Drying

(Geankoplis, Chapter 9)

13-17 November 2017

 Contents
1. Introduction and Methods of Drying
2. Equipment for Drying
3. Vapor Pressure of Water and Humidity
4. Equilibrium Moisture Content of Materials
5. Rate-of-Drying Curves
6. Calculation Methods for Constant-Rate Drying
Period
7. Calculation Methods for Falling-Rate Drying
Period
 Contents
8. Combined Convection, Radiation, and
Conduction Heat Transfer in Constant-Rate
Period
9. Drying in Falling-Rate Period by Diffusion and
Capillary Flow
10.Equations for Various Types of Dryers
11.Freeze-Drying of Biological Materials
12.Unsteady-State Thermal Processing and
Sterilization of Biological Materials
9.9 Drying in Falling-Rate Period by
Diffusion and Capillary Flow
• In the falling-rate period, the surface of the
solid being dried is no longer completely
wetted, and drying rate steadily falls with time
• Methods to predict drying time:
– Numerical or graphical integration of actual rate-
of-drying curve
– Approx. of a straight line from 𝑋𝑐 to the origin at
𝑋 = 0 (assuming 𝑅 is a linear function of 𝑋)
9.9 Drying in Falling-Rate Period by Diffusion and Capillary Flow

Drying Rate, 𝑅
𝐿𝑠 𝑑𝑋
• Definition: Eqn. [9.5-3] 𝑅 =
𝐴 𝑑𝑡
• When 𝑅 is a linear function of 𝑋 in the falling-
rate period: Eqn. [9.7-5] 𝑅 = 𝑎𝑋
– where 𝑎 is a constant
• Equating [9.7-5] with [9.5-3]: Eqn. [9.9-1]
𝐿𝑠 𝑑𝑋
𝑅=− = 𝑎𝑋
𝐴 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑋 𝑎𝐴
• Rearranging: Eqn. [9.9-2] = 𝑋
𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝑠
9.9 Drying in Falling-Rate Period by Diffusion and Capillary Flow

Mechanisms of Moisture Movement

In many instances, the rate of moisture
movement in the falling-rate period is governed
by the rate of internal movement of the liquid
by either of two mechanisms:
• liquid diffusion
• capillary movement.
9.9 Drying in Falling-Rate Period by Diffusion and Capillary Flow

A. Liquid Diffusion of Moisture in Drying

• When liquid diffusion of moisture controls the

rate of drying in the falling-rate period, the
equations in Chapter 7 can be used.
kg free moisture
• Using the concentration as 𝑋
kg dry solid
kmol moisture
instead of Fick’s 2nd law for
3 ,
m
unsteady-state diffusion (Eqn. [7.10-10]) can
𝝏𝑿 𝝏𝟐 𝑿
be written as Eqn. [9.9-3]: = 𝑫𝑳 𝟐
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒙
9.9 Drying in Falling-Rate Period by Diffusion and Capillary Flow

A. Liquid Diffusion of Moisture in Drying

This type of diffusion is often characteristic of

• relatively slow drying in nongranular
materials, ex. soap, gelatin, glue
• later stages of drying of bound water in clay,
wood, textiles, leather, paper, foods, starches,
other hydrophilic solids
9.9 Drying in Falling-Rate Period by Diffusion and Capillary Flow

A. Liquid Diffusion of Moisture in Drying

• A major difficulty in analyzing diffusion drying

data is that the initial moisture distribution is
not uniform through out the solid at the start
if a drying period at constant rate precedes
the falling-rate period.
• During diffusion-type drying, the resistance to
mass transfer of water vapor from the surface
is usually very small, and the diffusion in the
solid controls the rate of drying.
9.9 Drying in Falling-Rate Period by Diffusion and Capillary Flow

A. Liquid Diffusion of Moisture in Drying

• Then the moisture content at the surface is at

the equilibrium value 𝑋 ∗
• This means that the free moisture content 𝑋
at the surface is essentially zero
9.9 Drying in Falling-Rate Period by Diffusion and Capillary Flow

A. Liquid Diffusion of Moisture in Drying

9.9 Drying in Falling-Rate Period by Diffusion and Capillary Flow

A. Liquid Diffusion of Moisture in Drying

• Eqns. [9.9-7] and [9.9-8] state that:

– When internal diffusion controls for long periods
of time, the rate of drying is directly proportional
to the free moisture 𝑋 and the liquid diffusivity,
and that the rate of drying is inversely
proportional to the thickness squared, or
– In terms of the time of drying between fixed
moisture limits, time varies directly as the square
of the thickness
• The drying rate should be independent of gas
velocity and humidity
Example 9.9-1
Ex. 9.9-1:
Alternative Solution
• Fig. 5.3-13 may be used for
the average concentration
in a slab
𝑋 0.05
• 𝐸𝑎 = = = 0.20
𝑋1 0.25
𝐷𝐿 𝑡
• = 0.56
𝑥12
0.56𝑥12 0.56(0.01272 )
• 𝑡= = =
𝐷𝐿 2.97×10−6
• 𝑡 = 30.4 h
9.9 Drying in Falling-Rate Period by Diffusion and Capillary Flow

B. Capillary Movement of Moisture in Drying

• Water can flow from regions of high

concentration to those of low concentration
as a result of capillary action rather than by
diffusion if the pore sizes of the granular
materials are suitable.
9.9 Drying in Falling-Rate Period by Diffusion and Capillary Flow

