore more than enough to account for the
architectural characteristics of SERs and suggests
that hurricane-control on reef development is a
distinct possibility. Clearly, in Grand Cayman’s
case, the question of whether SER development is
44, 479-506
 Hurricane control on shelf-edge-reef architecture
actually controlled by hurricane-mediated pro-
cesses or by the location of some antecedent
structure needs to be proved by drilling. However,
the very existence of thick SERs that lack ante-
cedent foundations around other islands suggests
that hurricane-control is a viable alternative that
should be explored. Below, we examine this
alternative by integrating architectural data from
Grand Cayman with core data from other SERs to
develop a preliminary process-response model of
SER development.
Hurricane-accretion model
Any model of SER development that infers the
control of contemporary processes must address
three fundamental aspects of reef development:
the processes that control the siting of SERs, those
that initiate and maintain reef architecture,
and those that determine patterns and rates of
accretion.
Processes controlling siting
The fact that SERs initiate and develop on the
edges of shelves, some apparently without the aid
of an antecedent template, clearly requires expla-
nation from a process perspective. One distinct
possibility relates to the deleterious influence of
sedimentation on coral growth (e.g. Hubbard &
Pocock, 1972; Hubbard, 1986). Coral growth pref-
erentially takes place where sediment cannot
accumulate in significant quantity, such as along
steep breaks in slope. This preference for slope
breaks was first demonstrated by Porter (1972) on
Arcuadargana Island, Panama. Line transects on
the shelf between 0 and 30 m displayed a signifi-
cant increase in cover and diversity as slope
breaks were approached. Porter (1972) tentatively
attributed this trend, which he termed the ‘edge
effect’, to the prohibitive effect of sedimentation
on flatter parts of the shelf. This ‘edge effect’ can
also be seen from coral distributions around
Grand Cayman (Blanchon, 1995). In all areas, non
surf-adapted coral growth preferentially develops
over the mid-shelf scarp and the shelf-edge
escarpment. However, growth over the mid-shelf
scarp has a relatively lower cover and diversity
because corals are fronted by the sand-covered
lower terrace. During storms, this sand is sus-
pended by extreme wave activity and causes
stress to all corals growing farther back on the
shelf. Corals that develop along the shelf edge,
however, are isolated from sediment stress
because suspended sand is driven shoreward by
$q 1997 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 44, 479-506
501
storm waves and sand moving seaward as traction
load in return flows is channelled between areas
of coral growth and bypasses the reef. Thus, being
isolated from sedimentation, corals on the shelf
edge experience optimal growth conditions and,
over time, significant SER development can
occur.
Initiating and maintaining architecture
On Grand Cayman, SER development probably
initiated around ~ 7 . ka5 when sea-level rapidly
rose from a depth of ~ 1 to8 ~5 m in little over
a thousand years (Blanchon & Jones, 1995;
Blanchon & Shaw, 1995). During this early stage,
deep-water coral development probably initiated
on many parts of the shelf but only flourished
along the sediment-free shelf edge. During
hurricanes, much of the growth along windward
margins was pruned and swept back onto the
shelf producing debris tails or spurs behind larger
coral heads. Smaller corals growing between
these larger colonies were also scoured by sand in
bottom-hugging return flows and generally did
not survive. Between storms, corals recolonized
all shelf-edge areas but only survived the rigours
of subsequent storms on the newly elevated spurs.
This selective survival of corals not only explains
the initiation of a buttresses-canyon architecture
but is also consistent with its development
along both exposed and protected windward
margins - unlike the inheritance hypothesis.
