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IV International Seminar on ORC Power Systems, ORC2017
IV International
13-15Seminar on ORC
September 2017,Power Systems,
Milano, Italy ORC2017
13-15 September 2017, Milano, Italy
Modeling of brazed plate heat exchangers for ORC systems
Modeling of brazed
The 15th plate
International heat exchangers
Symposium for ORC
on District Heating systems
and Cooling
Vijaya Sekhar Gullapalli, Ph.D
Assessing the feasibility Vijaya Sekhar of using
Gullapalli,thePh.Dheat demand-outdoor
Manager, Core Software Development, Heat Transfer Research, SWEP International AB, Hjälmar Brantings Vag 5,
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Landskrona, Sweden, SE- 261 22
a,b,c a a b c c
Abstract I. Andrić *, A. Pina , P. Ferrão , J. Fournier ., B. Lacarrière , O. Le Corre
Abstract
a
IN+ Center for Innovation, Technology and Policy Research - Instituto Superior Técnico, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal
The design of efficient ORCbVeolia systems involves selection of thermodynamic cycles and working fluids, optimization of operating
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exchanger performance and selection calculations suitable for various cycles and dealing with multiple heat sources.
The current article presents a steady state ORC system simulation tool in which the main emphasis is given to braze plate heat
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Keywords:
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1.(the
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error in annual demand was lower than 20% for all weather scenarios considered). However, after introducing renovation
1.scenarios,
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the error value increased up to 59.5% (depending on the weather and renovation scenarios combination considered).
The valuebrazed
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pressures to modify the function parameters for the scenarios considered, and
scalability.
improve the accuracy of heat demand estimations.

© 2017 The Authors.

Corresponding Published
author. Tel.: by Elsevier
+46 708 810 692 Ltd.
Peer-review
E-mail under
address:author.
Corresponding responsibility of the
692 Scientific Committee of The 15th International Symposium on District Heating and
vijaya.sekhargullapalli@swep.net
Tel.: +46 708 810
Cooling.
E-mail address: vijaya.sekhargullapalli@swep.net

1876-6102
Keywords:©Heat
2017demand;
The Authors. Published
Forecast; Climatebychange
Elsevier Ltd.
1876-6102
Peer-review©under
2017responsibility
The Authors. of
Published by Elsevier
the scientific Ltd. of the IV International Seminar on ORC Power Systems.
committee
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the IV International Seminar on ORC Power Systems.

1876-6102 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Peer-review under responsibility of the Scientific Committee of The 15th International Symposium on District Heating and Cooling.
1876-6102 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the IV International Seminar on ORC Power Systems.
10.1016/j.egypro.2017.09.207
2 Vijaya Sekhar Gullapalli/ Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000
444 Vijaya Sekhar Gullapalli / Energy Procedia 129 (2017) 443–450

Nomenclature

T Temperature [K]
U Overall heat transfer coefficient [W/(m²K)]
h Local heat transfer coefficient [W/(m²K)]
N Shape function [-]
ϕ Represents state or transport property

The mass flux for phase-change heat transfer for these units is in the order of 50 kg/ (m² s) and typical heat flux
range is 1-20 kW/m². The thermal and hydraulic characteristics of the BPHEs are strongly dependent of the plate
pattern characteristics such as angle of the corrugation pattern of the plates, depth of the plate patters, pitch of the
corrugation pattern, dimensions of the plate and several other parameters. By optimizing these design parameters,
the plate heat exchangers can be made to suit a wide variety of operating conditions.

These characteristics of the plate heat exchangers make them particularly suitable for ORC systems. Several
simulation tools, libraries and publications are available for simulation of ORC system aiming at working fluid
selection, cycle selection and optimizing working conditions. Several of these tools model heat exchangers using
effectiveness based lump models or by using generalized moving boundary methods. In this study, the development
of a steady state ORC system simulation/ optimization tool using BPHE components is presented. The development
of this tool aims at (a) estimating the area/ weight/ cost requirements of BPHE for various cycle designs (b) ORC
cycle and components selection for optimum performance and simulation of part load performance and (c)
investigation of the working fluid influence of components, especially, the BPHEs.

