Mozart and the Tromlitz flute

© 2000 Ardal Powell

Author's note: this is an English version of 'Mozart und die Tromlitz-Flöte', as it

appeared in Tibia 26.3 (2001)1

ABSTRACT: W.A. Mozart, J.J. Quantz, J.G. Tromlitz and other educated musicians of
the 18th century relied on a tuning theory more complex and more accurate than today's
equal temperament. This article briefly describes a flute announced by Tromlitz in 1785
that allowed strict adherence to this system in all 24 keys. Quotations from Mozart's
flute music illustrate how using the intonation practice he advocated can dramatically
alter the expressive effect of his music.

In 1785 the Leipzig flute virtuoso, teacher, author, and flute maker Johann George Tromlitz (1725-
1805) announced the development of a new kind of flute. After a lifetime's experience of playing
and making flutes, and a few years of experiment on improving the design of his instruments, he had
developed a type he could rightfully claim as the most technically advanced flute of his time.

The Tromlitz flute appeared at the beginning of a period of rapid and energetic experimentation in
flute design that culminated in the modern flute, and until very recently it attracted notice only as a
stage in that evolution. As such it made a notable gain: Tromlitz's flute of 1785 provided the first
practical model in which each of the twelve semitones of the chromatic scale was produced by a
separate tonehole not shared by any other note. No more significant acoustical advance was made in
flute design until, in 1832, Theobald Boehm, who with his friend Carl von Schafhäutl (1803-1890)
indiscriminately called all the keyed flutes of the time 'Tromlitz' flutes, employed elaborate keywork
to assign more acoustically correct positions to the toneholes than those the unaided fingers could
reach.

Yet today's interest in the historical performance of classical music invites our closer attention to the
musical properties of the instrument itself. Tromlitz developed his flute in pursuit of certain
particular ideas about tone and intonation,2 ideas he also expressed in writing,3 as well as in
performances that attracted comments from his contemporaries.4 Thus Tromlitz's flutes,
publications, and playing provide a rich store of information from several different perspectives not
only about how he himself played, but also about what his contemporaries heard in his playing, and
about his reasons for playing the way he did.

Tone and performance style

In 1754 Tromlitz joined the Grosses Konzert, a private music club formed in Leipzig in 1743 from
the Collegium Musicum that had been founded by Telemann and directed for a time by J. S. Bach.
Over the next 20 years he appeared with the orchestra, as well as in solo billing with stars such as the
singer Gertrud Elisabeth Schmeling and the keyboard player Johann Wilhelm Hässler, not only in
Leipzig but also on tours as far afield as St Petersburg. These performances made him famous for a
soloistic style of playing the flute that at that time was considered new, at least for the flute.
Tromlitz's obituary in the Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung recalled that,
 As a virtuoso he was distinguished
by perfection, but still more by
complete purity of intonation and
security of tone, as by precision in
performance. He was also one of
the first, and in respect of the
influence he had, the first, to
introduce the now usual bravura-
and concerto-style way of playing
the flute, and especially the strong,
cutting tone best suited to it. . .
Als Virtuos war er durch
Fertigkeit, noch mehr aber durch
vollkommene Reinheit und
Sicherheit des Tones, wie durch
Genauigkeit im Spiel
ausgezeichnet. Er war auch einer
der Ersten, und in Absicht der
Einfluss der Erste, die die jetzt
gewöhnliche bravour- und
konzertmässige Behandlung der
Flöte und vornemlich den dazu am
besten geeigneten starken, scharfen
Ton . . . einfuhrten . . . hat.5

A still more evocative description of Tromlitz's tone is given by an anonymous reviewer of his book
of 1800 about the new keyed flute, Über die Flöten mit mehrern Klappen:

Anyone who still remembers the
author's public appearances as a
flute-player knows . . . that he
melted the tone of the flute and the
oboe into one another.
Wer sich noch daran errinert, wie
der Verfasser als Flötenspieler
öffentlich auftrat, der weiß . . ., daß
er der Ton derl Föte und der Oboe
ineinander Verschmolz.6