Processes controlling accretion
In the following 6-5 ka, as sea level stabilized to
within 5 m of its present position, SER develop-
ment continued in deeper-water where coral cal-
cification was slower (rates between 0.5-0.2 cm
year-’; Hubbard et al., 1986). Despite the slower
rates, however, the potential amount of vertical
SER accretion was still somewhere between 32
and 13 m - enough to reach present-day sea level
with relative ease. Even if the deep-water calcifi-
cation rates were halved due to the impact of
bioerosion (Hubbard et d., 1986), some areas of
the SER should still have reached present-day
sea-level in 6.5 ka. The deep position of the
SER around Grand Cayman, and the lack of any
areas even close to present sea level, therefore
indicates that some destructive process other
than bioerosion limited the vertical accretion
of the SER.
We propose that vertical SER accretion around
Grand Cayman was limited by the effective depth
502 P. Blanchon and B. Jones

Fig. 19. Shelf-edge reef accretion model. Reef accretes vertically until hurricane-accretion threshold is reached. At
that point hurricanes remove fragile or weakened corals at same rate as they can be replaced by new coral growth.
Reef then moves into shedding phase and large amounts of coral detritus are supplied to shelf and proximal slope
area. This supply of detritus facilitates lateral accretion by initiating pinnacle growth and providing a substrate
over which reef can prograde. Inset shows juxtaposition of old pinnacle base and young sediments shed from buttress
above.

to which hurricanes pruned fragile and weakened
corals from the tops of buttresses. When buttress
accretion reached a certain depth, hurricanes
removed weakened or fragile corals at the same
rate as they were replaced by new coral growth.
This depth, termed the hurricane accretion
threshold (HAT), is proportional to storm-wave
energy and therefore varies with margin orien-
tation. On the exposed-windward margin, the
HAT is relatively deep and buttresses rarely
developed in waters shallower than % 2 0 m
because powerful hurricane waves pruned deeper
and severely limited or stunted vertical accretion
(Fig. 1 2 ) . On the leeward margin, however, SER
buttresses have a shallow HAT because they are
affected by less frequent, lower-energy storm
waves. Consequently, they accreted to within
1 2 m of msl (Fig. 12).
Once buttresses on different margins reached
their respective HAT, reef development moved
into a ‘shedding phase’ and became dominated by
C) 1997 International
lateral accretion (Fig. 19). This mode of accretion
resulted from the geologically continuous prun-
ing and shedding of detritus from buttress crowns
and spurs. Detritus shed off-shelf and deposited
in front of the wall was colonized by coral during
fair-weather periods, initiating pinnacle develop-
ment. Over time, pinnacles accreted vertically
until either the HAT was reached or the pinnacle
amalgamated with the buttress wall (Fig. 19).
Pinnacles further away from the wall only become
linked when the gap was filled by detritus or coral
growth. Pinnacle growth, amalgamation, and
in-filling therefore produced a characteristic pat-
tern of lateral accretion manifested by pinnacle-
and-arch structures seen on many buttress walls
around Grand Cayman (Fig. 7). These features,
together with the presence of pinnacles in all
stages of development, therefore provide morpho-
logical evidence that the SER around Grand
Cayman has undergone a significant amount of
lateral accretion (Fig. 19).Pinnacle amalgamation
Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 44,479-506
 Hurricane control on shelf-edge-reef architecture
and in-filling also explains the complex patterns
of lateral accretion identified in cores from the
SER around St. Croix (Hubbard et al., 1986):
horizontal alternations of rubble and coral frame-
work represent the alternation between pinnacles
and in-filling detritus. The older coral pinnacles
are surrounded by younger detritus that has been
regularly shed from the adjacent buttress. Thus,
dating of horizontal cores through the reef frame-
work produces alternations of oldlyoung dates
(Fig. 29).
Implications of hurricane-controlled
accretion
Although our hurricane-control model of SER
development remains to be tested by closely
spaced drilling, available core data clearly indi-
cate that modern SERs are neither veneers over
relict topography nor immature reefs ‘. . . still
striving to reach depths of optimum growth con-
ditions’ (Macintyre, 1967; p. 468). Instead, they
show that SERs have deep-water frameworks that
have undergone significant amounts of vertical
and lateral accretion during the last 7 - 5 ka medi-
ated perhaps by hurricane-induced processes.
