Beauty and Healing: Examining Sociocultural Expectations of the Embodied Goddess

Author(s): Jin-Tsann Yeh and Chyong-Ling Lin

Source: Journal of Religion and Health, Vol. 52, No. 1 (March 2013), pp. 318-334
Published by: Springer
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/23352841
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J Relig Health (2013) 52:318-334
DOI 10.1007/s 10943-011 -9470-z

ORIGINAL PAPER

Beauty and Healing: Examining Sociocultural

Expectations of the Embodied Goddess

Jin-Tsann Yell • Chyong-Ling Lin

Published online: 1 March 2011

© Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2011

Abstract Studies indicate mental health improvement can occur via religious commu
nities offering social support and other resources. Many people from many cultures regard
medicine as a supernatural or magical treatment that can somehow lead to a better state of
living. In medical advertising, female role portrayal involves the blending of beauty, ritual
and attractiveness in combination with the best product image. A Chinese saying suggests
that, "A girl will doll herself up for him who loves her." Female role attraction is a very
important ethical subject in gender issues. Moving forward in time, female role visuali
zation and consumption in medical advertising reveal depictions that encouraged women to
do some self-searching and find, or develop, inner strength. This study is designed to
examine female role portrayals in a restricted patriarchal society. The results indicate that
the ideology of motherhood is an accepted social orientation that the public readily
identifies with. Results further indicate that beautification through medical products
incorporates an emotional element of religious healing and that the objectification of
beauty in the media reveals a possible neglect of women's internal beauty.

Keywords Religion • Beauty • Female role portrayal ■ Visual consumption •

Medical product advertising

Introduction

Many studies claim that religious faith and healing form a positive relationship because
faith in the power of God gives patients hope; further, patients generally believe God acts

J.-T. Yeh
Department of Commercial Design, Vanung University, No. I, Van-Nung Rd.,
Chung-Li, Tao-Yuan 32061, Taiwan
e-mail: jtyeh26@vnu.edu.tw

C.-L. Lin (El)

Department of Business Administration, Chung Yuan Christian University,
No. 200, Chung Pei Rd., Chung-Li, Tao-Yuan 32023. Taiwan
e-mail: joling888@gmail.com

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J Relig Health (2013) 52:318-334 319

through physicians (Stcinilz 1981; Maton 1987; King 1990; Kirn 1991; Duckro and
Magaletta 1994; Ellison 1995; Mansfield et al. 2002). Companies can use advertising
media as a mechanism to insert their medical products into the ideology of healing, and this
can greatly influence our lives. Considering this, does this advertising reflect healing in
society or does it actually create a new view of healing in society (Foley 1999; Royo-Vela
et al. 2007)?
According to medical psychology and religion, the patriarchal concept is well known in
both eastern and western religious cultures (Loewenthal et al. 2002; Walter and Davie
1998; Hartman and Hartman 1983). In the process of human creation, "males are first
created and females originate from males". Right from the creation, women are seen as
subordinate, and it is implied, or often consciously argued, that this subordination is why
women should serve and be obedient to men.

In eastern and western gender stereotypes, women are the most tender and thoughtfu
Thus, women tend to be considered the ideal type to nurse people back to health. In rece
generations, this is seen in the nursing career demographic. In medical product advertisin
three female stereotypes are common: beautiful goddess, housewife, and sex object
(Ruether 2005; Stevens and Maclaran 2007). The beautiful goddess stereotype (Fig. 1
Goddess of Mercy; Fig. 4. Healthcare product advertisement) normalizes the effect
negative religious stereotyping and creates an image of womanhood that gains the respec
and awe of viewers, even men. The housewife stereotype (Fig. 2. Goddess of Childbirt
Fig. 5. Healthcare product advertisement) reinforces the ideal of motherhood, taking car
of the babies and housework; they are the symbol of family love and unity. With the se

Fig. 1 Goddess of Mercy

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 320 J Relig Health (2013) 52:318-334

