THIRTY-SEVENTH THOUS75NO.

$C 13 140

PRACTICAL
OF

FOR WORKING DRAWINGS.

 LETTERING
FOR

DRAFTSMEN, ENGINEERS AND STUDENTS

A PRACTICAL SYSTEM
OF FREEHAND LETTERING FOR WORKING DRAWINGS.
BY

CHAS. W. REINHARDT,
CHIEF DRAFTSMAN, ENGINEERING

TWELFTH EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED.

THIRTY-SEVENTH THOUSAND.

NEW YORK :

D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY^ A

1911.
 Copyright, 1895.

D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY

 C
IN looking over the books on lettering, which have corne under the writer's notice, he has found, that while

doing full justice to the principle of ornamentation and the theories governing the shaping of each letter, no author
has as yot attempted to treat lettering from a purely practical point of view. The need of a practical work on lettering,

however, has been and is daily experienced by many draftsmen, and in the following pages the writer has endeavored to
set forth the proper methods of forming purely free-hand lettering in a simple, easily acquired way, giving, at the same
time, the proper safeguards against the errors most commonly committed. The letters exhibited are actual free-hand

work and can readily be copied. In this respect the writer has made a radical departure from works of a similar charac-
ter which generally give ornate, carefully engraved alphabets, being of little more use to the average draftsman than

ordinary printed type, i. e., they can only be copied with a great sacrifice of time and patience. The whole system out-

lined is the result of the writer's experience during years of practice on the staff of a leading technical journal and is in-

tended to be a thoroughly practical guide for doing the best class of work in the shortest possible time.

BROOKLYN, September, 1895.

CHAS. W. EEINHAKDT.

254672
 PREFACE TO TWELFTH EDITION.

The encouraging reception given to former editions of this book has convinced the writer of the practical use-
fulness of the system of he advocates, and has induced him
lettering which to add material which tends io enlarge
the scope of the book, making it complete in every respect.
The subject of lettering, as applied to working drawings and the construction of has been taken up
titles,
more in detail, and the chapter devoted to lettering for purposes of wiU be found interesting and
photo-reproduction
useful by many readers. Besides the extension of the text some twelve illustrations and four full page plates
have also been added, thus considerably
enlarging the work, which, it is hoped, will continue to prove a desirable
hand-book to those wishing to acquire the art of freehand
lettering in a simple and rational way.

C. W. K.
 INCLINED LETTERING.
TN the following system ef lettering no attempt has ing these two types properly, then be a very easy
it will

been made to imitate any special form of printed matter for him to form also the more ornamental letters

alphabet, and for all ornate and elaborate lettering the satisfactory. The first requisite is to produce sharp,
draftsman is referred to some one of the many published clean corners and bold lines of uniform strength, and
collections of this character. What is here intended is this is especially necessary in work for photo-reproduc-
to illustrate and describe a type of lettering that looks tion, as usually such apparently unimportant things as

wellupon working drawings is reduced to its simplest

; filled-in corners and uneven lines are greatly exaggerated

form one that is rapidly made and is clear and distinct

;
on the plate. In Fig. i the correct and incorrect ways
under almost any reduction by photography. It is, in of doing this are shown. It will be well at first, for the
fact, especially designed for photo-reproduction. With purpose of obtaining clean corners, to resort to the
the purpose of fairly treating the subject, the lettering
here illustrated has been reproduced without any attempt
One Stroke Lettering
Incorrect. J
artif ce of curv !ng:
; ^^
the lines outwards at their
u

at touching up or cleaning it is actual freehand work,

;
One Stroke Lettering ends as exhibited on the
'

such as should be used in general practice. C"* third line of Fig. i. For
The ordinary slanting and, further on, the upright One Stroke Lettering very large letters the writer
lettering are described in a somewhat detailed manner, Fig. 1 finds a "ball-point" pen
as when the draftsman once becomes proficient in form- (Leonardt's 5 1 6 F.) most satisfactory ;
for medium sized
letters, not less than 2 millimeters high, he uses Soen- the proper spacing, slant, etc. On drawing paper, pen-
necken's No. 108 or 208, and for small sized letters, Gil- cil
guide-lines will be indispensable to the beginner.
"
No. 303, or the " Lithographic pen. Esterbrook's
lott's A slope of i
y
to 2 2 is sufficient for the stems or