This pattern of lateral and vertical accretion may
explain the tendency of reefal margins to produce
steep precipitous slopes: SERs step out over their
own debris in a kind of balancing act between
lateral growth and slope failure, and in doing so,
prograde into the basin. This progradation is
reminiscent of the accretion patterns of many
ancient shelf-margin reefs and, judging from the
delicate nature of the metazoans that constructed
these ancient frameworks, it is likely that some
of these reefs may have also been deep-shelf
structures that did not grow into the surf zone
(cf. Wood et al., 1994). Perhaps a reconsideration
of their architecture and development might
reveal that they too accreted laterally under the
influence of storms and hurricanes.
CONCLUSIONS
The shelf-edge reef around Grand Cayman is a
distinct and impressive structure adapted to
deeper-shelf conditions and varying intensities of
hurricane disturbance. Our analysis indicates that
variation in the approach and height of hurricane-
generated waves may have controlled reef
architecture and possibly accretion in four ways:
1 Local coral-form zonation over buttresses is
controlled by differing intensities of hurricane-
0 1997 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 44,479-506
503
induced stress. Crowns are influenced by
turbulent-wave stress favouring coral associations
with robust domal forms, whereas spurs are
influenced more by suspended-sediment stress
favouring associations of branching forms.
2 Local intra-marginal variation in shelf-edge
reef architecture is controlled by the angle of
hurricane-wave approach. Sections of the reef
that face in-coming waves are pruned of weaker
corals and the detritus is swept back over the
shelf producing large buttresses, high spur fre-
quencies, and spur orientations that are coinci-
dent with unrefracted storm-wave trajectories.
Reef sections oblique to in-coming storm waves
are also pruned, but the detritus is swept off-
shelf producing buttresses with limited spur
development.
3 Inter-marginal variation in architectural style is
controlled by varying intensity of buttress prun-
ing and sand flushing during hurricanes. Progres-
sive decrease in the proportion of branching coral
and increase in the depth of buttress crowns from
leeward to protected- to exposed-windward mar-
gins, reflects a progressive increase in the depth
and efficacy of buttress pruning by storm waves.
Progressive increase in buttress amplitude simi-
larly reflects increased efficacy of sand removal
by hurricane-induced basal return currents.
4 Vertical accretion of the shelf-edge reef may
also be limited by the repeated pruning effect of
hurricanes. Once the reef reaches this limit, or
hurricane-accretion threshold, it accretes laterally
as a result of buttress shedding, pinnacle growth,
in-filling, and amalgamation. The probable long-
term effect of hurricanes therefore is to cause
lateral progradation. This style of accretion not
only accounts for the common tendency of car-
bonate margins to produce steep slopes but,
together with its adaptation to deeper-shelf con-
ditions, also makes the shelf-edge reef a useful
analog for ancient reefs with biota too delicate to
be surf-resistant.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study forms part of Blanchon’s PhD thesis
which was financially supported by the Natural
Sciences and Engineering Council of Canada
(grant A6090 to Jones], a Commonwealth Scholar-
ship, and University of Alberta Dissertation
Fellowship. Logistical support was provided by
the Natural Resources Unit of the Cayman Islands
Government. Thanks to David Vousden, Gina
Ebanks-Petrie, Phil Bush, Scott Slaybaugh, Mike
504 P. Blanchon a n d B. Jones
Grundy, Ian Young, and David Kirkaldy for
advice, equipment, and technical support during
underwater fieldwork. Special thanks to dive
partners Scott Cairns, Howard Brekke, Phil Bush,
Mike Grundy, David Kirkaldy, and Ian Young.
Thanks also to Drs Ian Hunter, Richard Evoy, Bob
Luth, Charlie Stelck, Brian Chatterton, J. Nelson,
and especially H.H. Roberts, D. Hopley and D.K.
Hubbard for insightful reviews.
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