2. Generalized BPHE rating method

2.1 Overview

The development of the system simulation tool relies on robust, fast and continuous BPHE calculation methods. To
understand the dependency of BPHE performance on parameters such as operating conditions and choice of
refrigerant, it is desirable to adopt a discretized scheme for calculations. Discretized calculations provide insight
regarding the area usage of the heat exchanger, local temperature profiles, impact of pressure drop and local heat
transfer coefficients. Additionally, it is desirable to adapt a generalized calculation method that utilizes the same
topology for discretization irrespective of the thermal process such as evaporation, condensation, super-critical
cooling/ heating or single phase heat transfer. Such generalized schemes, if continuous, improves the convergence
characteristics of iterative system performance solvers, since the operating conditions can vary largely during
system optimization.

A review of literature on heat exchanger calculations show several discretization schemes. Some examples include
capacity based discretization scheme presented in HTRI [1], incremental procedures for performance calculations by
Arman and Rabas [2] and Wang et al [3] for condenser calculations, higher order discretization schemes presented
by Corberán et al [4] and Gullapalli [7]. An enthalpy based generalized discretization scheme for counter flow heat
exchangers is presented by Bell et al [5]. In contrast to the several published methods in the open literature, a new
method aimed at improved integration with system solvers is presented in this study.

Developed to suite the system simulation needs, the characteristics of the developed method include (a) a
generalized discretization scheme based on local pressure and enthalpies where the same topology can be used for
any heat exchanger in the system irrespective of the flow arrangement or the involved heat transfer process (b) the
calculation being rating calculations where the output of a steady state calculation being the pressure drops on each
circuit and the thermal suitability of the heat exchanger for a given thermal case or degree of over-surface (c) the
ability to handle multiple heat sources which are serially connected to a secondary side within a single calculation
which is relevant for several ORC installations (d) the modeling of wall elements which limit the crossing
 Vijaya Sekhar Gullapalli / Energy Procedia 129 (2017) 443–450 445
Vijaya Sekhar Gullapalli/ Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000 3

temperatures within the heat exchanger (e) an explicit iterative calculation scheme that is based on the convergence
of wall temperatures and (f) design for at least first order continuity in heat transfer correlations, calculation methods
and fluid property models for better reliability when integrated with iterative system solvers.

Choosing the calculation method to represent rating has several advantages. The rating methods are suitable for
calibration of empirical correlations against experimental observations. Heat exchanger performance and selection
calculations can be performed iteratively using the rating method [6]. Moreover, the boundary conditions in a rating
calculations are fully specified. This is observed to eliminate the convergence issues observed in performance
calculations at very high flow ratios [7]. The standard heat transfer correlations for single phase and phase change
heat transfer/ pressure drop presented by Gullapalli [10] are used in the developed method. These correlations are
verified using a variety of refrigerants and heat transfer media at SWEP International AB.

2.2 Discretization scheme and solution method

The heat exchanger (or a set of serially connected heat exchangers) is represented by two 1D streams that are
discretized into sections of equal heat load as shown in Figure 1. Each section in the discretization scheme contains
two fluid elements representing two local fluid streams and one wall element representing the local wall behavior.
The fluid elements extend between inlet and outlet fluid nodes which are characterized by local pressure and
enthalpy. Based on the thermodynamic state of the inlet and outlet nodes, averaged local fluid thermodynamic and
transport properties are determined. The wall elements extend between left and right wall nodes which are
characterized by local wall temperatures. Each stream of the heat exchanger can have capacity contributions from
one or more sources with different heat transfer media. This makes it apt to design serially connected heat
exchangers dealing with multiple heat sources in ORC systems.

In the initial step the boundary pressures and enthalpies are applied to the end nodes and each fluid element is
initialized with the channel flow rate. The missing boundary values are determined using energy balance assuming
no pressure drop on each side. Every section in the discretization has the same heat load and hence the enthalpy of
the internal nodes can be determined by the section heat load and the side mass flow rate. All internal nodes and
wall nodes are initialized with trail values for pressure and temperatures respectively. In the subsequent iterations,
the mean conditions in the fluid elements are determined as an average of the node conditions. Based on the mean
conditions in the fluid element and the wall temperatures, appropriate thermal and hydraulic correlations are
employed to determine the local heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop. The boundary conditions at the end
nodes and missing values determined initially by energy balance are corrected considering the pressure drop on each
side.