Fig. 2 Goddess of Childbirth

object stereotype (Fig. 3. Venus; Fig. 6. B

created that use the female form as the m
in breast beauty advertisements, wome
housewife stereotypes, there are elemen
outward appearance. The sex object typ
female visualization, advertising influenc
of rich inner female characteristics. Fem
based upon social ideology, and they sh
ideology. They at once draw from the cu
sometimes exaggerated, back upon the
Many studies indicate that the relations
(King 1990; Frank et al. 1999; Mansfield
product consumption back to ancient As
the "make pill shu (skill)". A religious he
people would take the pill to gain immo
religious rescue in which the Taiwanes
supernatural powers, were gods transf
Visscher 2006). Nevertheless, the medici

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J Relig Health (2013) 52:318-334 321

Fig. 3 Venus

downside. Religious reliance on the "pi

researched and licensed medicine/proced
result of this overdependence and "blind
their bodies' ability to clear toxins. This i
percentage of persons undergoing dialys
written characters translated directly as
quality and reasonable price" are comm
having a certain medical product will g
tioners of this kind of medicine, from m
further evidence of the popular depend
The over-reliance upon medicine der
effectiveness of patent medicines, often
and possible negative drug interaction
reliance on religious healing, attached
medicine is still sought after by man
ceutical companies and drugstores wou
containing unknown ingredients, to co
ular media. In Taiwanes society, religio
role in health, especially in dealing wi
world (Lin 2001). The overdependency
where effective advertising appeal and

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322 J Relig Health (2013) 52:318-334

Fig. 4 Healthcare product

advertisement (related to Fig. 1
Goddess of Mercy)

Marketing managers and advertising p

multiple positive personality traits such
concern for others, and integrity can bri
public; these traits include many of the
Further, they express energy of emot
product with their beliefs, and successf
appeal (Till and Busier 2000; Lin 1998
response is more likely when the depict
production information (the beauty ma
consumers' desired self-image—a strong
self-esteem, and achievement in society
et al. 1992; Kahle and Homer 1985).
According to a survey by Taiwan's Directorate General of Budget (2008), Accounting
and Statistics, the annual percentages of women in the combined medical products and
insurance industries from 2006 to 2008 are 72.76, 67.14, and 73.82%. This demonstrates
the dominance of women in these industries and the importance of female role depiction in
medical product advertising. In earlier times, licensed medical resources in Taiwan were
not very common, and curative medicine advertisements in the newspapers were common.
These advertisements were different from the advertisements of modern products, such as
high-quality goods, automobiles or real estate in that they contained an element of religion.
Consumer advertising research on the correlation between religion and medicine became
more valued as it was recognized by researchers that religious depictions properly matched
to medicinal qualities could increase sales (Koenig 2000; Harvey and Silverman 2007).
However, researchers rarely probed into the depiction of religion-derived female roles and

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J Relig Health (2013) 52:318-334 323

Fig. 5 Healthcare product

advertisement (related to Fig. 2
Goddess of Childbirth)
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endorser attractiveness in medical product advertisements. The research in this stu

adopts content analysis to investigate the depictions of the women as created and re-crea
from religious belief—the embodied goddess concept—as applied in medical produ
advertisements in Taiwan. It further explores the correlations and differences betw
female role portrayal and visual consumption in medical product advertisements of
ferent appeals and different cultural settings. As defined in this study, visual consump
is the viewing of an idealized female depiction and believing that following the suggest
treatment of the advertisement will lead the consumer to the beauty and contentment
that depiction.

