31st May 2016

IGCSE HISTORY
DEVELOPMENT OF DICTATORSHIP : GERMANY, 1918-45

1. THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE WEIMAR REPUBLIC AND ITS EARLY

PROBLEMS
A. The German Revolution of 1918

i. Causes of Revolution
 Failure of the First World War and hardships that came with it. In late
1917, Germans still held high hopes of achieving victory in the war. A
Spring Offensive in 1918 was launched by the Germans. It was initially
successful but eventually stalled due to inadequate personnel and
supplies. Germany’s civilian population suffered severe food shortages,
caused by Allied blockade and domestic policies. Food shortages led
to cuts in navy rations which led to a mutiny. In addition to the
hardships suffered, there was a Spanish influenza epidemic throughout
Europe in 1918 which killed many civilians and soldiers. With the
invasion of Germany imminent, its leaders began seeking armistice,
triggering civilian and politic unrest. By November 1918, the war had
cost 2.4 million German lives. The Kiel Mutiny of October 1918
instigated the German Revolution which ended the both the war and
the reign of the Kaiser.
 Influence of Russian Revolution. Russian Revolution of November 1917
had increased pressure for change, particularly within the Communist
groups.

ii. Events of the Revolution

 25 October 1918 – Naval commanders at Kiel sent ships out to fight
British fleet. Sailors mutinied.
 26 October – 5 November 1918 – Kaiser and government did nothing
to stop mutiny. Strikers and demonstrations against the war and the
Kaiser ensued. On the 4 November 1918, 40,000 soldiers joined the
sailors and a Soldiers and Workers Council was set up.
 6 November 1918 – The Soldiers and Workers council took control in
cities. Their main aim was to end the war.
  7 November 1918 – Social Democrats sent an ultimatum to the Kaiser
that unless he abdicates, they would too join the revolution. This was
threatening as the Social Democrats were the most popular party
amongst the workers. Their addition to the revolution would only
increase the intensity of the revolution.
 9 November 1918 – There was a general strike in Berlin. Armed workers
and soldiers joined the streets. Social Democrats were afraid that
extremist parties would gain control of the revolution. Social
Democrats formed a temporary government led by Friedrich Ebert,
who became the new Chancellor. Ebert announced the Kaiser’s
abdication and setting up of the German Republic which they would
run in coalition with other socialist parties.

iii. Effects of the Revolution

 The abdication of the Kaiser and the formation of a new German state
and democratic system, Weimar Republic. The government would
continually suffer from criticism and protest for forcing the Kaiser to
abdicate and agreeing to end the war prematurely.
 The signing of the armistice with allies to end the war. New
government agreed to armistice on 11 November 1918. This meant
that Germany had to surrender all land won in war. Germany had to
surrender its munitions. Germany had to pull troops back 48km from
France. The armistice was unpopular and economic suffering
continued, mainly due to the Allied Naval Blockade of Germany which
continued into June 1919. This caused political turmoil throughout
1918-1919.

B. The Strengths and Weaknesses of The New Constitution

The New Constitution, The Weimar Republic, was drawn up in 1919. The
Weimar Constitution attempted to set up a democratic system where no
individual could gain too much power. The temporary government was
not a long-term solution, so SDP organised elections for a National
Assembly on 19 Jan 1919. The constitution was signed into law by Ebert on
11 August 1919.

i. Strengths of New Constitution

 The Reichstag was set up. The Reichstag represented the whole nation.
They discussed issues such as tax, finance and foreign policies.
Members of the Reichstag was re-elected every four years. All
Germans over 20 years old, male or female, had the right to vote.

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  Proportional Representation was a key element of the Reichstag. This
meant that the number of Reichstag seats which political parties are
given depended on the percentage of votes they gained. The
purpose of this is to set up a democratic system where no individual
can gain too much power. The Chancellor was the head of the
government who chose ministers and ran the country. He would need
the majority of Reichstag votes to pass a single law. The President was
head of state and is re-elected every 7 years, could dismiss the
Reichstag, call for a new election and had control of the army. Power
was also shared between the Chancellor and the President. No single
group or person had all the power. The President shared similar powers
to President of USA which meant that he could protect the Republic in
a crisis.
 The Bill of Rights was set up. This guaranteed every German citizen the
right of freedom of speech, religion and equality under the law.
Cheques and balances introduced into government to make system
fairer. Anyone could form a political party which were all new
freedoms for Germany which was very modern at the time.

ii. Weaknesses of the New Constitution

 Proportional Representation meant that even a party with a small
number of votes would gain seats in the Reichstag, increasing political
instability as there would be a “congestion” of parties in the Reichstag.
This meant that whatever government or party was in power, the
constitution was always weak. Chancellors needed coalition of parties
to gain the support of the majority to pass a law. Parties normally could
not come to an agreement as they shared different aims and
therefore, decision making would require a long time and it becomes
a tedious process. Thus, rendering the new constitution a disorganised
system.
 The system of New Constitution is too fair. Balance of powers in the
constitution meant that government by the Chancellor was very
difficult in times of crisis. Article 48 was introduced when parties could
not come to a compromise. Chancellor will suspend the constitution
under Article 48 and rule by decree. This renders the new democratic
system of the Weimar Republic useless. This meant that the Chancellor
could virtually rule as dictator under Article 48, which was what Hitler
did with the Enabling Act. It is a weakness as Article 48 would later be
used and abused by Hitler to make himself a dictator legally.

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C. Reactions to the Treaty of Versailles

i. Terms of Treaty of Versailles

The Allied victors met at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 to decide
the fate of Germany. The Treaty of Versailles was the result of these
negotiations and was mainly shaped by the French’s desire to punish
Germany.
 War Guilt, Article 231 became known as the “War Guilt Clause” as
Germany was held entirely responsible for starting the war.
 Reparations, Germany had to pay reparation fee of £6600 million.
Germany was also excluded from participating in the League of
Nations.
 Colonies, Germany lost all 11 of its colonies in Africa and the Far East.
They were given as “mandates” for the Allies to look after.
 Military, German army limited to 100,000 soldiers. Navy limited to 6
battleships, 6 cruisers, 12 destroyers and 12 torpedo boats. No
submarines were allowed. No air forces were allowed. Troops in
Rhineland had to be demilitarised. Rhineland would house French
troops for the next 15 years.

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  Land,- Alsace Loraine were returned to France. Germany was
forbidden from uniting with Austria. Danzig was made a free city under
League of Nations. The Saar, land of coalfields was given to France for
15 years. West Prussia, also known as the “The Polish Corridor” was
given to Poland. Germany lost 13% of land in total, 50% of iron reserves
and 15% of coal reserves. 6 million people were lost.

ii. Reaction to Treaty of Versailles (Consequences of ToV)

 German Outrage, Germany was given 15 days to sign the Treaty was
allowed no say in final provisions. The Treaty is known as the “diktat” as
Germany had no choice but to sign. They felt it was unfair as it was an
imposed settlement and Germany herself had not been allowed to
partake in the discussions. This angered many political groups in
Germany. Germans felt “pain and anger” as German land and
people were being stolen. Some Germans now lived in France or
Poland.
 Humiliation, Germany was no longer a strong country to be feared, but
a weak one at the mercy of allies. Germany had a strong military
tradition, so losing their military was very humiliating and caused
Germans to lose their pride. Millions of soldiers were now out of work
and ended up joining the Freikorps. Clause 231 that spoke of War Guilt
did not physically hurt Germany but it hurt Germany’s pride. This
weakened the popularity of the Weimar Republic. Many people
believed the army had not been defeated and could have fought on,
thus, they blamed the Weimar politicians for signing the Treaty which
sealed the fate of Germany.
 Economic Crisis, Germany was already near bankrupt from the war.
The Weimar Government believed that they had almost no chance of
being able to meet the payments. The loss of land from the Treaty
made it even more difficult. Reparation fee that Germany was forced
to pay was a harsher blow as it meant that Germany was unlikely to
recover and become an important country again. The loss of resource
rich lands and high reparation fee that was set led to high inflation
rates in Germany.

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D. The Spartacist uprising and the Kapp Putsch
The Weimar Republic was unpopular from the start as political groups tried
to overthrow it. Political extremists wanted Germany to become a
dictatorship again. Communists (extreme LEFT), believe that everyone
should be equal and no one should individually own anything. Everything
should be shared. They believe that all factories should be own by the
workers who should share profits equally. Fascists (extreme RIGHT) believe
in the “survival of the fittest”. The best people would end up rich as they
deserve what they have because they are naturally better. Weak people
should not be helped because the country requires strong people.

i. Causes
 Right-wing parties. They resented the “November Criminals”; hated
and feared the Communists, wanted to reverse the Treaty of Versailles,
reinstate the Kaiser, boost the army and return Germany to its former
glory. It had the support of the military, judiciary and civil service.
 Left-wing parties. Like the (KPD, Communists), wanted a socialist
revolution like in Russia. They thought that Weimar gave too little power
to the workers, they wanted a government by Soviet councils, wanted
to abolish the land-owning classes and the army.
 Unpopularity of the Weimar Government, Between 1918-1923, German
people hated the Weimar leader’s decision to admit defeat in 1918.
They hated the Treaty of Versailles for its guilt placed on Germany and
hated the hardships caused by unemployment and inflation. Everyone
blamed the government and looked to more extreme methods to
replace it.
 Private armies, many political parties had their own private armies
which caused political activity to become violent. There were 376
political murders between 1919-1923, mostly of left-wing or moderate
politicians. Not a single right-wing murder was convicted, angering the
left wing.

ii. Events of Spartacist Uprising, Kapp Putsch

 Spartacist Uprising, 6 January 1919. 100,000 Communists demonstrated
in Berlin and took over key buildings such as newspaper offices. The
Communists were inspired by the Spartacist League led by Karl
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 Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemberg. Chancellor Ebert and his defence
minister persuaded the 250,000 strong Freikorps (demobilised soldiers
who had refused to surrender their weapons) to put down the
Spartacist uprisings. Thousands of communists were arrested and killed,
mostly in Berlin. Rosa Luxemberg and Karl Liebknecht were arrested on
15 January and were murdered by the Freikorps. The threat from the
left-wing was over.
 Kapp Putsch, March 1920. Elements of the Freikorps and military
supporters of Dr Wolfgang Kapp marched on Berlin to overthrow the
Weimar Republic and bring back the Kaiser. 12th March, they took over
the government quarter of the city. President Ebert and the
government fled to Dresden on 13th March, urging German workers to
not cooperate and to go on strike. Up to 12 million workers responded
and refused to work. The gas, electricity, water and transport all
stopped in Berlin, leaving Berlin completely paralysed. Kapp realised
he could not govern and fled to Sweden.

iii. Consequences, Effects.

 Government popularity and authority was weakened. The government
had not been able to govern on its own authority. It relied on workers’
strikes and the Freikorps to defeat political opponents. In the following
elections on June 6, 1920. The SDP fell by over half compared to the
Jan 1919 elections.
 Extremist Parties gathered strength. The Two uprisings proved that the
government was weak and those who have the most military power
could eventually win. This increased unrest throughout Germany
leading the Munich Putsch in 1923. The Kapp Putsch and Spartacist
uprising exposed the critical weakness of the Weimar government and
highlighted Freikorps as a considerable force of political influence.

E. French Occupation of The Ruhr.

i. Causes
 In January 1923, Germany couldn’t keep up with reparation payments
to France and “defaulted”. German government was bankrupt as its
reserves of gold had all been spent in the war. Treaty of Versailles
made things worse by depriving Germany of resource-rich areas like
coalfields of the Saar and Alsace Loraine. Reparation payments further
harmed the German economy. By 1913, naturally, Germany was
unable to afford reparation payments.