pens; "Fine Business 97," "Double Spring 126" or down-strokes of the letters, and ordinarily an angle of
"
127" have also been found serviceable for coarser work. 45 with the horizontal will suffice for the upstrokes and
"
All of these pens should be "broken- in somewhat be- the axis of ellipses, excepting that of the letter "
o."
forebeing applied to lettering they should also be fre-
; The latter angle will have to be increased, of course,
quently cleaned when using waterproof ink, especially when the lettering is compressed, as shown in Fio-. 2.
" "
the "Soennecken pens. The nibs of the pen should, In lower case letters, like " b" or " p with part extend-
while doing this, be worked back and forth gently against ing above or below the
a soft rag, which process will cause the dried up parti- main body of the letter.
_$'!
cles of the ink to drop out from between them. the length of these parts
As to the type of lettering to be employed, the slant- : should be about 2-5 the
t

ing letter is well adapted to descriptive matter, dimensions, total height the body of
COtTlpi6556C[_ \ ;

etc., while the upright letter will contrast well with the the letter
p. 2 representing 3
former type used as reference letters or sub- captions. A of the total height-
parts
uniform pressure should be brought to bear upon the The exception is the lower case "t" which is one
"
pen a trick only acquired by practice. The pen should part less in total height than "
b or "
h," for
be held pointed forward, as in ordinary writing, and not example. In the illustrations the incor-
following,
" round
sideways, as in writing." In lettering on tracing rect forms of letters, as being constantly observed
linen a sheet of black cross-section paper divided to the are shown in and the
by writer, brackets,
millimeters, such as given on detached plate (XIII) ac- correct method of forming each letter is shown
companying this book, will be found useful for indicating beneath.
 Lower Case Letters.

" "
The letters n and m," Fig. 3, should be made will spread at the intersection of the two lines and make
with almost sharp upper clean corners impossible. The second part of the
"
" u " best Lf letter
"
r should be purely an
corners is ;
'-.
.
up-stroke, slightly
formed by three strokes, E curved at its end. In making the letter " f," start with
"
as in this way parallel
= a curve extending down about one space the "f shown ;

in brackets would come out with a heavy black knob

positions are secured for Fig. 3.

the straight lines, which should be made first, and these / -I i

. '-, . , . . - at top in any considerable re-

can be then joined by a lower curve. In forming the u ^o// = duction. The rule laid down
" "
letter v," Fig. 4, make the first stroke nearly vertical, Pig. 6.
for forming the n" may also

an angle of " and the down-stroke

and the second at be applied to the letter h," Fig. 6,
" "
about 45 with the for the " j same as for the " f revers-
horizontal. is
practically the
"
.' -. II Jn -?f
The common error in
making ed. Make bold, oblong dots over the "i and "j."
W/K 4*l<Viy*-
;
this letter lies in curving the two The third stroke of the letter " k," Fig. 7, should be
Fig. 4 lines and giving the letter the vertical and begin at about the / ./..
, /,, . .

appearance of a "y." The letter " w" is formed on the middle of the second stroke. In
" v." "
same principle as the In putting in the short hori- constructing the letter x," care Fig. 7.

zontal cross-line of the . should be taken to have the first stroke either verti-
" " or leaning slightly backwards, and the second stroke
cal
t;
great care
Fig. 5,

should be taken to use pj g 5 ought to cross the first a little above its centre in order ;

very little pressure upon the pen, as otherwise the ink to produce a clean intersection it
may be well to make
 "
the latter stroke in two parts. The letter y," than the opposite one.
flatter For the advantages of
" and
Fig. 8, should be drawn on the lines of the v," so doing see Fig. 9. In these letters the down-stroke