Method

This study used content analysis as the primary research tool and probed into the religious
attributes and visualization consumption ideology of female role portrayals in medical
product advertising. This study measured samples with a scientific approach, constructing
categories, and analyzing and validating the meaning of female imagery for each time
period represented. Based on literature review, this study examined the following: (1)
presentation of female endorsers, e.g. attractive model that possess attributes of idealized
femininity of a given time period, in medical products advertising with regard to adver
tising purposes, advertising appeal, medical product category, target audiences, and female
role portrayals (stereotype, image orientation, symbol, and appearance of female images)
(2) whether female endorsers in medical product advertising provide unique female role
portrayals for differing advertising purposes and advertising appeals; (3) whether female
endorsers in medical product advertising give different female role portrayals when aiming
for specific target audiences; (4) whether female endorsers in medical product advertising
offer different female role portrayals when representing different medical product cate
gories. The research framework is shown in Fig. 7.

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 324 J Relig Health (2013) 52:318-334

Fig. 6 Beautifying product

advertisement (related to Fig. 3
Venus)

Fig. 7 Research framework

Berelson (1952) defines content analysis as a systematic and objective quantitative

analysis toward communicative effectiveness. A systematic approach means that content
analysis is applied in the construction of categories that are encoded according to the
theory. By following this systematic process, resulting research findings provide a solid
foundation for making inferences. Further, content analysis provides a high level of
objectivity by mandating the use of specific criteria and principles in every step in order to
avoid subjectivity and prejudice. For quantitative analysis, the researcher must establish
operational definitions and values for all variables in order to conduct statistical analyses
on tabulated results (Luo 1991). In this way, this study probed into correlations among the
variables using content analysis, with its high degree of objectivity, and then discussed and
elaborated the findings. The most important reason for content analysis in this particular
kind of study is that print advertisements can receive repeated perusal by a viewer while
advertisements likely to be viewed in passing generally cannot receive that level of
repeated attention; content analysis provides a framework to take into account this kind of
behavior. The researchers used quantitative statistics to aid in the interpretation of the
qualitative evolution of female role expectations.
This study carefully utilized extant research literature to construct categories; these female
image categories are based upon visualization consumption, advertising appeal value and
religious role expectation. Because the categories are related to each other and have potential
overlap, precise cross-comparison analysis, by category level, was used to refine or modify
them in order to establish proper formal encoding of variables, as shown in Table 1.

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 J Relig Health (2013) 52:318-334 325

Table 1 Sample profile statistics and criteria o

Category (dependent
% (AO variables)
Category (independent variables) % (N)

Female role portrayal Advertising purpose

Stereotype (Ruether 2005; Stevens and Maclaran 2007) Appeal (Chandy et al. 2001)
Beauty 75.2% (361) Rational

Housewife 12.5% (60) Emotional

Sex object 12.3% (59) Sex

Image oriented (Lu and Gilmour 2006)

Purpose (Braun et al. 2002)
Social oriented 49.8% (239) Function

Individual oriented 41.7% (200) Change

Family oriented 8.5% (41) Action

Symbol (Ruether 2005; Stevens and Maclaran

Medical 2007)
product category
Embodied goddess 80.0% (384) Curing
Ordinary woman 20.0% (96) Healthcare

Beautifying
Appearance (Lin 2008) Target audience (Lin 2008)
Western 19.6% (94) Male

Eastern 58.5% (281) Female

Can't tell 21.9% (105) Children

Public

This study utilized advertising from 1950 to 2008 found (most medical product adver
tisements were found from 1956 to 1970) in one major Taiwan newspaper—United Daily
News. United Daily News has been one of the most popular and influential newspapers in
Taiwan since 1950. The latest circulation figures of United Daily News gained directly from
the Taiwan publishers for 1950 and 2008 are 80,000 and 1,000,000. The newspapers are
among the top 100 newspaper networks in the world, and their pages have been witness to
democratization, liberalization, and diversification in Taiwan. On the plus side for this study,
their archives are highly accessible. However, since it is difficult to obtain original copies of
the newspaper from earlier decades, this study treats compact editions published by the
United Daily News as the advertisement source targets. This study used purposive sampling,
utilizing objective criteria to judge whether advertisements were appropriate. Two sampling
runs were conducted: the second sampling insured the images collected were clear, complete,
and proper for image analysis. Four hundred eighty samples were selected.
Based on Domestic Medicine Collection (2008) published by Business Weekly and on
medical product advertising samples collected by the researcher, this study initially divided
samples into the categories below: (1) curative product advertising, including anodynes
(such as medicine for headaches and toothaches), medical products for colds (such as
capsules for colds and rhinitis), digestive products (such as anti-diarrhea medicine), skin
care products, and medical products for the symptoms of childhood illnesses—this cate
gory emphasizes relief from pain and discomfort; (2) healthcare products, including
medical products for preventing diseases, birth control products, sleeping pills, energy
pills, and other medical products for elders, women and children—this category empha
sizes the reinforcement of energy; (3) beautifying products, including skin products (such
as pimple treatments and concealers), physical beauty products (such as weight loss or