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 ii. Events
 In retaliation for the failure to repay reparations, the French and
Belgians sent 750,000 troops into the German industrial heart, the Ruhr.
They confiscated raw materials, manufactured goods and industrial
machinery. The Ruhr was Germany’s most important industrial area as
it contained over 80% of Germany’s steel production. The French and
Belgian invaded the area on purpose to make up for Germany’s
missed reparation fees. German government urged passive resistance
and workers went on strike. 80% of Germany’s industrial production
was based in the Ruhr, French occupation in the Ruhr crippled
Germany’s industrial output. The disruption increased Germany’s
debts, increased unemployment rates and reduced overall industrial
output.

iii. Effects
 INFLATION. Reduction of workers working in industry meant that there
will be a drop in output. This meant that there will be shortages of
goods in the cities. This increased prices of goods in cities.
Government needed money to pay debts but unemployment and
failing factories meant that they received less money from taxes. The
government decided to print more money in 1923. Printing more
money increased inflation rates. More money was printed which
reduced value of money and prices skyrocketed. A vicious cycle had
been created and hyperinflation ensued. For example, price of bread
rose from 1 mark in 1919 to 100,000 marks in 1923. German marks
became worthless. Foreign suppliers refused to accept marks for
goods, therefore, imports froze and food shortages became
increasingly worse. It was difficult to obtain basic necessities. Workers
had to be paid twice a day so that they could rush out to shops to buy
goods before prices rose even further. Barter system was introduced as
people resorted to trading goods instead of money which sends
Germany in a backwards direction in terms of modernisation. Savings
were wiped out, those with insurance policies, savings, and pensions
were hit the worst as savings became worthless.

F. Causes and Effects of Hyperinflation.

i. Causes
 The French Occupation in the Ruhr meant that Germany’s economy
would suffer. 80% of Germany’s industrial production was carried out in
the Ruhr, Germany’s industrial heart. French and Belgian troops

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 confiscated and essentially took raw materials and manufactured
goods for their own. This drove the workers to urge passive resistance
and to go on strike. This meant that less people were working in
factories which crippled Germany’s industrial output even further. The
combined effects of the French Occupation which caused the passive
resistance caused Germany’s industrial output to dramatically
decrease. The decrease in industrial output caused less goods to
circulate in markets and shortages of food and raw materials would
ensue. Lack of food and materials in the market led to a rapid
increase of prices. This is what is known as inflation.
 Government printed more money to combat the fact that less taxes
were coming through as there were less workers working in factories
and less products being produced. Excess money circulating in the
market caused hyperinflation as value for money turned worthless.
Soon, people stopped using money altogether and reverted into the
barter system.

ii. Effects
 Workers who had few savings were not badly affected. Jobs stayed
mostly secure. However, they lost faith in the government. Middle class
men were the most badly affected. Their savings were made worthless
by hyperinflation. Businessmen could no longer buy goods from
abroad as German money was worthless and people would not
accept them as form of money. They lose faith in the government and
started supporting extremists like the Nazis. Pensioners were badly
affected as well as their pensions and savings were made worthless.
They could no work as they are old, which caused them to literally wait
for death. Rich upper class men were the least affected as they kept
their money in property or overseas. They see the Government as
incompetent. Hatred on Jews as Jews kept their money in foreign
banks, and therefore they are unaffected by the hyperinflation. This
led to the hatred of Jews that Hitler seized on. This helped built unrest
for the Munich Putsch. People blamed the Weimar government for
these problems. Hitler saw this as a chance to manipulate the political
unrest in Germany to launch the Munich Putsch in November 1923.

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2. THE RECOVERY OF GERMANY, 1924 – 1929
A. The Work of Stresemann

i. Gustav Stresemann was made Chancellor of Germany in 1923. He was

one of the ablest politicians in Weimar Republic. He faced several
problems as Germany was on the brink of collapsing, and extremist
groups like the Nazi’s seeing this as a chance to take over. People
were forced to reverse to old ways like the barter system because
money is worthless.

B. Rentenmark (October 1923), Dawes (1924) and Young Plan (1929), US

loans and the recovery of the German economy.

i. Rentenmark (October 1923)

The biggest problem Germany faced in 1923 was hyperinflation
caused by the French occupation in the Ruhr. The introduction of new
currency by Stresemann was an attempt to stabilise the economy. Old
currency was abolished and a new, temporary currency was
introduced. New notes were trusted because the government
promised to exchange them for shares in land or industry if the
currency failed. In August 1924, the Rentenmark was replaced by
permanent currency called the Reichsmark. A new independent
national bank, Reichsbank was created to control the currency.
Confidence in the currency and banking system was restored.
Deposits in German banks rose from 900 million marks in 1924 to 4,900
million marks in 1926.

ii. Dawes Plan (1924)

Reparation payments were set so high that Germany had been
unable to pay in 1923, leading to the French Occupation in the Ruhr.
The Allies needed to be persuaded to reduce payments to a sensible
level. French and Belgian troops who were occupying the Ruhr were
removed. Stresemann and Allies agreed to reduce annual payments
to an affordable level, USA promised to loan $800 million to German
Industry to promote economic growth, French and Belgian troops
were evacuated from the Ruhr as soon as reparation payments begun.
The German economy recovered and received an increase of foreign
investments and loans. Coal ouput rose from 75 million tonnes in 1924
to 300 million tonnes in 1929. Manufactured goods sales doubled in the
years 1923-1929. Unemployment rates fell to its lowest in 1928.
However, the Dawes Plan made Germany reliant and dependent on

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 US economy which would have its setbacks during the Great
Depression in 1929.

iii. Young Plan (1929)

Success in foreign policy eventually led to a success in economic
policy. The Young Plan cut reparation payments from £6.6 billion to £2
billion and an extension of 59 more years to pay. The Young Plan
strengthened the Weimar Republic by easing the burden of reparation
payments. However, Hitler criticized Stresemann for “passing penalty to
the unborn children”.

C. Successes abroad – League of Nations (1926), Locarno Treaties (1925) and

Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928)

i. League of Nations (1926)

Germany was excluded from joining the League of Nations when it
was created by the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. The Locarno Pact
paved the way for Germany’s remittance. Stresemann persuaded the
League to accept Germany as a member in 1926 and Germany even
gained a place on the League’s council. Hitler would eventually leave
the League in 1933. Germany was trusted again and treated as an
equal in world affairs, helping Germany’s ability to gain financial and
diplomatic help from Allied powers.

ii. Locarno Treaty (1925)

Germany was treated unfairly by the Allies and Stresemann needed
some success in international diplomacy to appease German
demands. Germany signed the Locarno agreement with Britain,
France, Italy and Belgium. Germany agreed to keep to its new 1919
border with France and Belgium. In return, the Allies agreed to remove
their troops from the Ruhr and discuss German entry to the League of
Nations. Germany was now treated as an equal in international
standards. The “spirit of Locarno” improved relations in Europe in the
years of 1925-1930, encouraging foreign investments in Germany.

iii. Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928)

Stresemann was keen to prove Germany’s commitment to
international peace or to persuade the Allies to drop the terms of the
Treaty of Versailles as some would speculate. Germany was one of the
65 countries to sign the Kellogg-Briand Pact, an international
agreement by which states promised not to use war to achieve their

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 foreign policy aims. This also showed that Germany had become a
respectable member of the international community which led to the
international community’s willingness to cut reparation fees in the
Young Plan, 1929.

3. THE RISE OF HITLER AND THE NAZIS

A. Hitler and the German Worker’s Party.

i. The German Worker’s Party (DAP) is a Right-Wing group found by

Drexler in 1919. DAP members were angry about : Communists and
Socialists who brought down the Kaiser as they wanted a dictator
regime, Weimar politicians who agreed to the Treaty of Versailles, the
weakness of democracy as a means of government, the Jews who
were blamed for weakening the country (anti-Semitism). Hitler
attended his first meeting in 1919, where there were only 29 members.
Hitler found out the entire party was only funded by 7 marks. Hitler had
been sent to the DAP to spy for the army but later realised that he
agreed with the party. September 1919, Hitler formally joined the DAP.

B. Changes to the party 1920-1922

i. 25 Point Programme
 The main points of the 25 Point Programme is to : scrap the Treaty of
Versailles, expand Germany’s borders to give people Lebensraum
(living space), deprive Jews of rights and citizenship, destroying
communism, to make Germany great again. DAP used force and
violence to achieve this. Hitler’s public speaking skills and confidence
attracted large numbers of people to DAP meetings. Many people
were dissatisfied with the Weimar Republic in 1923. Hitler’s excellent
and convincing oratory skills attracted support from the army, police
and small businesses. As a result, membership skills grew rapidly to 1,100
people in 1920 compared to 23 people in 1919.

ii. The Growth of Hitler’s role in DAP during the 1920s

 In 1920, Hitler changed the name of the party from DAP to NSDAP.
Members of NSDAP was known as Nazis. The party adopted the
swastika as its emblem. Members began to use the arm salute as a
Nazi characteristic. Members of the NSDAP increased to 3,000.
Increased membership boosted party funds which enabled party to
buy newspaper Beobatcher for 180,000 marks. This meant that the

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 party was able to spread propaganda and Nazi views more efficiently.
In 1921, Hitler pushed Drexler aside and became party leader. He
gathered influential and powerful party members such as ; Ernst Rohm
(founder of SA), Goering (leader of SS, hero of Luftwaffe), Rudolf Hess
(Hitler’s deputy) and Julius Streicher (founder of Nazi newspaper, Der
Strumer). He was also close friends with General Ludendorf (leader of
German army in WW1, very respectable).

iii. The Sturmabteilung, (SA)

 They were also known as Stormtroopers or Brown shirts. They were
created in 1921. They were composed of demobilised soldiers from
1919 due to the Treaty of Versailles. They were also the Nazis private
army. They provided security at Nazi meetings, acted as bodyguards
for Nazi leaders, broke up meetings of oppositional groups, spread
Nazi propaganda, gave Nazis appearance of strength and order.

C. Causes, Events and Results of Munich Putsch, 1923.

i. Causes
 Hitler believed that the Weimar Government was crumbling and that
people would support a party like his, taking over. There was heavy
political unrest in 1923 as it was the height of the hyperinflation crisis
affecting the Germans. The French occupation in the Ruhr that caused
it was a source of great anger and shame amongst the Germans.
Hitler exploited this discontent to his own use. By November 1923, Hitler
felt like the NSDAP was strong enough to make a challenge nationally
as membership had grown to 55,000. Hitler sensed that the new
Chancellor, Stresemann would solve the economic problems soon. This
meant that time was running out before unrest died down. If unrest
died down, there would be nothing for Hitler to exploit to gain power.
NSDAP meetings were banned from taking place in 1923. Hitler felt like
he was being controlled and was under pressure to act and assert his
leadership. Hitler believed that he had support of local council in
Bavaria. Gustav Kahr, had been heard plotting against the
Government himself. Hitler believed that he had the support of the
army. An important ex-General, Ludendorff, supported Hitler’s plans. It
was thought that the army would support the Putsch if Ludendorff was
involved as he was very well respected amongst the barracks.