, ,
from the point of the angle should be at ex-

f^^2 the tail should be drawn

'
=,*? actly the proper
exact line with the angle, rather in-
PJ g in E
-^5P=
~ ^&M -
/,
=^fc^
+J
upper down-stroke, terminating, if desired, in a slight creasing this

curve to the left, to avoid the little blot of ink which angle at the be- Fig. 9.

would otherwise form at the bottom of the stroke. ginning, for the learner almost invariably makes the mis-
In this letter the second stroke may be modified as take of drawing this stroke too slanting. To furtherguard
shown. The "z" is best drawn in one stroke, stop- against this error, the beginner may slightly curve the

ping the pen every time before changing direction. The end of the down-stroke towards the left, thus widening
"
letter
"
o," Fig. 9, is produced by two curved strokes, the angle at the bottom of the " a and "
d," and the down-
"
with their ends sufficiently bent, forming a perfect ellipse, stroke of the " g should be made as long as possible in its

the axis of which lies in the direction of the down-stroke. straight part by turning very short with the lower left-
"
The joining of these two curves, in this and similar let- hand curve. The letters " p and "b," Fig. 10, should
ters, can be effected very neatly after a little practice. be shaped exactly as in-
"
The ovals of the following letters should be made verted letters " d and
somewhat narrower at the top than at the bottom, for ,,,.,, ~.-, y/-..
===
=== " a." With practice
%% /?j yyj
obvious reasons ;
and especial care must be taken to ' ' '-
these letters can also

have the axis of these ovals lie at an angle of 46 with Fig. 10. be made to look well by
the horizontal. For the purpose of increasing the width using the oval of the letter " o."
"
of the enclosed space at the bottom of the down-stroke The letter c," Fig. 11, is formed with one stroke,
and the oval, the right-hand curve should be somewhat care being taken to have its general direction parallel to
the down-stroke. The " e " h commenced in the same made necessary by the that while turning in a hori-
fact,

way, and the upper loop is formed by a second stroke zontal direction from right to left and then descending
with the axis of the loop into the ogee curve, the pen will either clog up and not
5S ) again at an angle of 45. give the required strength of line at one stroke or other-
=
:
~$
v^= The beginning of the wise will in turning detach minute particles of
paper or
" s " and deposit them at the
is a very short curve tracing-cloth saturated with ink
F| S- 11>
from left to right at its side bf the stroke, necessitating erasures. The method
apex ;
the rest is
carefully joined on, turned down into outlined (employing two strokes) is therefore by far the

a neat ogee curve and finished by a little crook upwards. simplest and quickest way of producing a clean letter, as

The middle part of this letter should be nearly horizontal. experience will show. It will at first be a somewhat

difficult matter to the beginner to lay the main axis of

If a very narrow letter is to be produced, it
may be
constructed with one stroke and a flatter curve, making this letter parallel with the down-stroke, but this is

the upper curve somewhat shorter than the lower one. nevertheless an essential point and should not be lost

In the ordinary letter a first separate stroke at the top is sight of.

Capital Letters.
As in the rule laid down for the lower case letters, The letter "A," Fig. 12, should be made in three

the letters will be five spaces high. strokes, with the second "
capital generally Jt /n\ r"/f ) r~ //"")
The <'' \i-.L I f/=
Sharply defined clean corners are again necessary, and almost vertical. cross- _
to secure this the beginner may find it advantageous to stroke should be placed low
curve the upper and lower ends of the down-strokes a about the middle of the 12.
Fig.
little outwards. second space from the bottom. The short third
stroke of the " E"
should be slightly above the center ate strokes, putting in the two parallel lines first; the two
of the letter, and should not be too short. The two other strokes should join at the top of the first space. If
"
down-strokes of the letter H," Fig. 13, should be ex- desired, this lettermay be made slightly wider at the
"
actly parallel, and the horizontal stroke should be made bottom than at the top. The letter " N is also formed
as directed for the third stroke of the " E." If the capi- by drawing the two parallel strokes first. The horizon-
"
tal
"
I is to be followed
by a lower case '!," two short tal stroke of the " T"
should be neatly balanced on top
horizontal strokes of even length and projection may be of the down-stroke, and if it is not perfectly straight, as
added to the top and often is the case, a hardly noticeable crook downwards
bottom. The second .
, at both ends will

_ /^
v/
!
stroke of the letter improve it.