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326 J Relig Health (2013) 52:318-334

enhancing the figure and breasts), and products for increasing male and female hormone
levels.

In this study, three university professors were invited to be the encoders for content
analysis. The researcher explained and defined the categories in detail in order for the
encoders to be able to recognize criteria for each category. In a training period, the
researcher guided the encoders to a common consensus on the definitions of the categories.
The training greatly lowered the likelihood of coding errors and inter-rater discrepancies.
After encoding, the researcher recorded and archived the data. Kassarjian (1977) suggests
that an inter-rater reliability coefficient of 0.85 or higher is acceptable. After encoding the
480 advertising samples and further validating the category boundaries, analysis shows the
mean value of inter-reliability to be 0.909, and reliability to be 0.968. All reliability values
are within an acceptable range.
This study used SPSS to calculate frequencies and visualize the variables related to
female images in medical product advertising. Category frequencies were portrayed in a
manner helpful to analyzing female role portrayals through time. The descriptive statistics
of the samples collected are shown in Table 1.

Findings

Correlation Analysis Between Advertising Purpose and Female Role Portrayal

With the chi-square test, there is a significant correlation between female image stereotype
and advertising purpose (y2 = 29.239, P = 0.000 < 0.05); for the "function" subcategory
of advertisement purpose, "beauty" had the highest frequency (200 pieces, 85.46%). In
terms of advertising purpose, with all functions, the images were primarily presented to
depict beauty roles. A chi-square test shows a correlation between advertising purpose and
female image orientation that reaches statistical significance (y2 = 60.178,
P = 0.000 < 0.05); under "function", the "social-oriented" image orientation is the most
frequent (158 pieces, 67.52%). Female images in advertisements, then, generally hold a
social-oriented function, e.g. focusing on societal role or occupation; however, within the
advertising purpose subcategory of "change", they are predominantly "individual-ori
ented," e.g. focusing on an ideal of individual beauty. A chi-square test shows a correlation
between advertising purpose and symbol that is statistically significant (y2 — 20.838,
P = 0.000 < 0.05). For all advertising purposes, female images are primarily represented
by "embodied goddess" imagery (207 pieces, 88.46%). A chi-square test indicates a
correlation between advertising purpose and female image appearance that reaches sta
tistical significance (y2 = 12.810, P = 0.012 < 0.05). For all advertising purposes, female
images are generally represented by an "eastern" appearance. Under the "function"
subcategory of advertisement purpose, "eastern" appearance is the most frequent (151
pieces, 64.53%); "western" appearance has its strongest showing under the "change"
advertisement purpose (60 pieces), though still less frequent than "eastern". The com
parisons are shown in Table 2.