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 ii. Events
 During the crisis of 1923, Hitler plotted with Lossow and Kahr to take
over Munich in revolution. Hitler told the SA to be prepared for a
rebellion. 4 October, Kahr and Lossow called off the revolution which
made it difficult for Hitler as he already mobilised 3,000 troops who
were ready for battle.
 8 November, Hitler and 600 SA burst into a meeting of 3,000 officials of
the Bavarian Government held by Kahr and Lossow in the Beer Hall.
Hitler released a gun shot to the ceiling and announced that he would
be taking control of the Government. He claimed that he would be
taking control of Munich and would march to the German
government. He was supported by famous General Ludendorff. Kahr,
Seisser and Lossow were taken off into a side room where they
relunctantly agreed to support the uprising. Hitler left the hall and
Ludendorff allowed Kahr and his associates to leave which proved ot
be a huge mistake as they changed their minds and now opposed
Hitler. The 2,000 strong SA members were now outnumbered by
Bavarian police and army.
 9 November, Hitler sent 3000 supporters and the SA to capture key
government buildings in Munich such as newspaper offices and army
headquarters. Hitler marched into Munich on what they thought was a
triumphant march to take power. However, they were met with 100
state police soldiers who opened fire on them despite the fact that
Ludendorff was on the Nazi’s side, killing 16 Nazis and injured Hitler and
Goering. Hitler’s insurance plan backfired which eventually led to
Ludendorff’s arrest on the spot and Hitler’s arrest 2 days later.

iii. Effects
 Bad -
Hitler and three other leaders (Rohm, Ludendorff and Dr Wilhelm) stood
trial. Hitler was found guilty of treason and was sentenced to 5 years in
prison. Ludendorff was acquitted and others were released. Nazi Party
was banned until 1925.
 Good -
Hitler used the trial to get national publicity. The failure of the Munich
Putsch brought recognition to Hitler. He was able to further develop
Nazi propaganda. Every word he spoke was reported in national
papers the next day. He turned his trial into a platform of propaganda.
Hitler manipulated the publicity he was receiving to promote Nazi
ideology. As a result of the publicity, the NSDAP won its first seats in the

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 Reichstag, 32 seats in 1924 elections. This was propaganda victory for
the NSDAP.
 Hitler used his time in jail to write Mein Kampf. He formed his political
ideas which became a guide for the party. It focused on the need for
one all-powerful leader to guide the party – the Fuhrer Principle. By
doing so, Hitler realised that direct action would not work and decided
to win power through the ballot box – the Reichstag principle.

iv. Why did the Munich Putsch fail?

 Too much trust on General Ludendorff
Hitler placed too much trust on Ludendorff. He believed that the army
and police would not retaliate against Ludendorff due to respect and
social ranking. However, Ludendorff himself was a disorganised
individual. He was always late to meetings and was never punctual.
Hitler’s insurance plan of using Ludendorff to protect himself and the
NSDAP backfired as state police opened fire despite the fact
Ludendorff was present. In addition to that, the only reason why the SA
was outnumbered by Bavarian police was because Ludendorff
allowed Kahr, Seisser and Lossow to leave the Beerhall.

 Timing
The Munich Putsch took place in November 1923. By 1923, Germany
has recovered slightly from the hyperinflation due to Stresemann’s
efforts as Chancellor. Stresemann introduced a new temporary system
of currency called the Rentenmark in October 1923. The rentenmark
became so successful that it was replaced with a permanent currency
called the Reichsmark. Reichsbanks were created to control the new
currency of Reichsmark. Hitler carried out the Munich Putsch too late
as German discontent died down. By the time of Munich Putsch in
November 1923, political unrest had died down and there would
therefore, be less hatred towards the Weimar Government for Hitler to
exploit.

D. Reorganisation of the Party 1924-1928

i. Administration and Funding

 Hitler left prison in 1924 and re-launched the Nazi Party in February
1925. Hitler re-launched the Nazi Party with a focus of winning power
through elections, not violence. This meant that he needed better
organisation and funding of the Nazi Party. Hitler appointed two
efficient administrators to run Nazi HQ. Hitler also divided party into
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 regions, appointing gauleiters who ran the party in each region. To
fund this, Hitler befriended wealthy businessmen who shared his hatred
of communism. They hoped Hitler could limit the power of trade
unions. By the early 1930s, the party was receiving big donations from
Thyssen, Krupp and Bosch.

ii. SS and SA
 Extra funding was used to strengthen the SA which expanded to
400,000 members by 1930. They were used to provide security at Nazi
meetings, as bodyguards for important Nazi members, break up
meetings of opposition groups, spread Nazi propaganda and to
intimidate opponents. They gave the appearance of strength, order
and unity to the party.
 Hitler also set up the SS (Schutzstaffel) protection squad in 1925 as his
own private bodyguard. He was worried about the SA who were
difficult to control and who swore loyalty to Ernst Rohm, the
commander. The SS was run at first by Schreck but was replaced by
Himmler. They were known for their ruthlessness and black uniform.

iii. Propaganda
 The use of propaganda became important as the party hoped to
increase its share of the vote. Goebbels was the Nazi Party gauleiter for
Berlin and was a brilliant propagandist. He worked with Hitler to
improve the party message. They created scapegoats for Germany’s
problems. The Jews, Communists and leaders of the Weimar Republic
were made scapegoats for Germany’s problems. The SDPs were hit
especially hard as they were the ones who signed the Treaty of
Versailles. Hitler was promoted in propaganda as the voice of the Nazi
Party. By the 1930s, there were 120 Nazi daily or weekly newspapers,
reporting Hitler’s speeches across the whole country. The Nazi Party
also pioneered the use of radio, films and gramophone records to
keep Hitler in the public eye. Hitler was famous, he essentially went on
“tour” speaking up to five times a day in some cases, he uses
aeroplanes to travel from city to city. Propaganda created the image
of strength for the party. It focused on Hitler’s passion, the spectacle of
mass Nazi rallies and the impressive power of the SA and SS.

iv. Progress by 1928

 By 1928, the Nazi Party was well organised and had over 100,000
members. Hitler became the national figure. However, there are some

16
 problems. Since 1923, the economy had recovered, employment
hand increased and inflation had eased. People were better off and
did not want to vote for extremist parties. There were less political
unrest for the Nazi Party to exploit as Germany was going through its
“Golden Age”. Hitler failed to win over working class as they voted for
Communist or left wing parties. People were put off by Nazi’s extreme
views such as hatred of Jews and re-arming Germany became
embarrassing to people in Germany who were doing well. Stresemann
seemed to be regaining status of Germany in the international
community. In 1925, Paul Von Hindenburg, had become president. His
reputation was a boost to the Weimar Republic as he was an ex-field
Marshal of the German Army. This increased votes for moderate parties
such as the SPD. In the elections of May 1928, the Nazis only won 12
seats and were the 9th biggest party.

E. Impact of Wall Street Crash (October 1929)

i. Causes
 In October, share prices began to fall rapidly on the Wall Street stock
exchange. Falling shares meant people’s investments fell in value.
Worried about losing money, people rushed to sell shares before they
fell further. On 24th October 1929, 13 million shares were sold. Panic
selling sent prices even lower. $20,000 in the morning were worth $1000
by the end of the day. Within a week, investors lost $4000 million.
American banks were headed for bankruptcy so they began to recall
all foreign loans.

ii. Consequences in Germany

 Poverty
Germany recalled heavily on American loans. When America recalled
its loans, Germany became poor overnight as she only had 90 days to
repay the Dawes Plan and Young Plan. Farmers quickly slipped into
debt. Farmers were taxed heavily due to increase of global agricultural
rates. 18,000 farmers went bankrupt in the years 1930-1932. Farmers
had to produce more products for less money. Farmers were left
stumped as more money was required to produce more products.
Workers wages reduced by 40%.

17
  Drop in production levels
Banks ran out of cash quickly as people withdrew all their savings. To
make the money back, German banks recalled all their loans to
German businesses. However, German businesses needed the money
to operate. As a result, many German businesses closed which
reduced industrial output. Worldwide depression meant that there was
no market for German exports. Americans stopped buying European
goods in order to encourage domestic goods.

 Mass unemployment rates

High unemployment rates meant that there was no domestic demand
for goods within Germany as productivity decreases, less goods were
produced. The Ruhr declared bankruptcy which meant the laying off
of many workers. In 1928, 650,000 were unemployed. By 1933, 6 million
were unemployed. Unemployed workers further increased welfare bill
for the German governments as they have to afford unemployment
benefits.

18
  Social and Political effects
Closing businesses creates a drop in productivity level which then
creates more unemployment and decreases trade which then results
in government loosing tax revenue. Government appeared powerless
and incompetent. This feeds on the unpopularity of the Weimar
Government especially after the hyperinflation in 1921 that lasted 3
years. Germans are unsatisfied and blamed the Weimar Government.
This weakened the Weimar Government gravely. Chancellor Bruning
responded by raising taxes and reduced unemployment benefits to
make payments more affordable. This meant that people received less
money but are taxed heavily and expected to pay more. This pleased
no one, as right-wing parties opposed higher taxes and left-wing
parties opposed lower benefits. Bruning’s coalition government
collapses and loses his grip which forced him to rule by Presidential
decree (Article 48) to govern. There were 44 decrees in 1931 but 66 in
1932. Decrees undermined confidence in Weimar Republic.
Confidence placed on the Weimar government was lost.

Weakness in German Economy

Wall Street Crash

America Recalled Loans

Decline in world trade

Fall in German businesses and consumer confidence

Less production = less consumption

Businesses close and reduced

Higher unemployment rates, less money flowing in economy

Fall in demand

19
F. Nazis Methods to Win Support

i. May 1928 – Nazis won 12 seats, Communists won 54 seats

September 1930 – Nazis won 107 seats, Communists won 77 seats
July 1932 – Nazis won 230 seats, Communists won 89 seats
November 1932 – Nazis won 196 seats, Communists won 121 seats.

ii. Working Class

Many working people were attracted by Nazi support for traditional
German values and a strong Germany. Nazis promised “Work and
Bread” on posters which appealed economically to the working class.
The Nazis used posters which gave the impression that many workers
already supported them however they never really dominated the
working class vote. When times were hard, most workers supported the
communists.

iii. Middle-class support

Many lost their companies, savings and pensions. Hitler was
immediately seen as a strong leader and were hopeful that Hitler
could revive their businesses. The middle class were afraid of growing
KPD which wanted to abolish private ownership of land and
businesses. The middle class saw the Nazis as a strong party which
could protect them from this. Moral decline after the war under
Weimar Republic that included drinking and sexual openness. The
Nazis represented a return to traditional German values. This went
down well with the middle class.

iv. Farmers
The Farmers supported the Nazis as they were perceived as protection
from the KPD which would have confiscated all land and abolish
private ownership. The Nazi policy of confiscating all private land in the
original 25 point programme was changed in 1928 to a new policy
that said that all private land would only be confiscated to protect
farmers from KPD.

v. Big businesses
Big businesses saw Hitler as their protection from KPD. Their support was
a boost to Nazi funds and networking. The Nazi party was able to get
help from powerful newspaper owners like Alfred Hugenberg to bring
them electoral success.

20
 vi. Youth and Women
The youth were attracted by Hitler’s passionate speeches, ambitions
for the future and atmosphere of Nazi rallies. Women did not support
Hitler at first as his policies limited their role to the home. However, Nazi
propaganda focused on women, saying NSDAP was best for the
country and their families. The youth and women were a captive
audience of the Nazi Party.

G. Goebbels and propaganda and the work of the SA

i. Nazi Propaganda
Propaganda is the “brainwash” of the public, convincing them of an
ideological viewpoint. Most of the propaganda by the Nazis were
directed towards the Jews. Jews were portrayed as Untermenschen
and scapegoats for Germany’s defeat in WW1. Continual of
propaganda encouraged German people to hate Jews. This
encourages anti-Semitism within the Germans.

ii. Methods of Propaganda

The Press
Anti-Nazi newspapers were shut down. Jews were banned from
owning or working for newspapers. Goebbels’ ministry of propaganda
sent out daily instructions telling them what to print and what sort of
pictures to include to be published for general viewing. Display boards
were set up in public places so everyone could read the newspapers.
The Nazi Party themselves purchased a newspaper business in the
1920s which allowed them to publish whatever pro-Nazi view they
liked. In addition to that, the Nazis had influential people like Alfred
Hugenberg who owned newspaper businesses which helped spread
more Nazi propaganda.

Rallies
Goebbels stage managed these events to give an overwhelming
sense of unity amongst the Germans. Germans would automatically
join these rallies as it gives them a sense of belonging. German’s
commitment to the rallies increased as they wanted to be a part of
something big and impressive.

Radio
Goebbels took over radio broadcasting. Regular programs on the
radios were Hitler’s speeches. Foreign programmes cannot be picked

21
 up by the radios. This helped intensify the Nazi ideology as Germans
would not be swayed by outsider opinions. All factory owners,
departmental stores, offices, shops, pubs and flats were made
compulsory to have speakers installed an hour before the broadcast
so that the whole population can participate fully in the broadcast.

Films
Anti-Semitic and pro-Nazi films were produced and showed in
cinemas.

