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The Brontë sisters lived and created at a time of deep social changes. “The Industrial
Revolution began on their doorstep, almost within sight of their parsonage windows” (p. ),
states Terry Eagleton in Myths of Power: A Marxist Study of the Brontës. This troubled age is
precisely what helped shape the “deep structure” of the Brontë novels. The social conflicts that
stem from these tumultuous times and their relation to the sisters’ novels is precisely what
Eagleton sets out to explore, not as simple correlations of literary and social facts, but as a
Only one methodology allows for this type of interpretation, maintains Eagleton, quoting
Graham Hough: “[t]o think of this subject at all requires some application of Marxism”. This
critical method allows the fiction to be “rooted in, without being reduced to, specific social
conditions”.
However, the connection between history and literature cannot be based on merely
relating facts from one sphere to the other. There needs to be “some concept of structure”,
values and relations, and, since this informing structure seems to me distinctly
Goldmann, but refines its meaning. If Goldmann used the term to refer to “the shared categories
which inform apparently heterogeneous works, and shape the consciousness of the particular
social group or class which produces them”, Eagleton employs it as a mediator between the
novels, the social environment and the historical forces. The purpose of this mediation is to
shed light not only on the ideological structure of the works examined, but also on “its relations
way in which major social conflicts are never expressed directly, but rather give rise to a series
of subsidiary conflicts that complicate more the initial situation. In the case of the Brontës, the
major historical conflict – the rise of the Industrial Era – is further complicated by a series of
factors: their social position, their gender and education, and their social and geographical
isolation.
Edition, an Introduction to the Second Edition and an Introduction. The three Introductions
present the thesis, method, aims and justification for Eagleton’s study. The first four chapters
analyse Charlotte Brontë’s novels Jane Eyre, The Professor, Shirley and Villette. The fifth
chapter applies the method described in the Introduction, identifying The Structure of Charlotte
Brontë’s Fiction. The sixth chapter is a study of Emily Brontë’s Wuthering Heights, and the
In his Introduction to the Second Edition, Eagleton argues that the choice of Marxist
criticism as his method was influenced in part by the resurgence of Marxist criticism in Britain
as a reaction to the political events of the late 1960s, and explains a certain “necessary
methodological pluralism” employed in the analysis. Furthermore, the author adopts a critical
a more positive light on what otherwise might seem incoherencies and discrepancies in
Charlotte’s novels. Also missing in Eagleton’s analysis, the author notes, is the voice of
psychoanalytical theory.
The thesis of Eagleton’s essays is that the Brontë sisters, “transitional” figures emerging
as writers at the dawn of the industrial era and in the twilight of Romanticism,
inherit both the turbulent and traditionalist aspects of the age which precedes
them. As I try to show, they are both rebels and reactionaries, pious
as well as the conflictive vantage-point from which they lived it. It also shapes
the inner structure of their novels. It is not just a sociological fact, but a
Thus, these contradictions constitute themselves in the forces that shape the Brontë
sisters’ fictional world and, paradoxically, make them “typical of a whole historical epoch”.
From a naïve perspective, Emily Brontë’s Wuthering Heights reads as “a story of
passionate love”1; as a myth- and fairy tale-like story, in which “a gypsy foundling, named for
a dead son, usurps a father’s love”2; as a story about innocence and loss; as a classic battle
between opposite poles, good and evil, dark and light; or even as a tragedy.