Correlation Analysis Between Advertising Appeal and Female Role Portrayal

Generally speaking, there are strong correlations between the advertising appeal subcat
egories and the female role portrayal subcategories. Advertising appeal and female ste
reotype are significantly connected (x2 = 207.974, P = 0.000 < 0.05). "Rational" and

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Table 2 Selected comparisons of female role po

Female role portrayals Advertising purpose

Advertising app

Function % Change % Action % Rational % Emotional % Sex %

Stereotype
Beauty 85.46 64.22 85.72 89.24 70.83 21.95

Housewife 6.85 18.54 7.14 5.83 21.76 0.0

Sex object 7.69 17.24 7.14 4.93 7.41 78.05

P = 0.000 < 0.05 P = 0.000 < 0.05

Image oriented
Social oriented 67.52 32.33 42.86 61.88 44.44 12.20

Individual oriented 28.63 54.31 50.00 35.87 38.89 87.80

Family oriented 3.85 13.36 7.14 2.25 16.67 0.0

P = 0.000 < 0.05 P = 0.000 < 0.05

Symbol
Embodied goddess 88.46 71.55 78.57 89.69 66.20 100.0

Ordinary woman 11.54 28.45 21.43 10.31 33.80 0.0

P = 0.000 < 0.05 P = 0.000 < 0.05

Appearance
Eastern 64.53 52.16 64.29 67.71 54.17 31.71

Western 14.10 25.86 7.14 15.70 19.90 39.02

P = 0.000 < 0.05 P = 0.000 < 0.05

"emotional" appeals are frequently represented with the "beauty" role. "Sex" a
appeal was most frequently portrayed with "sex object" female roles (78.05%,
The correlation between advertising appeal and female image orientation reaches
significance (y2 = 73.127, P = 0.000 < 0.05). As to advertising appeal subcate
"rational" and "emotional" appeals are usually "social oriented", with 13
(61.88%) for "rational" appeal. "Sex" appeal is most represented through indiv
(individual-oriented). The correlation between female image symbol (meani
advertising appeal reaches statistical significance (y2 = 49.002, P — 0.000 < 0.
overall advertising appeal, advertisements most often use "embodied goddess
"Embodied goddess" is highest under "rational" appeal (200 pieces, 89.69%). In
"sex" appeal is only portrayed with "embodied goddess" imagery (100%, 41 p
chi-square value for advertising appeal by female image appearance reaches s
significance (y2 — 24.090, P = 0.000 < 0.05). Under "sex" appeal, "wester
ance is most frequent (16 pieces, 39.02%). "Rational" and "emotional" appeals ar
represented by "eastern" appearance. The comparisons are shown in Table 2.

Correlation Analysis Between Target Audience and Female Role Portrayal

Using the chi-square test, this study demonstrates there is a correlation betw
stereotype and target audience that reaches statistical significance (~/2
P = 0.000 < 0.05). With regard to target audience, except for advertising for
medical products, "beauty" roles are most represented. "Housewife" roles almo

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328 J Relig Health (2013) 52:318-334

represent "children's" medicine. A chi-square test shows there is a statistically significant

correlation between target audience and female image orientation {y2 = 208.953,
P = 0.000 < 0.05). When advertising targets are women, "individual-oriented" female
roles are most represented (115 pieces, 77.18%). When advertising targets are children,
they are mostly "family oriented". When advertising targets are men and the public,
portrayals are usually "social oriented". There is significant correlation between female
image symbol and target audience (y2 = 28.628, P = 0.000 < 0.05). When target audi
ences are "children", the role portrayal is usually of "ordinary woman", such as mothers.
For all other target audiences, advertisements most often portray "embodied goddess"
symbols. "Public" is the most common target audience for "embodied goddess" portrayals
(237 pieces, 82.58%). A chi-square analysis of female appearance by advertising targets
indicates a significant correlation (y2 = 24.978, P = 0.000 < 0.05). For all advertising
target subcategories, female portrayals usually show an "eastern" appearance. The most
common target audience is "women"; though less than "eastern" appearance, advertise
ments utilizing "western" appearance most frequently target women (43 pieces, 28.86%).
The comparisons are shown in Table 3.