Books
Nazis frequently organised book burnings. They took place in public
places such as town squares or city squares to attract attention of the
masses. They would burn books written by Jews, Communists or
Socialists. They burn any book that contained any ideas that the Nazi
ideology would disprove. This further intensified Nazi ideology on the
Germans as it was the only thing they are surrounded by. Other
opinions or ideologies were annihilated.

22
 H. Events of 1932 to January 1933 including the role of von Papen, von
Schleicher and von Hindenburg.
i. Events
Date Causes
March - Hindenburg’s seven year term
April as President was up. Elections
took place against a
backdrop of turmoil caused
by the Wall Street Crash.
Voters were willing to
consider more extreme
candidates in order to end
unemployment and unrest.
Schleicher persuades
Hindenburg to replace
Bruning because of proposed
land reforms.
May The socialist Chancellor
Bruning used a Presidential
decree to ban the SA & SS in
April to calm unrest. This
angered right-wing parties.
Schleicher decided to
remove Bruning. He
organised a coalition of right-
wing parties and persuaded
Hindenburg that they had a
majority in the Reichstag.
Bruning was sacked and
replaced with von Papen
who Schleicher hoped to
control. Von Papen becomes
Chancellor with no Reichstag
support at all, just because he
was close with Hindeburg.
July The publicity from the
Presidential campaign
combined with a successful
election campaign to give
the Nazis, 230 seats in the
Reichstag, up from 107 in the
September 1930 election. Any
government coalition now
needed Nazi support as they
were the biggest party. This
made Hitler confident
23
1932
Chancellor Elections & Government Significance
Bruning Hitler stood for President and Hilter became a
lost to Hindenburg. In the major political
March elections, Hindenburg figure during the
polled 18 million votes, Hitler elections. People
11 million and Communist were willing to
leader 5 million. As no consider him as
candidate achieved 50% President. He was
(not more than majority) of second only to
the vote, elections were held Hindenburg in the
again in April. This time, public’s eye.
Hindenburg won 19 million,
Hitler 13 million and
Communist leader, 4 million.
von Papen Nazis asked to join For the first time, the
government coalition. Nazi Party was now
Schleicher invited the NSDAP part of the
to join the new right-wing government of
coalition he had formed in Germany. This led
removing Bruning. Schleicher many to view the
needed NSDAP support as Nazis as a credible
they were a big party. He party who could
believed that he could govern sensibly and
control the Nazis, seeing work with others for
them as “merely children the good of
who had to be led by hand”. Germany.
von Papen Reichstag Elections : Nazis Becoming the
now biggest party with 230 largest party in the
seats. Communists won 89 Reichstag brought
seats. This makes the Nazis tremendous power
the largest party but they still to Hitler as it meant
did not have majority of the that the Nazis could
votes due to proportional bring government
representation. Hitler to a halt by refusing
demanded that Hindenburg to cooperate.
replaced von Papen and
announced him as
 enough to demand the
Chancellorship from
Hindenberg.
November The Nazis responded to von Papen
Hindenburg’s refusal by
refusing to cooperate with
von Papen’s government and
walking out of Parliament
during meetings. This left von
Papen’s coalition in
shambles, its biggest party
was refusing to cooperate so
government had no choice
but to grind to a halt,
paralysed.
December 39 business leaders tried to
break the political deadlock
by writing a letter to
Hindenburg, asking him to
appoint Hitler as Chancellor.
They believed that they could
control Hitler as the Nazis
relied on them for donations.
Hindenburg still opposed the
idea and appointed
Schleicher as Chancellor and
Hitler as vice-Chancellor.
January Von Papen had actually
been plotting with Hindeburg
against Schleicher for a while.
With his downfall, von Papen
believed his moment had
returned. He persuaded
Hindenburg to appoint Hitler
as Chancellor and himself as
vice-Chancellor, still thinking
24
Chancellor, seeing as the
Nazis were now the biggest
party. Hindenburg rebuffed
his offer, viewing Hitler as a
“jumped up corporal”.
Reichstag Elections : Nazis Von Papen had lost
still the biggest party with 190 his last gamble –
seats. Communists won 121 Nazis were still the
seats. Von Papen hoped that biggest party in the
if he called fresh elections, Reichstag and
Nazi support would decline would continue
and they would gain less with no
seats in the Reichstag. He cooperation. Von
was wrong, whilst their seats Papen became
did drop to 190, they were powerless to control
still the biggest party. events and
Hindenburg could
not indefinitely
refuse
Chancellorship to
Hitler.
von New Chancellor, von Schleicher’s failure
Schleicher Schleicher as Chancellor was to command the
confident that the Nazi vote majority in the
would drop. However, his Reichstag without
main pronlem was that he Nazi support (190
consistently failed to get a seats) meant that
majority coalition to work in he was always
the Reichstag. In doomed to be a
desperation, Schleicher powerless leader.
pleaded Hindenburg to With his downfall,
suspend the constitution and the only remaining
declare Schleicher as head popular and
of military dictatorship. credible leader was
Hindenburg refused. News of Hitler. Hindenburg
this leaked out ad Schleicher could no longer
lost remaining support in the hold out.
Reichstag.
1932
Hitler New Chancellor. 30th January Appointing Hitler as
1933, Hitler was legally and Chancellor just
democratically appointed proved how naïve
Chancellor of Germany. the German right-
wing was. They
underestimated
Hitler due to his ex-
corporal past and
lack of government
that Hitler could be expertise. Hitler’s
controlled. Hindenburg power was still
relunctantly agreed. limited as
Chancellor but he
was now in a
position to
manipulate events
to his own
advantage.

ii. Roles of von Papen, Schleicher and Hindeburg

 Bruning
Chancellor 1930-1932, He failed to deal with unemployment and
made Weimar Government look incompetent. This in turn helped
Hitler’s popularity as political unrest increased while Hitler was offering
protection from the KPD and promises like “Work and Bread” to
appeal to Germans. He was replaced by von Papen because
Schleicher persuaded Hindenburg. He increased taxes to and
reduced unemployment benefits to make payments more affordable.
Right wing parties are angered by the increase in taxes while the left
wing are angered by the reduction in unemployment benefits. This
collapses the coalition government in Weimar and Bruning was forced
to rule by decree, Article 48 as a sign of weakness. Ruling by decree
undermines the confidence people have for the government. There
was 44 decrees in 1931 but 66 decrees in 1932.

 Von Papen
Chancellor July 1932-November 1932. He failed to deal with
unemployment but also failed to control the Nazis. Von Papen was
initially installed as Chancellor so that Schleicher could control him like
a puppet from behind the scenes. Von Papen became Chancellor
with no Reichstag support at all. He only became Chancellor because
of his relation to Hindenburg.

 Schleicher
Power crazy and failed to solve unemployment or control the Nazis.
Pissed off von Papen who plotted to get rid of him. He could not get
the coalition government to cooperate which complicated matters.
He then persuaded Hindenburg to suspend the constitution and
declared military dictatorship. News of this leaked out and Schleicher
immediately lost all Reichstag support.

25
  Hindenburg
Wanted anyone but Hitler to be Chancellor. When these governments
failed as well, Hindenburg finally listens to von Papen’s advise to
appoint Hitler as Chancellor and von Papen as vice-Chancellor to
control Nazi activity. The Nazi Party was the largest party but did not
have the majority due to proportional representation. Von Papen
thinks that, therefore, the majority of the government were non-Nazi
since the NSDAP did not have majority of the votes, that Nazi actions
could be limited and/or prevented. Since the NSDAP were popular
amongst the Germans, the Weimar constitution assumed that they
could manipulate the NSDAP’s popularity to reinstate confidence and
support for the Weimar Government.

4. LIFE IN NAZI GERMANY

A. Setting up the Nazi dictatorship through the Reichstag Fire, Enabling Act,
Night of the Long Knives, the police state, censorship and propaganda.

i. Reichstag Fire (27th Feb 1933)

 Whilst Hitler was Chancellor, he was still operating in a democratic
system. He needed a way to persuade Hindenburg to give him more
power. On the 27th February 1933, the Reichstag building was suddenly
destroyed with a fire. A young Dutch communist, van der Lubbe was
caught on sight, red handed with explosives and matches. He
confessed, was put on trial and found guilty which he was beheaded
for. Hitler used the confusion and unease generated by the fire to
consolidate power. Hitler manipulated the Reichstag Fire to eliminate
his opponents by instructing the SA to round up communists. 4,000
communists were caught that night. Hitler persuaded Hindenburg to
declare a state of emergency and to pass the “Law for the Protection
of People and State” which ended freedom of speech, association
and press. Hitler could now legally use decrees to govern Germany
and supress opposition groups which helped him eliminate the
communists as he could put the Communists in indefinite custody.

ii. March Elections (5th March 1933)

 Hitler hoped to gain more seats in the Reichstag and his strong
handling of the “communist conspiracy” boosted his popularity. Now it
was the time to capitalise on that support. The general election was
the Germans giving Hitler the clear instruction to rule. Hitler used his
new powers of able to govern by decrees legally and the law for

26
 protection to supress opposition. This prevented publication of
opposition newspapers and opposition groups from spreading
propaganda. However, only 44% of people voted for the Nazis,
securing 288 seats whilst the Communists secured 81 seats. This meant
that the NSDAP was the largest party but did not have the support of
the majority. Hitler used the SA to round up and arrest communist
deputies which then gave Hitler the majority. Goering quotes the
elections to be a “masterpiece of propaganda”.

iii. The Enabling Act (24th March 1933)

 Hitler has consolidated and centralised enough power to change the
constitution. He required 75% of the Reichstag to vote in favour of the
Act. The Act changed the constitution of the Weimar Republic as it
enabled Hitler to avoid and bypass the Reichstag in passing laws. Hitler
required the majority of Reichstag support to pass a law that allows
him to bypass the Reichstag in passing future laws. The Enabling Act
was passed on 24th March 1933 by 444 votes to 94 votes. Communist
members were banned and not allowed to attend the session. Hitler
posted members of the SA and SS threaten and intimidated into voting
for the Act. This marked the end of Democracy and the end of Weimar
Republic. Effectively, the Enabling Act gave him dictatorial powers as
he is able to pass any law at any time making Germany a totalitarian
state.

iv. Capture of Local Government (26th April 1933), Banning of Trade

Unions (2nd May 1933) and Banning of Political Parties (14th July 1933)
^ Effects of the Enabling Act ^
 As a result of the Enabling Act, 26th April 1933, Nazi’s took over local
government and the police. Nazis replaced anti-Nazi teachers and
University professors to indoctrinate youths in schools to be loyal Nazis.
Hitler set up the gestapo to report opponents and “grumblers”. Tens of
thousands of Jews, Communists, Protestants, Jehovah’s Witnesses,
Gypsies, Homosexuals, Alcoholics and Prostitutes were arrested and
sent to concentration camps for trivial “crimes” like saying business was
bad or making anti-Nazi jokes. Everything was brought under tighter
control.

 As a result of the Enabling Act, Hitler immediately used his powers to

pass lows which turned Germany into a totalitarian state. To stop the
threat of a nationwide strike, on 2nd May 1933, Hitler banned trade

27
 unions and made strikes illegal. Money was confiscated and leaders
were put into prison. The trade unions were replaced with the German
Labour Front which reduced worker’s pay and revoked the right to
strike which renders the working class harmless as they are unable to
retaliate. The abolishment of the Trade Unions helped the Nazis
eliminate opponents as the working class supported the Communists.
 As a result of the Enabling Act, on 14th July 1933, Hitler issued the “Law
against the Establishment of Parties” which single-handedly removed
all opposition and declared that NSDAP as the only legal party. All
other parties were banned and their leaders were put in prison. It was
this day that Germany became a one party state.

v. The Night of Long Knives (30th June 1934)

 The SA were people Hitler turned to and used to help him consolidate
and centralise power. Hitler feared Rohm as he opposed Hitler’s
policies particularly his links to big businesses as he was more left-wing
(a socialist). Hitler was afraid of a Socialist revolution. On 30th June 1934,
Hitler arranged for Rohm and other seniors of the SA, to be arrested,
imprisoned and shot. Rohm was taken jail. 1st July, Rohm and 6 other
SA leaders were shot to death. Over 4 days, 400 people including 150
senior members of the SA were shot. The Night of the Long Knives
proved Hitler was now acting illegally by murdering his rivals for power.
He claimed to be doing this in the interest of Germany. Germans
objected to violence but were grateful that the SA, hated for their
brutality, had been restrained. SA continued after 1934, but was limited
to giving muscle to the Nazi Party and was now firmly under Hitler’s
control.

vi. Death of Hindenburg (2nd August 1934)

 The only opposition left in Hitler lied in the President Hindenburg. On the
2nd August 1934, President Hindenburg died, aged 87. Hitler moved in
to take over supreme power. He declared himself Germany’s Fuhrer,
took all of the president’s power and forced on oath of loyalty to him
from every soldier in the Army. A plebiscite was organised to confirm
and add legitimacy to his role of Fuhrer. Bombarded by pro-Nazi
propaganda, 90% of votes decided in his favour. Hitler now had
supreme power. The Third Reich had begun.