Tromlitz spoke for himself about tone in his pamphlet of 1786 on flute-playing, in Chapter 6 of his
tutor for the two-keyed flute, published in 1791, and in an essay of 1800 in the Allgemeine
Musikalische Zeitung. In the latest of these works he described his ideal flute tone as "bright,
metallic, firm, well focused, strong and brilliant" [hell, von viel Metall, voll, singend, sanft und
beigsam], and in the earliest wrote that:

a good flutist must have a strong
low register and a weak high one. .
. The high register of the flute
carries much more than the low,
therefore one must certainly seek to
soften the high so that it does not
shriek like a fife, but at the same
time the tone must not be made too
repressed and fearful; the low
register must be more penetrating
and fuller, but still so that both,
high and low, stand in an equal
relation.
. . . man sagt: 'ein guter Flötenist
muß eine starke Tiefe und
schwache Höhe haben.'. . . Die
Höhe auf der Flöte sticht weit mehr
durch, als die Tiefe, daheo muß
man zwar die Höhe zu mildern
suchen, daß sie nicht wie eine
Querpfeife schreyt, aber den Ton
muß auch nicht zu sehr gedrückt
und ängstlich gemacht werden; die
Tiefe muß schärfer und vller
werden, aber doch so, daß beydes,
Höhe und Tiefe, in einem gleichen
 Verhältnisse stehen.

In Saxony during the 1760s and 70s this style of playing may have been unusual enough to attract
special notice, but by the 1790s it had become widespread, certainly among professional players and
traveling soloists. In a flute tutor published in London in 1793, John Gunn wrote that by that time
"every public performer" played with

. . . a bold and warlike expression of those full and loud tones, which seem to emulate
the notes of the trumpet. . .

The increase in the frequency and size of public performance of concertos and solos, both by
traveling virtuosos and in groups of amateur musicians, seems to have been linked with this growing
taste for a harder, more brilliant tone, as well as with the emergence of keyed flutes with their more
penetrating and even low register. The new style stood in direct opposition to the more relaxed style
of playing popular earlier in the eighteenth century, and still cultivated by amateurs, perhaps
especially in England.7 Gunn describes the older manner of playing, still typical of amateurs and
dilettantes ". . . the character of which . . . is softness, grace, and tender expression."

Intonation

The other of Tromlitz's chief concerns was intonation. Although equal temperament had long been
used in keyboard tuning and was making itself felt in the theory of melody instrument design,8 'the
bases then [i.e. during Quantz's lifetime] accepted for tuning often differed fundamentally from
modern views', as Edward R. Reilly noted in 1997. 9

Throughout his writings Tromlitz emphatically and repeatedly insisted that intervals, either between
melodic steps in the flute part, or between the flute and its accompanying bass part, should be played
'pure', and that tempering intervals on melody instruments was both impractical and undesirable.
Today pure intervals are a rarity in instrumental music except among the finest orchestral woodwind
sections: the out-of-tuneness of an equal-tempered keyboard no longer strikes us as horrid, and many
flutists are in thrall to the mistaken idea that playing "in tune" means matching the notes to the same
pitches on the piano or harpsichord. Yet a keyboard with only 12 divisions to the octave can manage
to be only approximately in tune if it is to be usable in 12 major and minor keys, and there is a world
of difference between this approximation and the sound of pure intervals. Tromlitz wrote that wind
instruments have the option of playing better in tune in 24 keys than any keyboard can do in half that
number:

It is possible for [the flute] to be Eine dergleichen Stimung is weit

more perfectly in tune than the
keyboard, on which no interval
except the octave can be quite
pure, so that it cannot agree in
tuning all the time with a good
flute-player who scrupulously
observes everything that has been
said above, or with a good violinist
who plays in tune.
schwerer, als die auf dem Claviere,
und dennoch ist es möglich, daß
dieses instrument . . . reiner
gestimmet werden kann, als das
Clavier, auf welchem kein
Intervall, als die Octaven, ganz
rein seyn kann, dahero kann es
auch nicht überall zu einem guten
Flötenspieler, der alles
 Vorhergesagte genau beobachtet,
oder zu einem guten Geiger, der
rein spielet, passen.10

He advised the student, in his 1791 tutor for the two-keyed flute, to train his ear to hear the intervals
correctly, and although he mentions 5ths and 3rds, he most frequently reminds us how important it is
to learn the "semitones and whole tones in particular", "and how they are supposed to sound".

