CARBOHYDRATES

Carbohydrates Definition
Carbohydrate is a organic compound, it comprises of only oxygen, carbon and hydrogen. The
oxygen: hydrogen :.
ratio is usually is 2:1. The empirical formula being Cm (H2O) n (where m can be
different from n). Carbohydrates are hydrates of carbon, technically they are polyhydroxy
aldehydes and ketones. Carbohydrates are also known as saccharides, the word saccharide comes
from Greek word sakkron which means sugar.
Carbohydrates Classification
Carbohydrates a re classified into three groups

Monosaccharides or Monosachoroses
From Greek, mono =one; sakchron =sugar.
1. Monosaccharides are often called simple sugars, these are compound which
possess a free aldehydes or ketone group.
2. They are the simplest sugars and cannot be hydrolyzed.
3. The general formula is Cn n (H2O)n or Cn 2 n On H .

4. The monosaccharides are subdivided into trioses, tertrose, pentoses, hexoses,

heptoses etc., and also as aldoses or ketoses depending upon whether they contain
aldehyde or ketone group. and Ribulose.
Examples of monosaccharides are Fructose, Erythrulose,

Oligosaccharides or Oligosaccharoses
1. In Greek, Oligo means few.
2. Oligosaccharides are compound sugars that yield 2 to 10 molecules of
the same or different monosaccharides on hydrolysis.
3. Oligosaccharides yielding 2 molecules of monosaccharides on
hydrolysis are known as a disaccharide, and the ones yielding 3 or 4
monosaccharides are known as trisaccharides and tetrasaccharides
general formula of disaccharides is respectively and so on. Th
Cn ( 2 O)n - 1 and that of trisaccharides is Cn(H2O)n-2 and so on.
H

4. Example of disaccharides is sucrose, lactose, maltose etc.

Dr.C.V.Narasimha murthy. Reader in Zoology,JBDC zoology notes-2016
 Trisaccharides are Raffinose, Rabinose.

Polysaccharides or Polysaccharoses
1. In Greek, poly.
means many.
2. Polysaccharides are compound sugars and yield more than 10
molecules of monosaccharides on hydrolysis.
3. They are further classified depending on the type of molecules produced as a
result of hydrolysis.
4. They may be homopolysaccharides i.e., monosaccharides of the same
type or heteropolysaccharides i.e., monosaccharides of different types. T
5. he general formula is (C6HH 10O5)x.
Example of homopolysaccharides are starch, glycogen, cellulose, pectin.
Hyaluronic acid, Chond rotin.
Heteropolysaccharides are

Properties of Carbohydrates

General properties of carbohydrates

1. Carbohydrates act as energy reserves, also stores fuels, and metabolic intermediates.
2. Ribose and deoxyribose sugars forms the structural frame of the genetic
material, RNA and DNA.
3. Polysaccharides like cellulose are the structural elements in the cell walls of
bacteria and plants.
4. Carbohydrates are linked to proteins and lipids that play important roles
in cell interactions.

Dr.C.V.Narasimha murthy. Reader in Zoology,JBDC zoology notes-2016

 5. Carbohydrates are organic compounds, they are aldehydes or ketones with
many hydroxyl groups.

Physical Properties of Carbohydrates

1. Steroisomerism - Compound shaving same structural formula but they differ in
spatial configuration. Example: Glucose has two isomers with respect to penultimate
carbon atom. They are D-glucose and L-glucose.
2. Optical Activity - It is the rotation of
plane polarized light forming (+) glucose and (-)
glucose.
3. Diastereo isomers - It the configurational
changes with regard to C2, C3, or C4 in glucose.
Example: Mannose, galactose.
4. Annomerism - It is the spatial
configuration with respect to the first carbon atom
in aldoses and second carbon atom in ketoses.

Dr.C.V.Narasimha murthy. Reader in Zoology,JBDC zoology notes-2016

 Structure of Carbohydrates

Structure of Monosaccharoaids

Structure of Disaccharaids

Disaccharides Definition

Dr.C.V.Narasimha murthy. Reader in Zoology,JBDC zoology notes-2016

Disaccharides are those sugars that yield two molecules of the same or different
monosaccharides when hydrolyzed. The linkage between two monosaccharides is called a
glycosidic linkage. The general formula is CnH2nOn-1. When two monosaccharides are
combined together by a glycosidic linkage, a disaccharide is formed.
Examples of Disaccharides

Examples:
Sucrose -reducing sugar)
Lactose Galactose + Glucose (reducing sugar)
Maltose
1. All the disaccharides are crystalline solids, soluble in water and fall in two classes,
reducing sugar and non- reducing sugars.

Dr.C.V.Narasimha murthy. Reader in Zoology,JBDC zoology notes-2016

 2. A number of common disaccharides occur in nature, e.g. sucrose, maltose and lactose.
3. The disaccharide is formed when two monosaccharides undergo condensation
reaction with a loss of molecule of water and formation of glycosidic bond.

Sucrose

1. Sucrose is the organic compound commonly known as table Sugar. Sucrose is one
of the most important disaccharide commercially and is obtained from sugar cane and
sugar beet.
2. Sucrose is a white crystalline solid, soluble in water with melting point 180° C.
When heated above its melting point, it forms a brown substance known as caramel.
3. Sucrose is dextrorotatory.
4. On hydrolysis with dilute acids sucrose yield an equimolecular mixture of
D(+)glucose and D(-)fructose.

C 12H22O11 + 2O6 12O6 + C6 12O6

H H H

Sucrose is a non- reducing sugar in which alpha glucose is linked to fructofuranose by a

glycosidic link.

Maltose
Maltose is the organic compound which is commonly known as malt sugar. It is a white
160°-
crystalline solid, soluble in water with melting point 165° C and it is dextrorotatory. When it
is hydrolyzed with dilute acid it yields two molecules of D(+) glucose. It is a reducing sugar.
Maltose is a important component in the process of creating fermented barley which can be used to
brew beer.

C12H22O1 1 + H2O

Dr.C.V.Narasimha murthy. Reader in Zoology,JBDC zoology notes-2016

Lactose is the organic compound which is commonly known as milk sugar. Lactose occurs in the
milk of all animals. Lactose is a white crystalline solid with melting point 203° C, soluble in
water and is dextrorotatory. It is a reducing sugar formed by one molecule of D(+) galactose and
one molecule of D(-)glucose coupled by a beta linkage.
C12H22O11 + H2O

Structure of Polysaccharides (Glycogen)

Glycogen is a multi branched polysaccharide of glucose that serves as a form of energy storage in
animals and fungi. The polysaccharide structure represents the main storage form of glucose in
the body.
Glycogen Structure
Glycogen consists of long polymer chains of glucose units which are bonded by an alpha acetyl
linkage. An acetyl linkage forms by the combination of carbonyl group and alcoholic group. If
the carbonyl group is an aldehydes group (- CHO), it termed as hemiacetal and if there is ketonic
Dr.C.V.Narasimha murthy. Reader in Zoology,JBDC zoology notes-2016
group, it forms hemiketal bond. If two alkoxy groups are bonded on same carbon atom, it called as
acetyl group and bond termed as acetyl linkage.

In case of glycogen, all alpha-D-- glucose bonded to each other by alpha acetyl linkage between
unit, hence called as α- 1,4-
C1 of one monomer unit and C4 of other monomer glycosidic
linkage.
formed bySince glycogen is a branched polymer, branching occurs at intervals of 8-10 glucose
acetyl linkage between C1 and C6. units. These branches are

Dr.C.V.Narasimha murthy. Reader in Zoology,JBDC zoology notes-2016