Fig. 13. "K" should join the ~-

^7= The letters

first second space from the bottom, and
at the top of the shown in Fig. i5
Fig. 15.
the third stroke should join the second nearly one space are to be con-
" be made with one down
higher up. The letter L" can easily structed precisely upon the lines laid for the cor-

stroke, analogous to the forming of the same stroke of responding lower case letters, with the exception that
"
they should be a trifle narrower in proportion. The Y"
"
the letter E."
The "J," Fig. 14, is commenced as a perfectly is formed with two strokes without any lower crook to

straight down-stroke to the top of the lower space; then the left the " Z" is made in one stroke, with the axis
;

it turns to the left in of the letter in .

a gentle curve, tangent the direction

=P=^g
-J

to the base line, and of the down- :

*Df_ =^>^ :
v T* '/'
5

finally rises to the top p| g ,4 stroke. If

Fig. 6
of the first space. The " M "
is made with four separ- found easier, this
"
Z
"
can be made with three strokes.

10
With practice the letters "P," "B" and "D"can each ter should be proportionately narrower than the lower
be formed with two strokes, with the curves terminating case " c." In "
making the G," a somewhat wider ellipse
as shown. In forming the two curves of the letter " B," is
required, and this letter is most easily made with two
begin at the top, and after joining the stem, return exactly strokes ; the second horizontal stroke should be about
on the horizontal while the ink yet moist and complete
-
is one-half of the
the lower curve. The space enclosed by the lower curve
U u tUJ U
-f / /-. I/T'I / / // tl f
ii/j
I

(/ (Lg __
III
,r-
H/-
\

total width of
~
should be somewhat larger than that in the upper one. the
(JJ ( :

4.\ 3^^ r
ellipse.
The curve of the " D " should be parallel with the down- Fig. 17.
The capital
stroke in its middle may sometimes be ad-
third, but it
" O " should be an almost perfect ellipse, special care being
"
visable to make the lower part of the " D a shade wider taken in joining the two curves. The third stroke of the
" "
than the upper part. The first and second strokes of the Q
should begin about the middle of the second space,
" "
" R are identical with the letter "
P." and extend one space below the base. The letter " S
The "C," Fig. 17, is formed with one stroke, nearly can be formed, for small-sized lettering, in two strokes,

completing the ellipse of the letter " O," though this let- or with an additional stroke, as shown, for larger letters.

Numerals.
" "
As a rule, numerals should occupy the same height is used in proximity with I or " 1," it is well to use a

// A
' (&} ~7~J~~?} ? /"7J ?
ca P ita ' ' etters ^ '
short up-stroke at the top ; otherwise, it
may be repre-
/ / i i y*/ / i / / \j i js *j r " "
sented by a simple down-stroke. The 4 is commenced
'

> ,
: or five spaces,
, .

--
^~^f^- *f- .-'- -
i^J
' - r~ with the stroke inclined at an angle of 46, terminating
though the use of
/ -
.'/

Fig 18. fractions may at the second space from bottom and then turning sharply

slightly modify this rule. When the numeral "i," Fig 18, into the horizontal. The down-stroke should intersect

11
the horizontal in such manner as to leave about 3-5 of the son the first stroke
very short, curving to the right
is ;

"
horizontal to the left of the down-stroke The " 7 is best the second stroke descends nearly to the base, where a
stop
formed with one stroke, the down-stroke being on an is made, and the pen then returns in the same stroke,
"
angle of 45. The 3" should be drawn in one stroke, and, gradually turning to the right, nearly completes an
"
beginning as with the " 7 to a point a little below the top ellipse with an axial angle of 46, joining its lower part
of the third space, and then curving into a portion of an with the bottom of the incomplete second stroke. The
" "
ellipse, with an axial angle of 45. Another type of the figure 8 is commenced with an ogee curve, using a
" "
numeral 3 is shown, _. .
Jf- / / r , slight crook at its lower end, and is finished by two other
,.,
which can be made
,
.