28
vii. Nazi Police State 1933-1945
 The SS, military group set up in 1925 as personal bodyguards for Hitler.
From 1929, it was run by Himmler. Main role was as the Nazis private
police force. They were totally loyal to Hitler. Hitler used the SS officers
to murder SA officers in the Night of The Long Knives. During 1930s, the
SS expanded to over 50,000 men and were in charge of all other state
security services. Another of the SS was to carry out Nazi policy of
racial purification. The SS ran concentration camps, SS members had
to be “racially pure” and could only marry “racially pure” wives. The SS
was a significant organisation as it helped Nazi control the SA and
served regular army. SS officers were often the most ideologically
fanatical Nazis and would carry out Hitler’s orders without hesitation. It
was the loyalty of the SS that enabled Hitler to efficiently carry out the
Final Solution.

 The Gestapo was Hitler’s non-uniformed secret police. Set up in 1933,

by Goering, and placed under the control of the SS in 1936. Gestapo
was led by Heydrich. They arrested people who acted againt or spoke
out against the Nazi ideology. Offenders were imprisoned without trial.
By 1939, 150,000 people were “under protective arrest” in prison and
few would ever see release. The Gestapo used various methods to
monitor the population such as phone tapping, spying and the use of
informers. The Gestapo was a significant element of the Nazi Police
State as the Gestapo could act outside the law and was only
responsible to its commanders and Hitler. The Gestapo consolidated
control of German society through fear and worked to eliminate any
opposition to Hitler.

 Prison camps or concentration camps was first opened in Dachau,

1933. Camps were located in isolated areas outside the city, outskirts,
away from public. They were controlled by SS. At first, most inmates
were political prisoners and “undesirables” like prostitutes and minority
groups, such as Jews and Gypsies. From 1938, the SS used camp
inmates as slave labour for business enterprises. By 1939, there were 6
camps holding 20,000 people. After 1939, their size grew in numbers
and were used for the mass murder of minority groups. The use of
concentration camps was significant as it boosted German economy
during the war. It was efficient, but morally reprehensible, way for Hitler
to deal with opposition and his control on society – undesirables were

29
 simply sent to camps and never seen again, often murdered or
worked to death.

 The Law Courts, “the National Socialist League for the Maintenance of
the Law” were set up by Hitler to take control of judiciary. All judges
had to be members. It enabled the Nazis to monitor the decisions of
judges, to ensure they followed Nazi Party priorities. Hitler also gave
judges the freedom to punish people even if they had not broken the
law. Secondly, Hitler set up a new “People’s Court”, to hear all treason
cases – offenses against the state. Judges were hand-picked for
loyalty and Hitler would intervene in cases. The Law Courts were
significant because it meant that Hitler has control of all elements in
the judiciary system. The Judiciary system now had to follow Nazi party
priorities and judgements. It also strengthened their control of society
by punishing people for their non-Nazi political views.

viii. Censorship and Propaganda (1933-1945)

Censorship was used to restrict and ban information whilst
propaganda was used to publicise information. Joseph Goebbels was
in charge of Nazi propaganda and was appointed Reich Minister of
Public Enlightenment and Propaganda on 13th March 1933. His role
was to centralise Nazi control over all aspects of German culture and
intellectual life. This was called the Gleischaltung.

 Campaigning
Censorship
Before 1933, the Nazi Party used the SA to disrupt opposition meetings,
tear down their propaganda posters and violently intimidate their
speakers. This attempt at censoring their message was never 100%
successful. The July 1933, “Law Against the Establishment of Parties”
enabled Hitler to ban all other political parties- in effect this made
campaigning by other political parties illegal.

Propaganda
After 1933, Goebbels was in charge of government propaganda. He
could use government resources to publicise Hitler and his views.
Propaganda methods included : German posters advertising Nazi
views and policies, expanding the use of rallies and parades to
intimidate the public such as torchlight parades, brass bands and
choirs were all used to great effect. The Nuremberg Rallies were held

30
 annually to create a sense of spectacle, Nazi strength and German
unity. They targeted women because they are considered the
minority. They brought colour and excitement into people’s lives. Gave
people a sense of belonging to a great movement.

 Radio
Censorship
Goebbels placed all radio stations under Nazi control. He made it a
treasonable offense to listen to foreign radio broadcasts like the BBC. In
1939, over 1500 Germans were arrested for listening to London-based
broadcasts.

Propaganda
Hitler made frequent broadcasts on radio. Cheap mass-produced
radios were sold or placed in cafes, factories and schools. Speakers
were placed in streets to spread the Nazi message. The Nazi
introduced two cheap radios called “people’s receivers” costing 32
marks. By 1930, there were more radios per person in Germany than
anywhere else in Europe. Regular broadcasts included Hitler’s
speeches, German music and history.

 Cinema
Censorship
In 1934, film makers had to sent the plot of every new film to Goebbels
for approval before publishing. Goebbels had strict control of the
scripts in movies.

Propaganda
In 1933, German cinema had audiences of over 250 million per year.
Films were shown alongside a 45-minute official government newsreel,
publishing Nazi achievements. Propaganda feature films were made
like The Eternal Jew that tried to spread message of Nazi Party through
mass entertainment. Anti-Semitism was also promoted. Over 1000 films
made by Nazis. Goebbels wanted people to be entertained – this was
how propaganda worked best.

31
  The Press
Censorship
Newspaper had to print views which the Ministry agreed with or face
the consequences. If they didn’t, newspapers could be banned,
forcing owners into bankruptcy. Reich Press Law of 4th October 1933
banned all Jewish or liberal editors from working. Anti-Nazi newspapers
were banned.

Propaganda
Journalists were given briefings with information the government
wanted to publicise. Volkischer Beobachter (Racial Observer) was the
primary newspaper of the Nazi Party as they purchased this in Munich
back in the 1920s. Der Angriff (The Assault) was founded by Goebbels
in 1927 that operates in Berlin. Der Strumer (The Attacker) was owned
by anti-Semite Julius Streicher to spread anti-Semitic views. People
encouraged to buy Nazi newspapers- could be threatened if you
cancel a subscription.

 Universities
Censorship
University academics had to support Nazi views or face dismissal.
Between 1933-1938, 3000 academics were dismissed. Anyone
appointed to a university had to be approved by government and
had to complete a 6-week training course at National Socialist
Lectures Alliance Camp.

Propaganda
Nazis realised the powerful role university staff have in shaping young
minds. They were also fearful of allowing too much independence for
academics. Therefore, senior professors and lecturers were therefore
handpicked by Nazis to ensure loyalty. German history was re-written
completely to favour the Nazi’s success and future.

 The Arts
Censorship
Goebbels controlled the arts through the Reich Chamber of Culture. All
writers, musicians, artists and actors had to be members or they are
barred from working. However, most artists practised self-censorship.

Nazis decided what books would be available. Millions of books were

32
 banned and burnt on huge public bonfires as a method of Goebbel’s
propaganda, book burnings (mentioned earlier). Authors could only
write about 4 topics, frontline experience, world view, regional novels
and racial doctrine. By 1939, 2500 authors left Germany.

Music was censored. Jazz music was banned as it was seen as black
music and inferior. Composers like Mendelssohn was banned because
he was Jewish.

Degenerate Art was banned. Modern art was entirely banned.

Expressionism, Cubism and Impressionism were all banned. All artists
had to join Reich Chamber of Visual Arts. 42,000 artists were given
approval.

Propaganda
Art was used as a form propaganda by the Nazis. Nazi art was based
on “Classical Realism”. It emphasised strength, unity and German folk
tales. Hitler wanted art to display the “true German spirit”. The Nazis put
on “degenerate art” displays in 1936. People were encouraged to
criticise it and appreciate its “foreignness”. Lots of simple, stark words
and images put on propaganda posters, so that even the
uneducated could understand them.

 Sport
Censorship
Minority groups were not allowed to compete for the German national
teams during the Olympics. All athletes had to be “Aryan”. Hitler used it
to show the superiority of the Aryan race.

Propaganda
Hitler and Goebbels used the 1936 Berlin Olympics to show Nazi
Germany in good light. The film maker Leni Riefenstahl was employed
to produce a feature film of the event. The Nazis built an Olympic
Stadium seating 110,000 people to reflect Germany’s power. All events
were organised faultlessly, showing German efficiency and Germany
won the most medals, 33 golds.

 Key feature of Hitler as Fuhrer was his image being used to personify
the Nazi Party and unify the nation. He was shown as strong and
decisive.

33
B. Policies to towards women, the young, the Churches and the Jews.

i. Women
 Women in the 1920s
In Weimar Government, women over 20 years were given the vote
and there were about 20 female members in the Reichstag. Women
became more likely to go out to work and more likely to work in the
professions, often being paid equal to men. There were over 100,000
teachers in Germany by 1933. Women also started to enjoy more
freedom in social activities outside the family, such as drinking and
going to nightclubs. Women also dressed differently, being influenced
by the American “flapper” style.

 Nazi views on Women

The Nazi Party believed that women should fit into society in a
traditional way and the best way women could do this was to be
mothers. Women should stay healthy, learn housecraft like cookery
and needlework, marry and make their husbands happy so that they
became good workers, bear children and bring them up to be good
Germans, stay at home and concentrate on domestic matters, not
work or politics, prohibited from wearing makeup or trousers, or to
dye/perm hair.

 Nazi Policies towards women

“German Women’s Enterprise” was formed to arrange classes and
radio broadcasts teaching good motherhood. Women were
encouraged to leave work and concentrate on the 3Ks, Kinder, Kuche,
Kirche (Children, Kitchen and Church). Some professional women were
forced to leave their jobs as doctors, lawyers or teachers in order to
free up jobs for men and reduce unemployment.

“Law for the Encouragement for Marriage” in 1933 was introduced to

increase birth rate. It provided loans of 1000 marks (9 months worth of
wages) to young couples to marry as long as the wife left work. For
each of their first four children, the couple could keep a quarter of their
loan.

“The Mother’s Cross” was awarded to women based on the number of

children they had to encourage them to have more children. Bronze
for 4-5 children. Silver for 6-7 children. Gold for 8 or more. Each year on
Hitler’s mother’s birthday (12th April), medals were distributed.

34
 “The Lebensborn Programme” (fountain of life), was another policy to
encourage childbirth. Started in 1935 by SS Leader, Himmler, with the
attempt to encourage the creation of “ideologically pure” children for
adoption. It made single women available for fertilisation by SS men. It
one home alone, 540 mothers gave birth. Moral decline was evident
as single women were having babies out of wedlock to increase birth
rate.

Women with hereditary illnesses were forced to be sterilised. Women

were encouraged to abort or euthanise handicapped babies. This is to
ensure that the idea of a “ideologically pure” generation to be
maintained.

 By the end of the 1930s, German industry was expanding so quickly

that women were needed to work so some of the early policies were
scaled back or reversed. With men going to war, women were
suddenly needed in the workplace again. Women manned the arm
factories, industry and farms. This was heavy, physical work that
women were not used to. Having to work meant women could not
stay at home with their children and teach them Nazi values.