Correlation Analysis of Medicine Category and Female Role Portrayal

This study demonstrates a strong relationship between medical products and female role
portrayal subcategories. Chi-square analysis results show there is a correlation between
medical product categories and female stereotype (y2 = 30.734, P = 0.000 < 0.05). It
reaches statistical significance, indicating that female stereotypes are differentiated by the
different medical product subcategories; generally speaking, medical products advertising
is represented by "beauty" roles (mostly in "healthcare"; 175 pieces, 70.57%). "Curing"
and "healthcare" medical products are also sometimes represented by "housewife" por
trayals. Advertisements tend to use "sex object" portrayals for "beautifying" product to
reinforce product attractiveness. Chi-square analysis shows a statistically significant cor
relation between medical product categories and female image orientation (y2 = 109.419,
P = 0.000 < 0.05). This indicates that female image orientation is clearly differentiated by
medical product subcategories. Medical product advertising is mostly "social-oriented"
(particularly "curing" and "healthcare" medicine). However, "beautifying" medical
product shows a higher rate of "individual oriented" (103 pieces, 76.30%). Medical
product advertising by type is rarely "family oriented". There is a clear difference between
medical product category and female image symbol that reaches statistical significance
(y2 = 19.694, P = 0.000 < 0.05).
Generally speaking, in all medical product categories, female images in medical product
advertising are "embodied goddess" related (mostly in healthcare medicine, 180 pieces;
68.10%). A chi-square test of female appearance by medical product category reaches
statistical significance (j2 = 18.166, P = 0.001 < 0.05). Female appearance is different
depending on different medical product categories. Generally speaking, medical product
advertising is presented with an "eastern" appearance. "Curing" or "healthcare" product
sometimes will be represented by stylized illustrations, parts of the body, or silhouettes that
cannot be identified as either "eastern" or "western". Some of "beautifying" products is
represented by "western" appearance (42 pieces, 30.83%) to increase product attractive
ness. The comparisons are shown in Table 3.

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Table 3 Selected comparisons of female role por

Female role Target audience Medical product category

portrayals
Female Male Children Public Curing Healthcare Beautifying

Stereotype
Beauty 68.46 71.43 11.11 81.18 82.47 70.57 78.52

Housewife 12.75 17.14 88.89 9.41 9.28 19.35 2.22

Sex object 18.79 11.43 0.0 9.41 8.25 10.08 19.26

P = 0.000 < 0.05 P = 0.000 < 0.05

Image oriented
Social oriented 12.75 32.33 11.11 66.20 67.01 57.26 23.70

Individual oriented 77.18 8.57 0.0 28.57 29.90 27.42 76.30

Family oriented 10.07 8.57 88.89 5.23 3.09 15.32 0.0

P = 0.000 < 0.05 P = 0.000 < 0.05

Symbol
Embodied goddess 80.54 74.29 11.11 82.58 86.67 68.10 92.50

Ordinary woman 19.46 25.71 88.89 17.42 13.33 31.90 7.50

: 0.000 < 0.05 P = 0.000 < 0.05

Appearance
Eastern 54.36 34.29 77.78 63.08 63.33 60.48 49.17

Western 28.86 28.57 0.0 14.27 11.33 19.05 30.83

P = 0.000 < 0.05 P = 0.001 < 0.05

Conclusion

Summary and Discussion

Goddess Imagery that Extends Customers' Sense of Religious Faith

Religion as a phenomenon in human life is becoming increasingly the subject of scientific

research. While the referents of the great religious traditions are considered transempirica
and transpersonal, and thus ultimately beyond the reach of scientific modes of knowing,
science studies the effects of such religious phenomena in the lives of the adherents of
given religious traditions and practices, especially as seen in their material culture (Dudley
and Kosinski 1990; Ferraro and Albrecht-Jensen 1991). Female role portrayal in medical
product advertising is an important example. With the rise of women's consciousness
about where they have come from, who they are, and who they can be, contemporary
women have begun to pursue equality of status both in the workplace and at home. As a
group, they thus questioned, and still question, the restrictions and taboos derived from
male-dominated religious tradition. However, it is somewhat ironic that the field of
advertising, in part, has encouraged women to question degrading traditions while at the
same time continuing to represent those same traditions as mimetic objects in personal and
collective behavior. Some argue this use of traditional religious stereotypes helps continue
significant sexual discrimination and other forms of injustice against women. (Stereotype
Threat; An and Kim 2007).