Figure 1: Discretization scheme (counter-current) employed in the generalized rating method. The terms S, E and N represents side, element and
nodes respectively. The figure also shows the topology of local section and fluid element.
4 Vijaya Sekhar Gullapalli/ Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000
446 Vijaya Sekhar Gullapalli / Energy Procedia 129 (2017) 443–450

At each iteration, the local wall temperatures are determined as a function of local bulk temperature difference, local
heat transfer coefficients and overall heat transfer coefficient using local energy balance (Equations 1 and 2):

Un
TWall ,1 
TE1  TE1  TE 2  (1)
hE1 

Un
TWall ,2 
TE 2  TE 2  TE1  (2)
hE 2 

The iterations continue until convergence is achieved in the wall temperatures. Since the choice of correlations are
based on the bulk and wall conditions, the same topology can be used for single phase, evaporating, condensing or
super critical process. After convergence is achieved, the area required for each section is determined based on the
local overall heat transfer coefficient, mean temperature difference and heat load. These values are then integrated to
determine the total area requirement for a given duty. This area is then compared to the available area to determine
the over-surface factor. The pressure drop on each side are determined as the sum of pressure drop in each section.
Calculations usually converge in as little as 10 iterations unless temperature flips occur due to excessive pressure
drop on either side. In case of crossing temperatures due to excess pressure drop, the calculations are terminated and
appropriate warnings are issued.

2.3 Number of cells required

The number of cells required in such a discretization scheme depends upon the simulated process, number of
capacity sources or heat exchangers in series, heat transfer media and the nature of the thermal and hydraulic
correlations. The general recommendations based on calculation types tested is presented in table 1. Keeping the
standard operating condition practices in market and for optimum calculation speed, the number of discretization
steps are set to 200 for each heat exchanger in the developed system simulation program. Since the discretization
scheme is based on equal capacity contribution per section, further discretization is needed in the cells containing
the boundaries of multiple heat sources and in condition where the saturation temperatures are crossed within the
cell. Such sections are further discretized based on capacity contributions as shown in figure 2.

Table 1. Number of discretization steps needed for grid independence in the developed method
Calculation Type Discretization steps Comment
Single phase calculations 10 to 30 Depends of heat transfer media
Super critical processes 30 to 50 Strongly depends on operating pressure
Cascaded heat transfer, evaporators, condensers up to 200 Depends on size of sub-cooling and/or super heating

Figure 2: Example of further discretization in elements where the saturation temperature is crossed by. In this example, an eqi-heat load section in
a condenser calculations have both de-superheating and saturated conditions and this cells are further discretized as shown.
 Vijaya Sekhar Gullapalli / Energy Procedia 129 (2017) 443–450 447
Vijaya Sekhar Gullapalli/ Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000 5

3. Bi-linear interpolation for refrigerant properties

3.1 Overview

The discretized heat exchanger rating calculations and system solver relies on fast, accurate and robust fluid
property suites. Typically, these properties are obtained from standard libraries such as NIST REFPROP and
COOLPROP, which employ iterative methods for solving computationally expensive system of equations. These
factors together with distribution licensing limitations could limit the direct integration of these libraries in
commercial software. Using 1D/ 2D curve/surface fits for these properties often produce discontinuities, as multiple
fits are required to model the largely varying properties in the entire domain of interest.

The use of interpolation schemes on saved property maps is included in COOLPROP [8] library. Corberán et al.
presented on a method for obtaining continuous refrigerant properties which involves linear interpolation of bi-
dimensional property maps [9]. The functionality provided in the COOLPROP library calls for data storage of 20
MB per fluid and can reach up to 1 GB depending on the number of fluids. The size requirements are not feasible in
widely distributed software with frequent releases, where the size of the installation files are ideally kept small. The
method outlined by Corberán involved separate property maps depending on nature of function, state and
independent parameters. In the current method, transport properties are also required together with state properties
for heat exchanger calculations which would increase the size limitations considerably. Additionally, the use of
different property maps would require performing multiple search operations for various properties for the same set
of independent parameters.

3.2 Interpolation Scheme and Property Retrieval

Based on the discretization scheme employed in heat exchanger calculations and needs of system state solver, the
developed scheme treats pressure and enthalpy as independent parameters in contrast to pressure and temperature/
density used by Corberán et al [9]. The additional unique features of the developed method include (a) minimizing
the amount of saved information by adaptive grid thinning while maintaining a desired level of accuracy (b) use of
simple linear elements (line, triangle and quad) (c) use Lagrangian interpolation in nodal points where information is
missing from standard sources (d) indexing of collected data and use of binary search for faster retrieval of
properties (e) utilizing the same grid for a number of different properties rather than separate property maps.