Better Off Worse off

- Marriage loans
- Women who wanted to stay
at home benefitted.
- “Motherly” women were
given high status
- Medals for lots of children
- Higher rate of marriage
- Looked after by state – if
married
- Educated or career women
much worse off
- Sterilisation for women with
inherited weakness, such as
colour blindness or mental
illnesses.
- Encouraged abortion if baby
was not “ideologically pure”
- Fashion and individuality
broken down and taken
away.
- Seen as “baby factories”

35
 ii. Youth
 All children attended school until they were 14. Boys and girls went to
separate schools. Nazis controlled all elements of the school
curriculum. Mein Kampf became a compulsory school text. Swastika
were placed in classes as a constant reminder of Nazism. Hiring only
pro-Nazi staff to ensure the youth were taught “correctly” and only
Nazi ideology would be passed down. Jewish teachers were sacked.
Obedience and discipline achieved by the indoctrination of youth
breaks down individuality and originality in order for unity to play
through from the youth to prepare them as loyal soldiers for WW2.

 Youth organisations were promoted in a way that schools who

surpassed 90% membership obtained a special banner. This serves as
an incentive for schools to look “prestigious”. Over 1 million in
membership in 1932, 2 million in membership in 1933, 6 million in
membership in 1934. Was made compulsory in 1937, 76% of all youths
joined.

 Nazi youth organisations :

Age Boys Girls

6-10 Young Fellows -
10-14 Young Germans Young Maidens
14-18 Hitler Youth Leaaue of German Maidens

36
 Boys Girls

- Basic military training, close - Taught domestic sciences

combat competitions
- Bravery tests – jumping out of
buildings
- Extreme fitness and cross
country running
- Incentives were given when
they pass their tests, rewarded
with Nazi badges and knives
- Mainly did marching drills, map
readings and rifle shooting.
including needlework and
cookery.
- Advanced cooking and child
development training on how
to raise a child
- Learnt domestic mathematics,
helped girls measure
ingredients.
- Did cooking, setting up camps
and motherhood activities.

- Race studies and Racial Science (Eugenics) taught children that Aryans
were superior and they should not marry Jews in order to keep the
lineage of being “ideologically pure” alive.
- History was rewritten in favour of the Nazis and criticised communism
and the Treaty of Versailles
- Geography centred on areas Hitler wishes to invade.
- Given political training – oaths of loyalty, singing Nazi anthems and
learning Nazi ideologies.
- PE took up 1/6 of school time, to emphasise good health.
- Activities encouraged good health, good citizenship and support for the
Nazis.
- Sports, camping and hiking were popular activities. Group activities
often encouraged co-operation and comradeship.
- After 1939, Hitler Youth was used to help with war effort on the home
front, helping air raid wardens and fire brigades during bombing.

37
 Group Why the opposed the Nazis How they opposed How the Nazis dealt
the Nazis with them
Edelweiss Young people who do not Defiance. Drinking, The Pirates had no
Pirates want their lives mapped out smoking, dancing in intention of
by Nazis and wanted to groups to Jazz, overthrowing Hitler.
rebel. Many opposed the drugs, telling anti- They were
Nazi’s racial policies as Nazi stories and teenagers who
friends were singled out as jokes, beating up wanted to rebel
“superior” or “inferior”. Hitler Youth against a controlling
members, having government. They
sex. They were not survived until 1944,
an organised when the Nazis
movement, clamped down and
therefore it was arrested many of
difficult for the Nazis them. In December
to hunt them down 1942, the Gestapo
individually to broke up 28 groups
punish them. containing 739
adolescents.
The White Sophie Scholl, her brother They distributed a All three members
Rose Group Hans and their friend set of leaflets at the were tried and
formed the White Rose. It is university and executed for
a group dedicated to printed more to be printing the leaflets.
showing people the truth sent by post. Under
about what the Nazis were interrogation,
doing in the war to minority Sophie refused to
groups. They were appalled pledge allegiance
by the Nazi’s method of to the Nazis.
lying and propaganda .

iii. Churches
Churches were a problem because :
 Strong movement as they are the only movement capable of
evoke a revolution.
 90% of Germans are Christians.
 The Church had the control over hearts and minds that Hitler
needed.
 Religious beliefs were powerful. People believed in God and are
therefore less likely to worship Hitler completely as he wishes. They
take priority of the Church over Nazi oath.
 Church are very likely to spread anti-Nazi messages as they oppose
Nazi policies.

38
  Catholic Church
Catholic Churches swear loyalty to God and follow the instructions of
the Pope in Rome. Hitler disliked this as his totalitarian state, he
believed all Germans should look to him as their Fuhrer for instructions
and devotion. Christianity was also treated with suspicion as it
preached forgiveness, tolerance and peace – completely different to
the Nazi message of strength, violence and survival of the fittest. 1/3 of
all German Christians were Catholic and they also had their own
schools which would teach children Christian instead of Nazi ethics.

At first, Hitler tried to reach an agreement with the Catholic Church. In

July 1933, signed the “Concordat” with the Pope. Hitler agreed to
respect freedom of worship for Catholics and to not interfere with
Catholic schools in Germany. The Roman Catholic Church agreed to
instruct it’s priests to not interfere with politics and ordered German
bishops to swear loyalty to the Nationalist Socialist regime. By the end
of 1930s, Hitler changed his mind and began to persecute the Catholic
Church, Catholic priests were harassed and arrested with many
ending up in concentration camps, Catholic schools were closed or
brought in line with state schools and curriculums, Catholic youth
groups were banned. In 1937, Pope realised that Concordat was
worthless and he issued a criticism of the Nazi Regime.

The signing of the Concordat actually worked to reduce opposition to

Hitler’s policies from Catholic Christians. It seemed as if the Nazi regime
was one that respected Christian traditions and ethics. It explains why
there was little opposition to Hitler’s policies at first. The breaking of the
Concordat in 1937 did encourage Catholics to oppose Nazi policies.
However, state control of society was too strong by this point. The
repression of the Catholic Church by Hitler weakened opposition and
served to strengthen his control of society.

 Protestant Church
The relationship between Nazis and Protestant Churches were good at
first. Many protestant churches supported the Nazis as they feared the
anti-Christian Communists. Hitler was seen as the protector of German
social and religious traditions. This respect broke down over time as
Nazi social policies and control of society instead.

39
 Some Protestants formed the German Christian Revolution led by
Muller. Hitler made Muller the Reich bishop of Germany in September
1933. This movement tried to fuse Nazi ethics and ideas into traditional
Christianity. For instance, Nazi flags were displayed inside Churches
and Hitler was portrayed as the protector of the Church from Judaism.
Other Protestant churches did oppose Hitler’s policies and spoke out
against him. Pastor Niemoller set up the Pastor’s Emergency League
(PEL) in 1933 to campaign against Nazi actions. In 1937, Niemoller was
sent to a concentration camp and the PEL was banned.

Although the Nazi Party could not completely control the German
Christians, Hitler successfully managed to weaken the potential
opposition to his policies. The Concordat with the Catholic Church
and German Christian Movement in 1933 gave legitimacy to Hitler’s
regime. By 1930s it was too late for any sizable Christian opposition to
form, Hitler had complete control of judiciary, legislature and
executive.

 Reich Church
Integration of all Protestant Churches into one Reich Church.
Spearheaded by pro-Nazi Bishop, Muller as Hitler made him Reich
Bishop in 1933. Priests and Bishops wore Nazi uniforms. Hitler used
biblical languages to convey Nazi ideas by referring himself to Jesus.
The Swastika replaced the cross. Most Germans still felt that their
allegiance lie with their original churches rather than the state-
approved Churches. Hitler wanted Nazism to be worshipped and
followed like a religion, making it difficult for people to support the
Church. Disobedience carrying out baptisms and marriages against
Nazi law, encouraging people to ignore Nazism and follow the bible
made Hitler’s want of controlling the churches into a need as it is
proving to be an opposition to his policies. Hitler cannot compete with
the promise of god and heaven after death- especially in war time.
Hitler has to turn into a blind eye and compromise with the Church in a
Concordat which he later disobeyed.

40
 iv. Jews

 Anti-Semitism in Germany before Hitler

Anti Jewish views (anti-Semitism) had been common in Europe for
hundreds of years. This was because their religion, customs and looks
made them stand out as “different” in European society; some
Christians hated Jews, blaming them for the execution of Christ (blood
libel). People often looked for scapegoats when times were hard and
Jews were often singled out. Some Germans wrongly blamed defeat in
WW1 on the Jews. Jews were criticised for being Communist rebels
because Eisner, leader of the communist rising in Munich in 1918 was
Jewish. Many Jews were wealthy business people and criticised for
being selfish capitalists.

 Hitler’s views and Mein Kampf, 1925

In 1925, Hitler published Mein Kampf which contained his racial and
political views. He claimed there was a hierarchy of races amongst
other things. The Aryan (German) race was the superior race. They
were seen as blonde, blue-eyed and athletic. Other races such as the
Slavs of Eastern Europe were the “lesser” races. The Untermenschen, or
sub-humans included Africans, Gypsies and Jews. Hitler later than
called them Lebensunwertes – unworthy of life.

 First Nazi Persecutions, 1933

The Nazis boycotted Jewish businesses. Jews were banned from
government jobs. Jews were banned from inheriting land. In 1935, Jews
were banned from the army and restaurants. Jewish teachers were
sacked. Jews with certain hereditary illness such as mental disabilities
or physical disabilities that could be passed onto children were
sterilised. 350,000 men were forced to be sterilised. 1934, concentration
camps were used at first to house political opponents. Hitler then used
them to house criminals and drug offenders. Finally, Hitler used the
camps to house “undesirables” or Untermenschen, subhumans which
Hitler deemed unworthy of life.

41
  The Nuremberg Laws 1935
On 15th September 1935, the Nuremberg Laws were passed which said
Jews were no longer German citizens. They lost the right to vote, hold
government office jobs or have passports. They could not marry
German citizens. From 1938, Jewish doctors, lawyers, and dentists
could not work for Aryan Germans. Jewish identity cards had to carry a
large letter “J” that stands for “Jew”. Jews had to register all
possessions.

 Kristallnacht, 1938 (Night of the Broken Glass)

On 7th November 1938, a young Polish Jews went into German
embassy in Paris and shot another German. He hated Germans for
their persecution of Jews. A wave of anger swept Germany as the
young German died on the 9th November 1938. Goebbels announced
in the Nazi newspaper, Der Strumer, that the Fuhrer said that the
government would not prevent Germans from taking revenge on the
Jews. On the 9th and 10th of November, a storm of attacks on Jews and
their property took place across Germany. The SA and SS condoned
the Germans to take part in the boycotting and arrest of Jews. 814
shops, 171 homes and 191 synagogues were destroyed. At least 100
Jews were killed.

 After Kristallnacht, 1939

The Nazi Party blamed the Jews for Kristallnacht. Goebbels announced
that the Jews would be fined 1 billion marks for reparation fees.
However, the Jews were also banned from running shops, businesses,
banned from attending schools and universities. The rounding up of
Jews by the SS and SA begins. By 12th November 1938, 20,000 Jews had
been sent to concentration camps. By 1939, persecution increased as
In January, the Reich Office for Jewish Emigration were set up to
remove the Jews from Germany by enforce emigration. In April 1939,
orders were sent that all Jews were evicted from their homes and
forced into areas in cities called the ghettos.

42
C. Policies to reduce unemployment

D. The Labour Service, The Labour Front and Strength Through Joy

i. Economic policies to target Unemployment

The RAD and DAF created job opportunities as they required many
people to build infrastructure. Once infrastructures are built, they
would then require people to work in these places, thus, reducing
unemployment.