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330 J Relig Health (2013) 52:318-334

Female, not just male, models provide medical information and customer support. This
female imagery is that of a beautiful embodied goddess, nearly perfect, suggesting
unlimited potential. This imagery thus attempts to extend the consumers' imaginations to
the nearly infinite. Many scholars (Thompson 1991; Hall 1997; Reich 1997; Mahalik and
Lagan 2001; Simpson et al. 2008) indicate that, under social regulation of tradition, women
tend to best display sincerity and faith. In this way, female images are associated with
religion. The comparison of women to an embodied goddess is metaphysical and is
intended to lead consumers to a happy, proactive state. Curative effect is reflected, or
subtly implied, in such advertising. Consumers come to expect and, in a sense, worship the
imagery. Advertisers vigorously apply beauty appeal in medical advertising to sell a wide
variety of medical products by predictably drawing in consumers' attention. After suc
cessful advertising, consumers imagine they will become like the beautiful embodied
goddesses portrayed: attractive, healthy and strong.

Objectification of Beauty in Female Imagery

A Chinese saying suggests that, "A girl will doll herself up for him who loves her."
Female role attraction is a very important ethical subject in gender issues. The female body
becomes an object to be evaluated by what is defined as the traditional male gaze, sug
gesting a pervasively dominant male perspective. This leads to significant controversy over
the morality of objectification and influences development of the female consumption
consciousness.
Healthcare medical products are the most commonly advertised product type, followed
by beautifying medical products. As advertisers tend to focus on what sells best, this
demonstrates that consumers pay attention to their health and appearance. Female images
in medical advertising tend to appear alone, allowing consumers to focus on them. They
seem to clearly and directly convey information on usage and curative effect. The pre
ponderance of beauty portrayals identified in this study demonstrates that advertising
appeal tends to be presented by beautiful models. With the attention-drawing influence of
female advertising images, firms can choose to follow-up with rational, authoritative
medical information, or trigger a positive psychological reaction in consumers to introduce
an otherwise uninteresting product. Sentimental appeal is based on either woman as sex
object or product function, e.g. beatification, and images tend to show nudity. This is easy
to understand given the dominant female stereotype in advertising today is that of the
beautiful embodied goddess. However, when the target audience is children who rely on
the care of family and mother, product statements are presented by housewives and other
realistic female roles. It capitalizes on the tender care the society has historically expected
from mother figures.
Although medical advertisers still rely on beautiful appearance, female endorsers now
also present the functions of medicine to consumers. In this way, advertisers pay lip
service to social expectations of portraying modern women as intelligent, while still over
emphasizing their physical beauty and minimizing their internal beauty.
Some medical products advertising, such as for beautifying products, manipulate the
female body to create a seductive or sexual connotation. Advertisements sometimes
highlight parts of the body in a way that stokes the consumer's imagination while causing
them to ignore product information provided in the advertising. Hiltebeitel and Erndl
(2000) and Ruether (2005) suggest that in most religions female images and symbols are
created from the perspective of patriarchal order to constrain the social status of women,
reinforce the sublime power and position of the divine, sustain traditional love

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J Relig Health (2013) 52:318-334 331

relationships and promote an anti-homoerotic ideal. While studies show that emphasizing
female beauty, especially with sensual or sexual connotation, enhances product memory
and stimulates consumers' purchase intentions (Bloch and Richins 1992; Kahle and Homer
1985; Courtney and Whipple 1983), some scholars argue the toll on female equality is too
high; that the over emphasis of female imagery degrades women as objects to be evaluated
by superficial criteria, turning them into nothing more than a display for products
(Courtney and Lockeretz 1971; Ferguson et al. 1990). This type of portrayal does not
reveal real female beauty. Instead, it becomes an indifferent, unidimensional symbol of the
feminine role through its neglect of female qualities, abilities, and strengths that make a
well-rounded woman.

