Site selection and feasibility analysis 109

• Parabolic trough (PT) and linear Fresnel systems typically apply certain
modular length patterns to one particular loop, which then would be
applied in serial/parallel arrangements. Most PT plants today require
about 40 × 300 m for one single loop, with 100+ loops for a simple
50 MWe plant in Spain, while a linear Fresnel loop could require a
straight 25 × 1000 m for one loop, with 22+ loops for a simple 50 MWe
plant in Spain. New developments on PT aim at larger aperture width.
• Solar tower plants are preferably built on circular or semi-circular
shaped footprints, but also rectangular fields are feasible.
• Additional space for service roads surrounding the solar field, fencing,
possible wind-breaking measures (earth banks, walls or vegetation)
should be considered at the boundary of the plant.
• Depending on the outcome of the environmental impact assessments,
specific requirements could be imposed on a plant, which require addi-
tional efforts.
With these patterns, one can see how a plant layout could fit into a given
land plot and its usually non-technical provided borders. However, with a
preselected technology the requirements for a solar project site can be more
specifically defined.

Ownership structures
The legal situation of the required property is also a crucial selection crite-
rion. When approaching the legal side of ownership structures the following
questions should be considered: Is the land public or private? Will it be a
direct purchase or a purchase option or a lease option? How secure is the
land for the project throughout a possibly lengthy development process?
Also depending on the type of financing, the required legal certainty on the
complete property becomes a crucial matter, as agreements with all owners
have to be completed and the surface rights for the installation of the CSP
system should be recorded in the title of the land.

4.5.3 Infrastructure interconnections

In addition to a suitable land area with sufficient solar resource, the stan-
dard of the surrounding infrastructure is of significant importance.

Electricity grid
The generated power must be evacuated from the plant; therefore it needs
to tie into a high voltage (HV) electricity line with sufficient voltage level.
Projects of more than 20 MW capacity usually have to look for lines of
60–400 kV, depending on the applicable grid code and network voltage levels.

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110 Concentrating solar power technology

Determination of a feasible tie-in point always requires the cooperation

of the grid operator, who needs to analyse the capacity of the proposed
tie-in location in relation to the capacity planning of the whole network.
Tie-in into a HV line by building a new substation may be an option for
larger plants, but most likely one has to tie in at an existing substation, which
also needs to have the available capacity. The procedures for getting a
capacity reservation for a project are different in each country, so one has
to adjust to the local codes and requirements.
Distance to the grid should be kept minimal, as each km of transmission
line requires additional investment. Larger projects usually can afford
longer transmission lines, as the specific cost for the transmission line can
be utilized by a larger amount of energy.
The routing of the transmission line has to be approached carefully, as
usually permits and rights of way related to the properties along the pro-
jected route need to be secured upfront, and reaching consent with the
respective authorities and landowners can involve a time-consuming effort.
Also environmental concerns must be considered, as a specific environ-
mental impact assessment for the transmission line is required in most
countries.

Road network
The connection to the road network serves two purposes. During construc-
tion of the plant, all materials have to be transported to the project site by
trucks. As this includes heavy equipment, the route for heavy hauling (e.g.
the capacity of road bridges from ports of landing for overseas shipments)
has to be considered. Some improvements required specifically for con-
struction transport can be on a temporary basis.
For operation of the plant, access roads should be erected as permanent
structures. They should suffice for all regular trucking of materials and
during maintenance periods. It should be considered that, during the 20–40
year operation period, major overhauls of steam turbines and generators
would be made, in addition to possible future improvements to the instal-
lation. It will be a strategic decision between actual needs and benefits for
further requirements. The cost and authorization effort for this road will
also depend on the distance to the existing public road network.

Fuel availability
For most CSP plants, some small degree of supplemental fossil fuel firing
is considered. Fuel availability and specific cost for transporting it to the
project should be considered. For larger fossil fuel shares, such as an ISCC
(integrated solar combined cycle) system, the fuel sourcing becomes a much
more significant aspect for the feasibility of the project. It may mandate, as

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012

 Site selection and feasibility analysis 111

additional location criteria, the vicinity of a pipeline, or a train connection

for liquid or solid fuels.

4.5.4 Hybridization with other fuels

A hybrid concept with a reduced solar share may lead to a complete shift
in perspective compared to a fully stand-alone solar electric generating
facility. The availability of fuel to the plant becomes more important with
the higher degree of fuel compared to solar resource input. The vicinity to
fuel infrastructure (pipelines, ports, railways) may become a primary crite-
rion for site selection. If a solar field is being added to an existing conven-
tional energy plant (coal, gas, industry application), the siting of the plant
has to be in the vicinity of the existing plant. The process boils down to the
general applicability of CSP, the technical concept and the commercial
feasibility when overcoming whatever compromise might be required with
given boundary conditions.

4.5.5 Water: sources, uses and related requirements

When it comes to the water consumption during operation, the discussion
focuses very much on the cooling system for the steam turbine condenser. As
the highest DNI usually appears in desert areas, typically regions with very
little water resource (aside from salt water at sea shoreline), the usage of
large volumes of water may be restricted or it may simply not be available.
Water qualifying for cooling purposes could be any surface water – salt
and fresh water both can be applied – or subsurface water (from wells). If
wet cooling is an option, hydrology and groundwater availability and acces-
sibility should be examined in detail. The biggest obstacle will most likely
be the authorization for water use, so the permitting and legal processes for
this should be part of the feasibility analysis for a project.

Dry vs wet cooling technologies

From an economic perspective, wet cooling (usually with wet cooling
towers) will always be the preferred method, as long as water is available
and affordable. Dry cooling is technically feasible for all CSP technologies,
and is not a technology risk, as the technology has been implemented in
conventional power plants over the globe for a long time. The issue with
dry cooling is its negative impact on project economics:
• Air as a cooling medium has a lower heat transfer coefficient than water.
If air is used, advantage also cannot be taken of the chilling effect pro-
duced by evaporation when wet cooling towers are used. Therefore the
exhaust temperature of the steam from the turbine is several degrees
higher. This results in reduced efficiency of the water-steam cycle.

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012