 RAD (Reich Labour Service)- Targets the unemployed

Hitler believed that unemployment sapped the strength of a nation
and unemployed workers were more likely to support the communists.
18-25 year old men had to do 6 months of work service. It was
voluntary at first and then made compulsory in 1935. They were used to
build autobahns (motorways), hospitals, and schools. By 1937,
Germany had built 7000 miles of autobahns. The construction of
autobahns created work for 80,000 men. It is unpopular because it is
hard labour and provides low wages. Indoctrinates young adults into
the Nazi ideology and at the same time, boost economy as the
industrial workforce increases. The number of unemployed people
decreased after 1933. In 1933, there were 6 million unemployed
people, by 1934 it was 3.8 million, finally by 1939, there were 0.3 million.
This was great for Nazi propaganda as it made it look like
unemployment took a nosedive after Hitler became Chancellor.

 DAF (German Labour Front) – Targets the workers

This is the replacement of trade unions to establish an authoritarian
dictatorship. Spearheaded by Dr Robert Ley. DAF is a massive
organisation to control the workers. DAF creates a mirage of a trade
union. Its role was to ensure that workers served the best interests to the
Nazi regime. Bosses could no longer sack workers on the spot. Workers
could not leave a job without government’s permission. This controls
the power of the employers and employees to ensure economy
worked smoothly. Workers could no longer bargain for higher wages.
Strikes were made illegal. Limitations on the working hours were
abolished. By 1939, Germans were working 60-72 hours per week which
is almost 10 hours a day.

43
  Beauty of Labour
Persuades employers to improve working conditions in factories. Good
ventilation in the workplace. This acts as propaganda to make
Germans believe that work is good and that everyone should work if
they could. This is to ensure the level of happiness of the workers. The
higher the satisfaction of the workers, the less likely the will plan a strike
despite the fact it is illegal. The industrial workforce at this point is large
enough to cause a spectacle in the Nazi regime. The Nazi regime
would have a hard time in controlling and persecuting them as they
are required to boost German economy.

 Strength Through Joy (KDF)

To organise leisure time for workers. The Nazis did not want people
spending their leisure time outside of Nazi control. KDF arranged
holidays, day trips, concerts, sports groups, clubs and etc so workers
could enjoy Nazi approved leisure time. This acts as an optical illusion
for the workers thinking that the Nazis were looking out for their best
interests but rather it is one of the Nazis scheme of manipulation. This
was highly successful.

 Hitler stopped paying reparation fees and invested the money in

German companies. He began a huge programme of public works
that the RAD and DAF would built. He built an Olympic Stadium for the
Berlin Olympics in 1936 to house 110,000 people.

 Germany so far…
Nazi’s devised a scheme to allow workers to buy a Volkswagen Beetle
as a car for small weekly payments. The autobahns improved transport
and travel. People appreciated the public works (new schools &
hospitals). The streets were safe and there was no crime. Germany was
strong and successful in world affairs. Nazi rallies provided colour and
fun. Nazi youth groups provided activities and holidays for young
people. Nazi ideology gave people hope and confidence.

44
 ii. Economic policies

 3 Major problems faced by German economy :

- International Debt
- Agricultural stagnation
- Industrial unemployment

 Four Year Plan

Increased production of the raw materials needed for rearmament
such as coal, explosives, metal and iron. Persuaded big businesses to
produce key synthetic raw materials such as rubber, fuel and textiles.
Reduced imports. Tightened controls on prices and wages. Used
forced labour if needed. Built new industrial plans such as the Goering
Works, huge mining and metal works.

Was it successful?
The Government invested billions of Reichmarks into this plan. By 1939,
Germany still depended on foreign marks. Arms had taken
precedence over developing agriculture, “arms not butter” –
Goering’s slogan. 1939, Butter was still rationed in Germany. Only way
for Germany to achieve autarky fully, it had to trade with countries
which could help provide raw materials and food. (THE NEW PLAN)

45
  Rearmament
Nazi economic policy designed to make Germany strong and it
needed a strong military to achieve this. In 1936, Hitler issued a secret
memo, declaring that the economy must be recognised to make
Germany able to wage war within four years. Hitler’s four year plan
had several effects on Germany.

o Government spending on rearmament increased

- In 1933, spending on arms was 3.5 billion marks.
- In 1939, it was 26 billion marks
o Army’s requirement for iron and steel increased
- German production trebled from 1933-39
o Germany wanted autarky in products like plastic, oil and rubber
- Production of plastic increased by 460% in the 1930s
o The growth of German army
- 100,000 in 1933
- 500,000 in 1936
- 900,000 in 1939.
o As the army grew in size, so did the demand for uniforms and
equipment. Rearmament was thus a huge boost for the
German economy. Unemployment decreased and profits
increased as economy boosted.

 Agriculture and Industry

Problems
World food prices had been low. Germany had been importing
cheap food from abroad. Because of this, farmers could not sell
their food at a price which would enable them to make a good
living. Germany would then be importing more than exporting
which results in an unhealthy balance and national debt.
Dependence on imports was preventing Germany from achieving
economic self-sufficiency (autarky).

Solutions
Trade agreements were made with individual counties to supply
raw materials to Germany in exchange for German goods. For
example, with Hungary, they exchanged butter, vegetable oil to
supply Germany with raw materials in exchange for German
goods. In 1934, The New Plan stopped imports and subsidised
industry to establish “autarky”. Because, of “arms not guns”,

46
 agriculture was neglected in the rearmament process. As a result,
the New Plan was put into action to solve this problem. This would
solve the budget deficit. Production of oil, cars, coals and
explosives rose rapidly. Businesses were strictly controlled, they
were told to produce specific products and were not allowed to
raise wages. Foreign firms reduced imported goods in Germany as
an effort to limit imports. Domestic firms encouraged to produce
more materials. They were given incentives and subsidies to
encourage them to work harder.

Agriculture in Germany
Successes Failures
Farmers Income increased by Farmers resented the
40% between 1928-1938 interference of the Reich
as imports were limited. Food Estate.
Food Production Food production Still not at production
increased by 20%, level that is sufficient to
leaving Germany self- feed German
sufficient in bread, population without the
grains, meats, need for imports. It is
vegetables and eggs. important to remember
that imports are limited
not stopped completely.

 Limits of success

Unemployment
1933, women were no longer included in the unemployment figures
as they were all forced to stay home, give birth and be a domestic
figure. Jews were sacked from their jobs and no longer hold
German citizenship and were removed from the unemployment
register. The unemployed were obliged to take any job offered or
be classed work-shy and imprisoned. Conscription removed over a
million young men from the employment market. Therefore, the
authenticity of the unemployment figures of 6 million in 1933,
reducing to 3.8 million in 1934 and finally to a 0.8 million in 1939 is
questionable.

Did Germany become self-sufficient?

The policy of Autarky was a failure. In 1937, Goering was made
Economics Minister, with the job of making Germany self-sufficient
in 4 years. However the measures he introduced were unsuccessful.

47
 Control were put on imports but if anything, imports of luxuries
increased. Scientists tried to make oil from coal and to find
substitutes for rubber, petrol, cotton and coffee. Farmers were
subsidised to produce more food, and food imports were reduced.

Economy
Successes Failures

- Imports were lower than - The Nazis failed to achieve

exports by 1935.
- Germany successfully rearmed
and was strong enough to
conquer in 1939.
- Unemployment was reduced
to almost 0.
- Industrial production almost
doubled.
- Government investment in
industry was higher than during
the “Golden Era” of Weimar.
- Wages started to rise which
signifies a stable economy.
autarky, they still needed more
materials from abroad.
- Decrease in unemployment
rates was mostly because of
conscription, removal of Jews
and forced labour groups.
- Investment in industry was
centred on rearmament,
neglecting more vital things like
industry which required the
Four Year Plan.
- Wages were only as good as
during Weimar Republic, while
people actually had less food.

48
5. GERMANY GURING THE SECOND WORLD WAR
A. Nazi Policies Towards the Jews Including Ghettos, Death Squads and the
Final Solution

i. Nazi Policies towards the Jews

 Ghettos
Nazis did this because they wanted a Jewish free population,
segregate the Jews from the rest of the population, control of Jewish
movement, and to make use of Jewish property for Nazi use.

The first ghetto was built in Warsaw, Poland when the Nazis invaded
Poland in 1939. They are walled-off guarded parts of cities where Jews
are forced to live. Jews from Germany and other occupied countries
are sent to live there. In Warsaw, Nazis crushed 380,000 Jews which was
30% of the population into a ghetto 3% the size of the city. By 1942,
50,000 Jews died of hunger, cold and diseases in Warsaw, Poland

Forcing Jews into ghettos marked a change in Nazi policy. The Nazis
were now using force to remove Jews. This led to high death rates due
to facilities that are poor in hygiene, overcrowding and famines. This
reinforced Nazi propaganda of Jews being dirty. This led to people
perceiving them as sub-humans, Untermensch and thus ignored the
way they were being treated.

 SS Death Squads
By invading Poland and the USSR, Nazis came into contact with many
people they considered as “undesirable”. The SS Death Squad was a
way to rid themselves of these people.

Between 1939 and 1941, they followed the German Army into Poland
and the USSR, systematically murdering any civilians regarded as
undesirable.

The SS Death Squad was deliberately created to murder undesirables.

In the village of Lithuania, over 50,000 Jews were shot. By 1945, they
had killed 1.5 million Jews, gypsies and communist leaders.

 Final Solution
The Final Solution was a plan to exterminate every Jewish person. The
Nazis decided that all Jews under German control would be
49
 exterminated. After the invasion of USSR in 1941, 4 million Jews came
under Nazi control. The Nazi leadership argued over what to do with
them. Goering argued they could be used for slave labour. Himmler
argued they were to expensive to keep and should all be
exterminated.

It started in 1942, 6 major camps were set up. They were all run by SS
leaders and in the outskirts of Germany, away from general public.
Jews were to be transported to areas of Eastern Europe under Nazi
control in carts. The sick, the weak, and the handicapped would be
sent to gas chambers to be gassed to death whatever they owned
would be Nazi possession. The fit people would be housed in labour
camps and worked to death.

They were sent to gas chambers to slowly let poisonous gas infect their
organs and die a painful death. 2000 people were packed into the
chambers. Within 30 minutes, everyone would be dead, and their
bodies would be burnt in the ovens. On average, 4000 people were
killed a day for 3 years. 400,000 Jews were exterminated in 3 months.
90% of Jews in Poland, Germany and Austria were dead. Other
prisoners would be experimented as Nazis “science programme”. Most
prisoners were tested without anaesthetic in order to experiment with
“dried skin”. This was turned into gloves, lamp shades, or even hand
bags.

The decision called the “Final Solution” marked the final step of the
Holocaust. Before the extermination of Jewish people was
uncoordinated and haphazard. Now the entirety of Nazi government
organised the extermination of the Jews as ethnic cleansing.

 Concentration camps
The war economy needed extra workers so concentration camps
provided an endless supply of slave labour. They also allowed the Nazi
to control the Jews more closely, and away from general public.

The Nazi built camps as early as 1933 but at first they were camps for
political prisoners. Then, it was used to house “undesirables” or in
Hitler’s words, people unworthy of life such as the homosexuals, gypsies
and disabled people. After 1939, the size and number of the camps
grew. In 1937, the Buchenwald Camp in Germany was set up for 1,000

50
 prisoners. By 1939, it held 10,000 and by at the end of the war, over
80,000 people. 56,000 Jews died at Buchenwald between 1937 and
1945.

In the ghettos, Jews faced tough living conditions but were often left
alone. In camps, they were used as slave labour and many died from
overworking, starvation and mistreatment. During the war, a deliberate
policy to exterminate workers through overworking was introduced.

 Death Camps
Some existing labour camps were converted into Death Camps, but
many death camps were built from scratch. They were a way for Nazis
to implement the Final Solution.

The first death camp was built in 1942 in Poland. Camps were run by SS
officials. Prisoners arrived by train. Their belongings are taken, then
herded into gas chambers. By 1944, 90% of Jews in Germany, Poland
and Austria had been killed.

Death camps were designed purely for the extermination of

undesirables. By 1945, 6 million Jews had been exterminated by the
Nazis. The mass slaughter became known as the Holocaust.