For a given refrigerant, the limits of pressure and enthalpy are first identified. Discrete enthalpy levels in the bulk
liquid and vapor region are also identified. In the subsequent steps, discrete pressure levels are added to the grid. In
addition to the discrete enthalpy levels in bulk regions, each pressure level introduces two new enthalpies
corresponding to the bub and dew points for that pressure level, except for the critical pressure where the bub and
dew lines converge. At each pressure level, the discrete enthalpies are used to create lists of liquid nodes and vapor
nodes. Each node holds 24 bytes of data corresponding to temperature, entropy, density, viscosity, thermal
conductivity and Prandtl number. The nodes are linked to the global pressure and enthalpy lists based on their
location in the grid. After each pressure level or enthalpy level is added to the grid, the error between properties
from standard libraries and interpolated libraries are compared at a higher resolution and further discretization is
continued as necessary. Typically, the grid resolution is higher at lower pressures where temperature variation with
respect to pressure is steep and close to the critical region when property variation is immense. During the grid
generation process, the standard libraries usually fail to return data at certain regions. In these instances, 1D
Lagrangian interpolation is conducted along pressure and enthalpy axes. Depending on the quality of the available
data in both directions, the interpolated value is chosen to replace the missing values. Once, the desired accuracy is
achieved, the collected dataset is serialized into a file which can be used to recreate the grid when the properties are
needed. Due to the smaller grid sizes per fluid, it is possible to load the grid data of many refrigerants during the
program startup into memory.

When a set of properties are to be obtained at a specified pressure and enthalpy, the location of the surrounding
nodes is determined based on binary search conducted on global pressure and enthalpy lists. Depending on the
location of the queried point, the surround nodes constitute a nodal, linear, triangular or quadrilateral elements. The
448 Vijaya Sekhar Gullapalli / Energy Procedia 129 (2017) 443–450
6 Vijaya Sekhar Gullapalli/ Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000

linear shape functions for each of these elements are determined using the pressure and enthalpies at the nodal points
and the queried location. These shape functions are then used to interpolate for the local properties using the relation
shown in Equation 3. Since the nodal points hold information of six properties, the same shape functions can be
used for determining all properties in one call.

  N11  N22  N33  ... (3)

The size on disk for some of the refrigerants along with the time needed to retrieve ten thousand poperies is shown
in Table 2. For these refrigerants, the grid size is based on max relative deviation of 0.1% for modeled properties
and 0.1K for temperature. Larger errors are tolerated close to the critical point. Based on the data provided in
Corberán et al., and not considering the improvement in computer processing, the speed of property retrieval is 10
times faster than their method and hundreds of time faster than direct integration of NIST REFPROP.

Table 2. Properties of interpolation scheme for some refrigerants

Refrigerant Size on disk (kB) Time taken for 10000 properties (sec)
R134a 52 0.0372
R245fa 67 0.0376
R290 171 0.0312
MM Siloxane 30 0.0314
R365mfc 59 0.0322
SES36 47 0.0384

4. ORC System Simulation

4.1 Cycle and Components

The standard and trans-critical ORC systems, with and without a recuperator, are considered in the current
simulation program. Mandatory BPHE components include an evaporator and a condenser. Other optional BPHE
components include super heater, sub cooler and a preheater. The turbine and pump are black box models and
characterized by the isentropic efficiency. The nodal representation of the components and their description are
shown in Figure 3 and table 3. The evaporator model can handle sub-critical, trans-critical and cascading heat
sources. The preheating of the subcooled refrigerant before the evaporator can be done by a dedicated preheater or a
recuperator.

4.2 Calculation Procedure

The system calculations are classified as design and performance calculations. In the performance calculations, the
operating conditions are partially specified and the BPHE models/ cycle design are fully specified. The simulation in
this case is an iterative procedure where the evaporator and condenser dew points are guessed based on their
respective secondary side operating conditions. Performance of the BPHE components in the system are calculated
iteratively using the generalized rating method aiming at a minimum over-surface. The end conditions of turbine
component and the pump component are determined using the specified isentropic efficiency. At end of each
iteration the new inlet conditions for the evaporator component are determined by sequentially following the
components in the cycle. The iterations are repeated until convergence is achieved in the predicted evaporator and
condenser dew points. The state variables at each of the nodes, temperature profiles in BPHE components, BPHE
component specifications etc., are presented at the end of each simulation.
 Vijaya Sekhar Gullapalli / Energy Procedia 129 (2017) 443–450 449
Vijaya Sekhar Gullapalli/ Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000 7