Advertising's Portrayal of Social Trends and Esthetics

Advertising reflects current social situations and trends through ideas, attitudes, and values
expressed in words and images. Advertising is a precious asset of pop culture in consumer
societies (Cheng and Schweitzer 1996; Porter and Samovar 2003; McCracken 1989). With
regard to the study variables of advertising appeal categories, advertising subjects and
appeal targets, eastern appearance dominates female image portrayal. Eastern depictions
are based on traditional classic esthetics and the characteristics of female diligence and
virtue that Taiwan consumers are most familiar with. Taiwan consumers traditionally
regard western females as more passionate and energetic; they can show their bodies more
expressively. Thus, advertisements usually use western female appearance for treatments
that are typically touted to improve appearance, such as beauty and hormone medicines
and breast enlargement.
Emotional appeals tend to target regulation of women's menstrual cycle, nutrition
supply after pregnancy, children's supplements, housewives' love life and solutions to
common problems with warm eastern images of active care and responsiveness to the
consumers' worries. The studies of Frith et al. (2004), Lin (2008), Lin and Yeh (2009)
demonstrate a similar comparison of eastern and western endorser characteristics in
product marketing. Varying by different medical products under consideration in this
study, advertising combines classical eastern female images with passionate western
beauty. Images involving a blend of eastern and western styles have become more popular
in Taiwan since the 1960s. Hofstede (1984), Hall (1997), and Milner and Collin (2000)
suggest that cultural symbols divide and categorize knowledge, values, and other socia
constructs shared by members of a society; symbols exist to express the collective value
system of that society.
This study demonstrates that medical advertising is especially influenced by the west. A
depression followed World War II. The United States provided support to Taiwan and thus
western organization, ideals, and pop culture were adopted by varying degrees and people
came to accept the intrusion of a foreign culture. This study highlights that beautifying
medical products emphasize change. People are generally motivated because of their lack
of confidence in their appearance. They make efforts to improve their facial or body
appearance. Advertisements tend to promote products with western woman or eastern
woman in western dress to help consumers draw the conclusion that by using the products
they will become as wonderful as the females portrayed. Liang (2004) discusses the
women's clothing culture in post-war era Taiwan. In the 1950s, Taiwan women started
working and their social status improved. Many of the working women had money to
spend on personal extras, such as nice clothing. In the 1960s, beauty contests were
introduced from the west, and it became trendy to emulate the fashions of female pop stars.

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332 J Relig Health (2013) 52:318-334

In Taiwan, agricultural society transformed into an industrial society. Western women

portrayed passion and confidence in medical advertisements for things such as breast
enhancement, pimple treatment, hormone treatment, or personal health. Taiwan women of
that past period began, en masse, to enjoy taking part in the world of fashion and beauty;
the change from a more utilitarian past demonstrates the strong cross-cultural influence of
female images, whether illustrations or photographs, on current Taiwan female appearance
and gender role expectations.

Acknowledgments We wish to express our appreciation to Ms. Mong-Chun Wu and Ms. Hsiao-Ling Lin
for their help in data collection. We would like to thank the Editor-in-Chief, Dr. Ferrell and two anonymous
reviewers for their comments and suggestions. Grateful acknowledgements are made to the following
sources for the use of illustrations indicated: Fig. 1 credit: Master Yi-Lin; Fig. 2 credit: Jin-Tsann Yeh; Fig.
3 credit: Sandro Botticelli; Fig. 4 credit: Morishita Jintan Co., Ltd; Fig. 5 credit: Deal Co., Ltd; Fig. 6 credit:
China Chemical & Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd.

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