J.J. Quantz had explained the proportions of the semitones in 1752:

The motive which induced me to Die Ursache, welche mich

add yet another key, not previously
used, to the flute, stems from the
difference between large and small
semitones. When a note on the
same line or space as another note
is raised with a sharp, or lowered
with a flat, the difference between
the altered note and the principal
note consists of a small semitone.
When, on the other hand, one note
stands on the line while the other
stands a step higher, and is
lowered with a flat; or if one note
stands on the line, and is raised
with a sharp, while the other stnads
on the space a step higher, and
remains natural, the difference
amounts to a large semitone. The
large semitone has five commas,
the small one only four.
veranlasset hat, der Flöte noch
eine Klappe, welche vorhin nicht
gewesen ist, hinzufügen, rühet von
dem Unterschiede der großen und
kleinen halben Ton her. Wenn eine
Note auf eben derselben Linie,
order auf eben demselben
Zwischenraume durch ein Kreuz
erhöhet . . . oder durch ein b
erniedriget wird . . . so bestehet der
Unterschied zwischen dieser und
dem Haupttone, aus einem kleinen
halben Tone. Wenn hingegen eine
Note auf der Linie, die andere aber
eine Stufe höher steht, und durch
ein b erniedriget wird . . . oder
wenn eine Note auf der Linie steht,
und durch ein Kreuz erhöhet wird;
die andere aber auf dem
Zwischenraume, eine Stufe höher
ist, und natürlich belibt . . . : so
beträgt der Unterschied zwischen
diesen beyden Noten, einen großen
halben Ton. Der große halbe Ton
hat fünf Kommata, der kleine aber
hat deren vier.11

Thus in Quantz's tuning system, whichTromlitz, like other educated musicians of his period,
espoused, the octave contained not twelve but twenty-four notes, with distinct fingerings for every
enharmonic pair.12 The disappearance of these major and minor semitones is perhaps the most
notable of many shifts to have occured over the past 200 years in the way music sounds.13

The Tromlitz flute

 In the late 18th century, this shift had not yet taken
place. During the period when Tromlitz was making his
reputation as a performer, in the 1760s and 70s, he, like
Quantz, was playing on a two-keyed flute of his own
design. Despite the extreme limitations of this type of
flute for realizing his precise notions of intonation, but
perhaps in deference to Quantz's example, it was the
two-keyed flute he recommended in his tutor of 1791.
He looked back on this unsatisfactory situation in 1800:

For a long time now, Lange schon sind von

discerning flautists einsichtsvollen
have been remarking Flötenisten Mängel
on deficiencies of verschiedener Art an
various sorts in this diesem Instrumente
instrument, which have bemerket worden,
been the cause of welche viele
many impediments and Hindernisse und viele
imperfections in Unvolkommenheiten
playing; but no means im Spielen
have been presented of verursachten; aber
alleviating these kein Mittel wollte sich
deficiencies. In fact it darbieten, diese
has even been Mängel zu heben. Ja
maintained that they man glaubte gar, es
were natural faults of wären Naturfehler
the instrument which dieses Instruments, die
could not be nicht gehoben werden
eliminated. So people könnten. Man
did not concern bekümmerte sich also
themselves with them, nicht weiter darum,
and just let them pass. und ließ es so
gehen.14

Three views of Tromllitz's flute of 1796,

showing (left)keys for G#, long and short
F, and D#; (middle) keys for C, long and
short B flat, G#, long and short F, D# and
E flat; (right) keys for C, long and short B
flat, the short F touchpiece just visible, E
flat and D#.
However by the early 1780s, a decade before he
published his tutor for the two-keyed flute, Tromlitz
had begun adding keys to his flutes, as London
flutemakers had already been doing for about 30
years.15 His quest for a "superlative instrument" led
him after only a few years of experiment to the design
of 1785, in which for the first time all 24 notes in an
octave could be played with accurate intonation and
equal tone. For Tromlitz, this was an achievement
literally twice as important as the one he is credited
with by later writers.

By 1796, his most advanced instruments were being

 made with keys for D#, Eb, double F, G#, double Bb
and C, and four years later Tromlitz published a tutor
for this instrument. He wrote that, though the maker
could tune the notes produced by the keys so as to be
usable as both sharps and flats, they could more
usefully be tuned as flats and a different fingering used
for the lower-sounding sharps. The detailed fingering
tables in the 1800 work listed all the large and small
semitones, as well as exhaustive examples of how to
play—perfectly in tune, with pure intervals—in all
keys. In his Foreword he noted that by no means all
flutists were in a position to appreciate the importance
of this development:

In general people think that anyone
who from much practice has
acquired a certain facility in the
usual keys and commonplace
passage-work is a Virtuoso. But,
dear reader, he is not; he is only
someone who makes a living from
this instrument, not a Virtuoso;
since for this is required a
thorough knowledge of music,
which he must possess and be able
to apply, so that he does not just
parrot other people's conventional
ideas, but can produce new and
artful idioms even in the remotest
keys. This has a marvellous and
exquisite effect, especially on the
flute. However it is seldom if ever
to be heard on this instrument,
because on a one-keyed flute it
cannot be done.
Überhaupt glaubt man, daß der,
der sich durch vieles Üben einige
Fertigkeit in den gewöhnlichen
Tonarten und alltäglichen
Passagen erworben hat, eine
Virtuose sey. Allein, mein Lieber,
das ist er nicht, er is nur einer, der
Profession von diesem Instrumente
macht, aber kein Virtuos; denn
dazu gehöret eine weitläufige
Kenntniß in der Music, die er
besitzen und anwenden können
muß, damit er nicht nur andern
ihre alltägliche Gedanken
nachbeten darf, sondern neue und
kïnstliche Wendungen auch in den
entfernsten Tonarten
hervorbringen könne. Dieß macht
vorzüglich auf der Flöte eine
herrliche und vorterffliche
Wirkung. Allein man höret es auf
diesem Instrumente selten oder gar
nicht, weil es auf einer Flöte mit
einer Klappe nicht möglich zu
machen ist.

Mozart and intonation

At the same time as Tromlitz was developing a flute that made Quantz's tuning system so much
more practically achievable, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791) was teaching the same
theoretical framework to an English composition pupil in Vienna. Thomas Attwood's lessons in
theory and thorough-bass took place from 1785 to about the beginning of 1787. Among the details in
Attwood's notes that are written in Mozart's hand are chromatic scales with enharmonic equivalents
showing large and small semitones, and the sizes of intervals as the sum of whole tones and
differently-sized semitones. Mozart himself made corrections to other material that appears in
Attwood's hand, which John Hind Chesnut discussed in an important article in 1977.16 Chesnut
concluded that Mozart taught Attwood the same rules of tonality and intonation as the ones in
practical manuals for performance by Tosi, Quantz, Leopold Mozart, Tromlitz, and others. He
concluded: "Modern intonation practice is not appropriate if our goal is to play Mozart's music as he
himself wanted it played."

With the Tromlitz flute in hand, we can put Chesnut's conclusion to the test. A chromatic scale
played with Tromlitz's fingerings sounds very different from the smooth, homogenized sequence of
intervals we are accustomed to hearing. And passages containing the kind of chromaticism Mozart
uses to paint melodies and enhance their features seems much stronger and more challenging when
interpreted as Mozart imagined them compared to the comparitively bland effect when played with
equal-sized semitones. In ensemble music the contrast between concords that sound perfectly in tune
and discords that sound jarring greatly increases the tonal pull of the music as well as its dramatic
power. W.A. Mathieu wrote that even when listening to Mozart on a good day, the ear gets tired and
restless in twelve-tone equal temperament. Indeed, playing Mozart's music according to his own
specifications as to intonation practice can have a dramatic result on its expressive quality.

Example 1

Mozart's flute music provides abundant examples of his expressive use of these intonation features,
but only four brief excerpts must suffice here. In the first subject of the Andante ma non troppo of
Mozart's D major concerto K. 314 (see example 1 above), chromatic appogiaturas play a structural
role. On the first beat of bars 12, 13, and 14, the G#s and A# should sound a large semitone below
their upper neighbors. All the notes marked with an asterisk, in fact, sound much lower than they
would in equal temperament, in direct opposition to the tendency of conservatoire-trained musicians
since the mid-nineteenth century to sharpen leading notes.

Example 2

The Adagio of Mozart's Quartett in D KV 285 for flute and strings (example 2 above) employs
appogiaturas in a similar manner. For a one- or two-keyed flutist to execute the E#s in bars 2, 3 and
5 of the example so that they sound low enough is already difficult, owing to the fact that a separate
fingering for E# does not exist, and that for F (a comma sharper than E#) already has a tendency to
be sharp on most flutes. Tromlitz's flute provides an appropriately low fingering for this note, as well
as for the D# in bar 7.

Example 3

Another of Mozart's flute quartets, KV 298 in A major, appears to have been composed a year or so
after Tromlitz announced his new flute in 1785. The key of A major fits well on most German keyed
flutes of the period, which tend to have D# and G# tuned lower than their equal-tempered pitches.
The Tromlitz flute, however, provides the added advantage of correct fingerings for A# and E#. On a
one-keyed flute the Rondeau of KV 298 (example 3 above) comes across with far less success,
especially in a large room.