Figure 3: ORC cycle representation employed in the current simulation program

Table 3: Node description employed in the ORC system simulation program

Nodes Component
12 -2 Evaporator/ Cascade Unit/ Trans-Critical Unit
2-3 Super heater
3-4 Single stage Expander
4-5 Recuperator gas side
5-8 Condenser
8-9 Sub-Cooler
9 - 10 Pressure head before pump
10 - 11 Single stage pump
11 - 12 Pre-Heater/ Recuperator liquid side
13 Evaporator Bub Point
1 Evaporator Dew Point
6 Condenser Dew Point
7 Condenser Bub Point

In a design calculation, the operating conditions and cycle selection are fully specified. The simulation program
iterates through the BPHE product tree and identifies design and configurations suitable for a given case. Following
the component selection, a performance calculation is conducted for presenting the state variables at nodes specified
in table 3.

4.3 Output

The output from the simulation program includes a complete list of state variables. For instance, the state variable
shown in Figure 4 represents a system with R245fa as the refrigerant. Heat is recovered from Water at 140° at a load
of 500 kW. The evaporator and condenser components has a super heat of 5 K and sub-cooling of 2K respectively.
The heat is rejected to a Water at 10°C. Additional super heat of 20K and sub-cooling of 10K are achieved using
dedicated super heater and sub-cooler respectively. The subcooled liquid before the evaporator is preheated with a
recuperator having a thermal efficiency of 80%.
450 Vijaya Sekhar Gullapalli / Energy Procedia 129 (2017) 443–450
8 Vijaya Sekhar Gullapalli/ Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000

Figure 4: State variables generated by ORC system simulation program for the case specified above

5. Conclusions

The current article describes the development of steady state ORC system simulation program capable of simulating
a variety of ORC cycles using BPHE components as heat exchangers. In the design mode, the developed tool can be
used for BPHE component selection aiming at minimizing cost. In performance mode, the simulation program can
be used to optimize working fluids selection, operating conditions and cycle selection aiming at optimum efficiency.
The development of a generalized BPHE rating method provided an efficient tool which can be used to simulate
various BPHE components in the ORC cycle irrespective of the involved heat transfer nature. Using thermal and
hydraulic correlations that are continuous together with refrigerant property retrieval using bi-linear interpolation of
saved property maps provided an efficient and robust solver for the system simulation program. The validation of
the developed tool against experimental data is presented in a separate paper titled “System cost and efficiency
optimization by heat exchanger performance simulations” in the current conference.

References

[1] HTRI Design Manual, Principles of condensation/ condenser design, Heat Transfer Research Inc., Page B4.1-11, C4.1-2, 1995
[2] Arman, B., Rabas, T.J., Condensation analysis for plate-frame heat exchangers, National Heat Transfer Conference, Volume 12, ASME 1995
[3] Wang, L., Christensen, R., and Sundén, B., Calculation Procedure for Steam Condensation in Plate Heat Exchangers, Compact Heat
Exchangers and Enhancement Technology for the Process Industry, Begell House, pp. 479-484, 1999
[4] Corberán, J.M, Fernandez de Cordoba, P., Ortauno, S., Ferri, V., and Montes, P., Detailed Modeling of Evaporators and Condensers,
International Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Conference, Paper 485, Purdue University, 2000
[5] Bell, I.H., Quoilin, S., Georges, E., Braun, J.E., Groll, E.A., Horton, W.T., Lemort, V., A general moving-boundary algorithm to predict the
heat transfer rate of counter flow heat exchangers for any phase configuration, Applied Thermal Engineering 79, 2015
[6]Wang. L, Sundén. B, Manglik. R.M. Plate Heat Exchangers: Design, Application and Performance, WIT Press, ISBN 978-1-85312-737-3,
2007, p. 63-65
[7] Gullapalli. V.S. On performance analysis of plate heat exchangers, Thesis for the degree of licentiate in engineering, ISRN
LUTMDN/TMHP-08/7055-SE, 2008
[8] COOLPROP, http://www.coolprop.org/coolprop/Tabular.html, 2017
[9] Corberán. J. M, Gonzálvez. J, Fuentes. D. Calculation of refrigerant properties by linear interpolation of bi-dimensional meshes, Research
publications, Universidad Politécnica de Valencia. http://www.imst-art.com/ficherosdesc/interpolation.pdf
[10] Gullapalli. V.S. Estimation of thermal and hydraulic characteristics of compact brazed plate heat exchangers, Doctoral Dissertation, Division
of heat transfer, Department of energy sciences, Lund University, ISRN LUTMDN/ THMP-13/1095-SE, 2013