B. Capillary Movement of Moisture in Drying

The Capillary Theory

• Assumes that a packed bed of
nonporous spheres contains a
void space between the spheres
called pores
• As water is evaporated, capillary
forces are set up by the
interfacial tension between the
water and the solid
• These forces provide the driving
force for moving the water
through the pores to the drying
surface
Image source:
http://grainflowresearch.mae.cornell.edu/UnsaturatedP
orousMedia/images/photos/TetrahedronCavity1.gif
9.9 Drying in Falling-Rate Period by Diffusion and Capillary Flow

B. Capillary Movement of Moisture in Drying

• A modified form of Poiseuille’s equation for

laminar flow can be used in conjunction with
the capillary-force equation to derive an
equation for the rate of drying when flow is by
capillary movement
• If the moisture movement follows the
capillary-flow equations, the rate of drying 𝑅
will vary linearly with 𝑋
9.9 Drying in Falling-Rate Period by Diffusion and Capillary Flow

B. Capillary Movement of Moisture in Drying

• Since the mechanism of evaporation during

this period is the same as during the
constant-rate period, the effects of the
variables gas velocity, temperature of the gas,
humidity of the gas, etc., will be the same as
for the constant-rate drying period
9.9 Drying in Falling-Rate Period by Diffusion and Capillary Flow

B. Capillary Movement of Moisture in Drying

• Hence, Eqns. [9.9-10] and [9.9-11] state that

when capillary flow controls in the falling-rate
period, the rate of drying is inversely
proportional to the thickness
• The time of drying between fixed moisture
limits varies directly as the thickness and
depends upon the gas velocity, temperature
and humidity
9.9 Drying in Falling-Rate Period by Diffusion and Capillary Flow

C. Comparison of Liquid Diffusion and Capillary Flow

9.9 Drying in Falling-Rate Period by Diffusion and Capillary Flow

C. Comparison of Liquid Diffusion and Capillary Flow

Example 9.9-2
 Contents
8. Combined Convection, Radiation, and
Conduction Heat Transfer in Constant-Rate
Period
9. Drying in Falling-Rate Period by Diffusion and
Capillary Flow
10.Equations for Various Types of Dryers
11.Freeze-Drying of Biological Materials
12.Unsteady-State Thermal Processing and
Sterilization of Biological Materials
9.10 Equations for Various Types of Dryers

A. Through-Circulation Drying in Packed Beds

B. Tray Drying with Varying Air Conditions
C. Material and Heat Balances for Continuous
Dryers
D. Continuous Countercurrent Drying
9.10 Equations for Various Types of Dryers

A. Through-Circulation Drying in
Packed Beds
• Through-circulation drying – the drying gas
passes upward or downward through a bed of
wet granular solids
• May result in both constant-rate period and
falling-rate period of drying
• Granular solids are often arranged on a screen
so that gas passes through the screen and
through the open spaces or voids between
solid particles
9.10 Equations for Various Types of Dryers
A. Through-Circulation Drying in
Packed Beds
9.10 Equations for Various Types of Dryers
A. Through-Circulation Drying in
Packed Beds
9.10 Equations for Various Types of Dryers
A. Through-Circulation Drying in
Packed Beds
Example 9.10-1
Ex. 9.10-1 Solution
Ex. 9.10-1 Solution
9.10 Equations for Various Types of Dryers

B. Tray Drying with Varying Air

Conditions
• For drying in a compartment or tray dryer
where the air passes in parallel flow over the
surface of the tray, the air conditions do not
remain constant
• Heat and material balances similar to those
for through circulation must be made to
determine the exit-gas temperature and
humidity
9.10 Equations for Various Types of Dryers

B. Tray Drying with Varying Air

Conditions
9.10 Equations for Various Types of Dryers

C. Material and Heat Balances for

Continuous Dryers
9.10 Equations for Various Types of Dryers
C. Material and Heat Balances for Continuous Dryers
9.10 Equations for Various Types of Dryers
C. Material and Heat Balances for Continuous Dryers
9.10 Equations for Various Types of Dryers

C. Material and Heat Balances for

Continuous Dryers
9.10 Equations for Various Types of Dryers

C. Material and Heat Balances for

Continuous Dryers
9.10 Equations for Various Types of Dryers

D. Continuous Countercurrent Drying

• Continuous drying – solid is moved through the
dryer while in contact with a moving gas stream
that may flow parallel or countercurrent to the
solid
– in countercurrent adiabatic operation, the entering
hot gas contacts the leaving solid, which has been
dried
– In parallel adiabatic operation, the entering hot gas
contacts the entering wet solid
• Advantages of continuous drying over batch
drying:
– smaller sizes of equipment
– product has more uniform moisture content
9.10 Equations for Various Types of Dryers

D. Continuous Countercurrent Drying

9.10 Equations for Various Types of Dryers

D. Continuous Countercurrent Drying

9.10 Equations for Various Types of Dryers

D. Continuous Countercurrent Drying

9.10 Equations for Various Types of Dryers

D. Continuous Countercurrent Drying

9.10 Equations for Various Types of Dryers

D. Continuous Countercurrent Drying

 Contents
8. Combined Convection, Radiation, and
Conduction Heat Transfer in Constant-Rate
Period
9. Drying in Falling-Rate Period by Diffusion and
Capillary Flow
10.Equations for Various Types of Dryers
11.Freeze-Drying of Biological Materials
12.Unsteady-State Thermal Processing and
Sterilization of Biological Materials