Example 4

A passage from the Allegro of quartet in D KV 285 (example 4 above) illustrates the unsettling
effect of chromaticism in the Mozartian tuning system. Rather than slipping gently from one key to
another, the listener feels the tonal ground shifting beneath his feet at such moments. The 'harmonic
experience', to use W.A. Mathieu's expression, of the key of D major when it reappears, feels like
the solid footing of the dock after a trip on a sailing vessel. 17

Performing Mozart's music today

Though our picture of Tromlitz's manner of playing and of the instrument he developed to facilitate
it is clear enough to reveal much about 18th-century musical taste and practice, it would be a mistake
to conclude that that everybody played the same way as he did—the contemporary reports of his
excellence are testimony to that, and after all he produced his exceptional instruments one at a time
in his one-man workshop, not in a factory that sold to the trade. Indeed it is tempting to speculate
that when Mozart referred to the flute as "an instrument I cannot bear" it was because few of his
contemporaries observed the distinctions in intonation Tromlitz was so careful to make. That Mozart
shared Tromlitz's concern for correct intonation is clear from his words of praise for his friend the
Mannheim flutist Johann Baptist Wendling:

It's another thing with your
brother, you know. In the first
place he's not just a tootler, and
then you don;t have to worry in his
case when you know there's such
and such a note coming up that
he'll be much too flat or too sharp--
see, it's always right and he has his
heart and ears and the tip of his
tongue in the right place and
doesn't think his job is done just by
blowing and fingering, and then he
also knows what Adagio means.
Ja wissens das ist was anders beim
Herrn Bruder. Der ist erstens kein
so Dudler, und dann braucht man
bei ihm nicht jedesmal Angst zu
haben, wenn man weiss, jetzt soll
der eine Ton kommen, ist er wohl
so viel zu tief oder zu hoch—
schauens, da ists immer recht, er
hat's Herz und die Ohren und das
Zungenzpitzl am rechten Ort und
glaubt nicht, dass mit dem blossen
Blasen und Gabelmachen schon
was ausgerichtet sei, und dann
weiss er auch, was Adagio
heisst.18

Although Tromlitz's executive skill, likeWendling's, was surely exceptional, his ideas on intonation
were clearly in the mainstream of educated musical practice in the 18th century. And even the brief
examples here should indicate that their effect in the performance of Mozart's music amounts to
more than a minor quibble.

Yet it must be noted that while most of today's historical-instrument flutists have cultivated the 'soft
and tender' style Gunn referred to, only one or two notable exceptions have made any attempt to play
classical music in a style that resembles that of the period's professional players. Still less have
today's interpreters of the classical repertoire on 'original' flutes absorbed the intonation practice
spelled out by Mozart, Tromlitz, Quantz, and others, though interestingly oboists and even
clarinetists tend to play with more attention and sensitivity to such matters. Of course, how to apply
what we learn of contemporary ideas and performance practice in our own interpretations of late
18th-century music is a difficult question: clearly, our conditions are quite different from those of
200 years ago. But the parallels between Tromlitz's ideas of intonation and those of Mozart, and the
dramatic expressive effect of putting them into practice in place of an unthinking adherence to
modern convention, makes experiencing these ideas an indispensable study for anyone who wishes
to understand the true nature of Mozart's musical feeling and bring it alive today.

Notes
Use your browser's Back button to return to your place in the text
1. Parts of this essay were read at the 1995 meeting of the American Musical Instrument Society,
and published in 'The Tromlitz Flute', Journal of the Americal Musical Instrument Society XXII
(1996), 89-109. Other material is taken from Ardal Powell, trans. and ed., The Keyed Flute by
Johann George Tromlitz (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996) (hereafter The Keyed Flute), in which
further detail and documentation on the points covered in this article may be found. 'Powerful tone
and perfect intonation: Tromlitz and his "superlative instrument"', a paper read at the Convention of
the National Flute Association, Phoenix AZ, 13 August 1999, gave a practical demonstration of the
effects of using appropriate intonation practices in Mozart's music. Research on the Tromlitz flute
was funded by a 1993-94 Fellowship from the National Endowment for the Humanities' program for
College Teachers and Independent Scholars.

2. Tromlitz described his motivation as a flute maker in the pamphlet An das musikalische Publikum,
Leipzig;[Author], 1796; R/1982; translated in The Keyed Flute, Appendix II.