B. The Changing Role of Women, “total war”, rationing and the effects of
Allied Bombing.

i. The Changing Role of Women

There were changes in the role of women because they were

expected to be domestic figures at home then they were expected to
replace men’s jobs as they went for war.

Women were not expected to work in Nazi Germany. Professional

women were sacked and forced out of work to increase job
opportunities for men. Roles of women changed as Nazi ideologies
believe that women should be domestic figures to stay at home and
look after children. Hitler wanted to prepare Germany for war in 1939.
As a result, he needed a large amount of people as troops for the war.
The Nazis implemented policies like the Lebensborn programme and
Mother’s Cross to encourage the birth rate. Mothers were awarded

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 medals when they had more than 8 children. The Lebensborn
programme led to a change in Germany as there was a moral decline
when women were having babies of out of wedlock. The Nazi regime
broke down the individuality of these women and they were now
perceived as “baby makers”.

As economy was recovering, the armed forces was growing. By 1938,

there was a shortage of workers in the economy as many of the men
were conscripted into the army. As a result, Nazis realised they had to
reverse their policies on women. This changed the role of women as a
traditional housewife to a working woman. All the women had to take
the jobs left by men. By 1939, there were 1.5 million more working
women than there have been in 1933. Women were unused to this
type of work as it was physically demanding. In 1943, women aged 17-
45 were registered to work to gear towards war efforts for “total war”.
Women were unable to stay home and teach their children Nazi
ideologies and were expected to work.

In conclusion, women were encouraged to take on the traditional role

as a “homemaker” and then expected to work again as men left their
jobs to be conscripted into the army.

ii. Total War

Hitler ordered invasion of the USSR as he was hoping for victory. His
army became bogged down in a four-year battle for survival which
decreased troop morale. By the end of 1942, Germany’s war was
going badly. 94,000 German soldiers fighting in the USSR surrendered
to the Soviet army. Terrible defeat forced Goebbels to call for “total
war”. Harsh reality of war was puncturing Nazi confidence. Goebbels
made the longest radio speech calling on all Germans to show Allies
that they were not defeated, they could carry on fighting and make
sacrifices for Germany. The purpose of this was to boost morale within
the Germans.

Government began preparations for “total war” with every part of

German society geared to the war effort such as producing arms,
growing food caring for the sick or fighting. Anything that did not
contribute to the war effort was eliminated. In March 1943, professional
sport was ended. Non essential businesses were closed such as sweet
shops. In August 1943, manufacture of civilian clothing was suspended.
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 Exchange centres were opened where people could swap furniture
and clothes. June 1943, Goebbels commissioned the film Kolberg,
which told of heroic German resistance in Napoleon in 1807 to
increase morale. Working hours increased. Women aged 17-50 were
registered to work. Age limit for compulsory labour for women was
raised to 50. All non German servants to go into armaments factories.
All theatres, opera houses, music halls and places of entertainment
were closed.

iii. Rationing

In 1939-1941, rationing for difficult foods began. As a result, 2/5

Germans ate better than before the war. Extra rationing was
introduced for pregnant women, industrial workers, and the ill as they
required more nutrition. Soap and hot water was rationed as well.
November 1939, clothes were rationed and manufacture of civilian
clothing was suspended. Soap was replaced with stew pine needles
when soap was insufficient. People used tobacco as substitute for
money. From December 1941 to January 1942, Germans produced 1.5
million tonnes of fur and 67 million woollen garments to clothe the
German army in Russia. To save fuel, railway and postal services were
reduced, and all letter boxes were closed.

Effects of Allied Bombing

Number of doctors available to treat victims were going down. In

Berlin, number of doctors available to civilian population fell from 15
doctors per 10,000 people in 1930s to 1 doctor per 15,000 people in
1941.

As air raids worsened, many Germans left the cities and were
evacuated into smaller rural villages like Northeim. As a result,
population in Northeim doubled.

In cities, air raids/allied bombing became increasingly furious.

Hamburg attack in 1943 caused a fire storm which wiped out large
areas of the city. 30,000 people died. The emergency services tried to
supply food and shelter but after three days the services collapsed
under the pressure of supplying food and water. The government had
to step in and build emergency accommodation for air-raid victims.

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 In early 1945, some of the most extreme air raids begun. In 2 nights of
bombing, up to 150,000 people were killed in Dresden as Allied
bombers destroyed 70% of the properties in the city. Many of them
were refuges from the East newly arrived in the city. A raid on the
railway yard killed more than thirty thousand women and children. By
the end of the war, as many German civilians had been killed by allied
bombing as Germans soldiers died in combat.

C. The Growth of Opposition to Hitler including the Edelweiss Pirates, the

White Rose Group and the Stauffenberg Plot.

i. Edelweiss Pirates
The Edelweiss Pirates was a youth group formed by rebellious youths
who resented to join the Nazi youth groups. They found simple ways to
rebel such as girls mixing with boys, listening to modern “swing” music
and growing long hair. They often daubed anti-Nazi slogans on walls
and beat up members of Hitler Youth. There were over 2,000 members
of the Pirates by 1939. After the war broke out, groups like the Pirates
became more political. Some supported the Allies; helping army
deserters or distributing Allied propaganda leaflets dropped by
aeroplanes. After 1942, conditions worsened. Youngsters became
more daring and smashed factories involved in war production and
stealing guns. In 1944, Himmler ordered a crackdown. In December
1942, the Gestapo broke up 28 groups containing 739 adolescents. In
Cologne, 13 young activists were arrested and publicly hanged.

ii. White Rose Group

Started at University of Munich in 1941 by students Hans and Sophie
Scholl, and a teacher Kurt Huber. Their was politicised by the atrocities
they saw carried out by the German army while serving. They believed
in opposing the Nazi regime by peaceful means. They begun by
mailing leaflets, anonymously to people all over Germany,
concentrating on lecturers and owners of bars and restaurants. The
leaflets called for democracy and social justice. In 1943, they became
confident and left leaflets in public places. On 18th February, Hans and
Sophie were reported to the Gestapo. Within two days, they were tried
and executed. 80 others were soon arrested.

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 iii. Military Opposition

Cause
To seize political control of Germany and its armed forces from the
Nazi Party in order to obtain peace with Western allies as soon as
possible. Underlying desire of high ranking military generals and
colonels to show to the world that not all Germans were like the NSDAP
and Hitler.

The officer class in German society had never been natural supporters
of the Nazis and disliked the paramilitary SS and SA. While the war was
successful at first, opposition subdued. As soon as the war raged into
disaster, opposition and unrests ensued. The July Bomb Plot of 1944
was a planned assassination on Hitler and to remove Nazi Party from
power. Colonel Claus von Stauffenberg was one of many senior
officers at the War Office in Berlin. He was a key figure of the event as
he had actual contact with Hitler on a regular basis. By 1944, he
believed that Hitler was leading Germany to an inevitable defeat. On
20th July, he took a bomb inside a briefcase into a meeting with Hitler
and placed it under the map-table Hitler was using and blew up 12
minutes after. Unfortunately, it did not kill the Nazi leader who was
protected from the blast from the table.

Significance
Over 5,000 generals were arrested in their suspected part of the plot,
19 generals and 27 colonels including Stauffenberg were executed.

D. Defeat and the Death of Hitler

i. 1944-1945, Failure and Defeat

 Main reasons why the Nazis lost

Germany failed to defeat Britain in air and sea war.

The failure to defeat Britain early in the war meant that Hitler was
forced to fight a two-front war. The Battle of Britain in July –
September 1940 was Hitler’s attempt to invade Britain. Georing’s
Luftwaffe (German aircrafts) targeted British cities and airfield in an
attempt to force Britain to surrender. He failed which meant that
Britain could be used as a launch pad for the Allies to build up their
military strength against Hitler.

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 Hitler decided to invade the Soviet Union
The decision to invade the Soviet Union was a massive mistake
which drew the Germans into a long, 4 year drawn-out struggle.
From June 1941, Hitler invaded the Soviet Union with a force of 3
million and by winder, had reached Moscow. However, the war
turned against Hitler after the Battle of Stalingrad ended in February
1943. Over 90,000 German soldiers surrendered. From this point,
there was less than 65% of German army fighting the Russians. By
April 1945, the Russians had pushed the Germans all the way back
into Berlin.

Decision to declare war on the USA

The decision to declare war on USA after Pearl Harbour in
December 1941 was clearly disastrous. Once the United States
joined the Allies, the men, machines and munitions available to the
Allies far outweighed Germany’s. It became a war of attrition;
Germany was worn down by a stronger enemy. By 1944, Germany
was losing the war of production. The Allies were producing ; twice
as much steel, four times as much planes and tanks, seven times
many rifles and machine guns. When the Allies invaded France on
6th June 1944, they had air superiority of 70:1.

Hitler made poor decisions

It was Hitler’s decision to invade the USSR while Germany’s
economy was still weak but Russia was a huge country with a
population of over 200 million and a harsh fighting climate. To
make matters worse, Hitler interfered with military decisions,
refusing to allow the army to withdraw from Stalingrad and not
seeing the importance of war in North Africa. He also backed the
wrong scientific projects. Whilst the Allies invested in radar, cipher
machines and the atomic bomb, Hitler invested in V1 and V2
rockets which played an insignificant role in the war. He only
considered and concentrated political support in Berlin and
placed less priority on smaller places like Northeim which led to the
people in Northeim surrendering the town without a fight to the
allies as they opposed the Nazi regime.

Nazi philosophy
Nazi philosophies slowed down the war effort. Hitler allowed the SS
and the German Army too much control of the economy. He
started using women in the labour force a tad late.

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 By July 1944, allied armies were pushing the Germans back into the
west. Refugees were pouring into Germany from the areas being
reconquered by the allies. Goebbels called for “Total War” and
prepared to mobilise Germany for one final effort to win the war.
He ordered the following :

 In March 1943, professional sport was ended.

 Non essential businesses were closed such as sweet shops.
 In August 1943, manufacture of civilian clothing was suspended.
 Exchange centres were opened where people could swap
furniture and clothes
 June 1943, Goebbels commissioned the film Kolberg, which told of
heroic German resistance in Napoleon in 1807 to increase morale.
 Working hours increased
 Women aged 17-50 were registered to work.
 Age limit for compulsory labour for women was raised to 50.
 All non German servants to go into armaments factories.
 All theatres, opera houses, music halls and places of entertainment
were closed.

In early 1945, some of the most extreme air raids begun. In 2 nights of
bombing, up to 150,000 people were killed in Dresden as Allied
bombers destroyed 70% of the properties in the city. Many of them
were refuges from the East newly arrived in the city. A raid on the
railway yard killed more than thirty thousand women and children. By
the end of the war, as many German civilians had been killed by allied
bombing as Germans soldiers died in combat.

The Nazi administration could not cope with destruction on this scale.
By early 1945, government plans were in chaos. Ration cards were no
longer honoured. Instead people relied on the black market or
scavenge for food. Almost anything can be bought on the black
market. For example, a complete set of new identity cards could be
bought on the market for 80,000 marks.

Northeim 1945
As allied and Russian troops advanced into Germany, town after town,
they met little resistance from the local people who were drained from
the war. As the tanks approached Northeim, Mayor ordered the SA

57
 militia to defend the town to death but drove himself away to the hills
to get drunk. The SA ignored is instructions and handed over the town
without a fight. Leader of socialist, Carl Querfurt was brought in to
head a new emergency council for the town. Nazi flags were burnt.
853 Nazi books were removed from the library and pulped. Northeim
breathed a sigh of relief and its population busily returned to the
mayor and tried to prove that they had opposed the Nazi occupation
all along.

Berlin 1945
Amid the ruins of their capital city, Hitler, Goebbels and other Nazi
leaders committed suicide. The war and the Nazi regime was over, but
at an appalling cost in human lives and after years of unimaginable
suffering.

Death
Hitler committed suicide shortly before the Germans surrendered to
the allies. He committed suicide shooting himself in the head with a
gun. Germany was then surrendered to the Allies on May 7th, 1945. This
marked the end of the famous Nazi regime.

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