The application of a critical method, though, may reveal different interpretations. The
perspective of psychoanalytical criticism, for instance, may interpret the characters, Catherine,
Heathcliff and Linton, as aspects of human personality (Freud’s id, ego and superego), or (in
Jungian terms) as archetypes. From another perspective, it might read as a metaphysical novel,
exploring the “collision between two types of reality, restrictive civilization and anonymous
unrestrained natural energies or forces”. From yet another perspective, Wuthering Heights
might read as a feminist novel, concentrating on the female protagonist’s struggle to forge her
own destiny. And yet from another perspective, Marxist criticism, it is a novel about conflict
and power struggle, about the clash between the lower and the upper class. Following
In the Introduction to his essays, Eagleton emphasises the contradictions in the Bronte
sisters’ personal background (their historic, economic, social, political, and cultural
environment) that shaped their fiction. As we stated before, the main purpose of Eagleton’s
Myths of Power is to show how the contradictions, the conflicts, the tumultuous, turbulent and
ambiguous3 times lived by the sisters reflected in their work. Caught between two worlds, the
sisters explore these conflicts in their writings. In Charlotte’s case, it seems that conflicts and
ambivalences can be resolved by somewhat traditional means (e.g., marriage in Jane Eyre).
Conversely, Wuthering Heights “makes no attempt to resolve these antinomies” (op.cit.: xvi).
1
www.enotes.com, consulted on 18.10.2015.
2
Joyce Carol Oates, “The magnanimity of Wuthering Heights”, http://celestialtimepiece.com/2015/01/27/the-
magnanimity-of-wuthering-heights/, consulted on 18.10.2015.
3
Eagleton’s choice of language emphasizes his thesis: the terms cited above, and variations thereof, are key-
words, recurrent throughout the collection of essays.
The main issues in the novel are class struggle and social conflict. This shifts the focus
from the “love story” that the naïve eye might be drawn to, to Heathcliff’s journey from
classless outsider to landowner and oppressor of those who had oppressed him in the past.
Nevertheless, even in this transformation there is ambivalence: Heathcliff can only get his
revenge by joining the class that abused him4, but he remains an outsider and finds that his
revenge is forever elusive. In the same manner, Catherine (who identifies with Heathcliff) tries
to transcend her own class and becomes trapped and oppressed by it.
The main contradiction of the novel, Eagleton states, is Catherine’s choice between
Heathcliff and Edgar Linton. This means that Wuthering Heights is based on a social conflict:
This is, we believe, the “categorial structure” that Eagleton mentions in his Introduction,
the mediating concept between text and historical context, the “inner ideological structure”
All the interactions in the novel can be interpreted through the conceptual apparatus of
Marxist class struggle. The two houses, Wuthering Heights and the Grange, can be seen as
different points on the scale of exploitation. As a place of culture, the Grange “veils the hard
labour and exploitation on which this culture is based. At Wuthering Heights, on the other hand,
the brutality and violence of exploitation are much more visible. However, throughout the
novel, the houses also become displaced depending on the perspective: for Heathcliff and
Catherine both, Wuthering Heights is a place of oppression, but also a haven that they return
Culture and labour are the attributes of the two opposing houses. Throughout the novel
these attributes are interwoven with another duality, that of bondage and freedom. Culture is a
4
“His rise to power symbolises at once the triumph of the oppressed over capitalism and the triumph of
capitalism over the oppressed”. (Eagleton a: 112)
weapon, and the opposite of labour for young men like Heathcliff and Hareton; but we see that
it is a double-edged weapon. For the Lintons, and later for Catherine, culture becomes
imprisonment. The aristocracy dominates the working class, but becomes a parasite of it, and
This critic of culture can be seen as a reflection of the Bronte’s own relation with culture.
They are outsiders in the world that they aspire to, not because they lack culture, but because
they lack the economical means to support it. They are forced to become governesses and
The relationship between Heathcliff and the Earnshaw family can also be interpreted
through the lens of class conflict. Heathcliff has no place within the family, Eagleton claims.
He is an outsider both biologically and economically; thus his presence disrupts the balance of
the Heights economy, where “work is socialized, personal relations mediated through the
context of labour” (op.cit. : 106). Heathcliff and Catherine’s relationship, far from a Romantic
The novel’s ending, Eagleton claims, offers a “tentative convergence between labour and
culture, sinew and gentility” (op. cit.: 118). Still, although on a symbolic level his might
represent an ideological reconciliation, on a literal level Hareton is, as Heathcliff and Catherine