3. Tromlitz's didactic writings are:

Johann George Tromlitz, Kurze Abhandlung vom Flötenspielen, Leipzig: Breitkopf, 1786

-----Ausführlicher und Gründlicher Unterricht die Flöte zu Spielen Leipzig: Böhme, 1791, trans. and
ed. Ardal Powell, The Virtuoso Flute-player by Johann George Tromlitz (Cambridge and New York:
Cambridge University Press, 1991)

-----Über die Flöten mit mehrern Klappen, Leipzig: Böhme, 1800, trans. and ed. Ardal Powell, The
Keyed Flute by Johann George Tromlitz (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996)

-----"Abhandlung über den Schönen Ton auf der Flöte", Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung 2 (January
1800), 301-04 and 316-20.

He wrote about his flute making activities in a series of articles and pamphlets:

Johann George Tromlitz, "Nachricht von Tromlitz Flöten", in Johann Georg Meusel, ed.,
Miscellaneen artistischen Inhaltes 8 (1781), 115-21

-----"Nachricht von Tromlitz'schen Flöten",in C. F. Cramer ed., Magazin der Muzik, 1. 2 (Hamburg,
1783), 1013-21, trans. Ardal Powell, "Information on Tromlitz flutes", Traverso 6. 1 (January 1994),
1-2

-----"Neuerfundene Vortheile zur bessern Einrichtung der Flöte", in Johann Georg Meusel, ed.,
Miscellaneen artistischen Inhaltes 26 (1785), 104-09

-----"An das musikalische Publikum", Musikalische Korrespondenz der teutschen filarmonischen

Gesellschaft, 32-4 (10-24 Aug. 1791) 252-69

-----An das musikalische Publikum Leipzig, 1796 R/1982

-----`Replik auf die Anfrage,"Sollten nicht undere Flöten durch die vielen Klappen sehr verloren
haben; und hat jemand beweisen, daß die nöthig waren"', Kaiserlich-privilegierter Reichszanzeiger,
Gotha, 1800, No. 98, 1271-72.

4. Most of the relevant reviews of Tromlitz's playing are quoted in Fritz Demmler, Johann George
Tromlitz (1725-1805): Ein Beitrag zur Entwicklung der Flöte und des Flötenspiels, Ph. D.
dissertation, Freie Universität, Berlin, 1961; R/1985.
5. 'Nachricht über das Ableben von Tromlitz', Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung 7 (1805), 337-38.

6. Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung II (1800), 600 ff., quoted in Demmler.

7. On ideals of flute tone in the late eighteenth century, see section 2 of the Introduction to The
Keyed Flute.

8. The first to actually suggest that wind instruments should be tuned with equal-sized semitones
sems to have been Anon. [H. W. T. Pottgiesser], 'Über die Fehler der bisherigen Flöten, besonders
der Klappenflöten, nebst einem Vorschlage zur Besseren Einrichtung derselben', Allgemeine
Musikalische Zeitung 5, (1803), 609-16, 625-38, 644-54, 673-83.

9. Edward R. Reilly, 'Quantz and the transverse flute: Some aspects of his practice and thought
regarding the instrument', Early Music 25 (1997), 429-38

10. Unterricht, 3.22

11. Versuch 3.8

12. For further discussion of vocal and instrumental intonation practice, see Bruce Haynes, 'Beyond
Temperament: Non-Keyboard Intonation in the 17th and 18th Centuries', Early Music 19 (August
1991), 357-81

13. Mary Oleskiewicz makes a strong argument for the importance of intonation in Bach's flute
music in "The Trio Sonate in Bach's Musical Offering: A Salute to Frederick's Tastes and Quantz's
Flutes?" in Bach Perspectives, vol. 4: The Music of J.S. Bach, Analysis and Interpretation (Lincoln:
University of Nebraska Press, 1999), 79-110.

14. Über die Flöten mit mehrern Klappen, 1.1

15. For details of Tromlitz's work on his flute, and a comparison with the activities of other
instrument makers in Germany, France, Austria, Italy, and England, see the Introduction to The
Keyed Flute, and 'The Tromlitz Flute'.

16. John Hind Chesnut, 'Mozart's Teaching of Intonation', Journal of the American Musicological
Society 30 (1977), 254-71

17. W.A. Mathieu, Harmonic Experience (Rochester VT: Inner Traditions International, 1997)

18. Jane Bowers, 'Mozart and the Flute', Early Music 20.1 (Feb 1992), 32, citing H. Abert, W.A.
Mozart: Neubearbeitete und erweiterte Ausgabe von Otto Jahns Mozart, 2 Vols, (Leipzig, 7/1955-6),
i, 473, who in turn cites Wolzogen, Recensionen 1865, No. 6, 82.