in one f) r r \S)
^ ' D IJ) /
^sl?*^^
l

curves, as shown. The lower loop should always be

&
,

ti m, " "
stroke also. (L- L~ iis* somewhat larger than the upper one. The numeral 9
The "o" Fig. 19, Fig. 19.
is made in two strokes. The ellipse at the top is nearly
"
ought tobe a perfect ellipse, like the capital O." The finished in one stroke when the down-stroke is assumed,
" "
5 is commenced with the down-stroke, ending in the which, beginning at the initial point of the ellipse and
" "
ellipse of the and the horizontal upper stroke. The
3 completing the latter, terminates with a somewhat fuller
" "
2 can be constructed by one stroke, beginning at the curve then that employed in lower case ''
g."

top of the fourth space, nearly completing an oval with Though Roman numerals are seldom employed
an axial angle of 46, and then turning shortly into a on working drawings, they may sometimes be re-
down-stroke running into the base line, where a sharp quired. The chief requisite is to so form them that
s ma<^ e m a horizontal
h.-' iC\ f P\ ifZ/'f'Qr&turn '
they are neat in ap-

,C
'
""'
^
! f
~-

:
Direction.

is commenced
The "

like
6,"

the
Fig.
"o,"
20, pearance
distinguished from the
and easily
]\
IV

Fig. 21.

Fig. 20.
except that its initial point is rest of the text. They should be of the same height
somewhat beyond the axis of the ellipse. For that rea- as the Arabic numerals, and short horizontal strokes

12
should be used with them, as indicated in Fig. 21. second a straight down-stroke, tangent to and touching
In the modified forms shown in Fig. 22 it will be the curve.

noticed that all the letters and numerals are based upon The numerals follow similar lines of construction.
" " "
the general form of the letter o," modified to suit de- The begins at the upper part in an ellipse and ends
2

mands. The second stroke of the in a down-stroke, laid at an angle of 46, turning sharply
" "
"r" is really a part of the elemen- to the right in a horizontal line. The 3 is formed
tary ellipse, as are also the second with one stroke, with its lower curve, as also that of the
" n " " 5 " and "
stroke of the and the second 6," encircling somewhat more than half oT the
" " " "
and third strokes of the "m." The ellipse. In the 6 and 9 care must be taken to have
" u ,, i i
Fia 22.
is here made in two strokes the curved down-strokes only tangent to the respective
the first, a down-stroke with the curve attached, and the ellipses, and not cutting off a portion of the latter.

UPRIGHT LETTERING.
Upright lettering is
employed most advantageously is to be given, though, as a rule, the slanting lettering
for reference letters, designating lines of section, and will answer this purpose very well.

for captions. In some instances however, it

may be The relative height of the letters ought to remain
deemed advisable to use uprights also for such descrip- the same as that of the inclined lettering. The down-
tive matter, dimensions, etc., to which some prominence strokes should be perfectly vertical, and in order to pro-
duce this effect properly, be best for the beginner
it will these letters are being executed in a horizontal direction
to form the habit of making the letters at first lean over or nearly so. The letters are again simplified as much
somewhat to the left at the top, as the natural tendency as possible, a fact which will be especially notice-
would be to have them lean the opposite way. It will able in the lower case "a" and "
g," which, though
be noticed that in some of the uprights a comparatively at variance with the ordinary gothic print, look fully

greater number of strokes is

required, as many portions of as well.

Lower Case Letters.

In the letters shown in Fig. 23, the same number shown, may also be employed. In constructing the
of strokes is employed as in the slanting lettering pre- letter " v," the two slanting strokes ought to make the

viously described. The letters are as a rule made wider same angle with the vertical. The beginner will in-

than those of the slanting type. The second stroke of variably construct the second stroke at a greater incline
" "
the " n and the two last strokes of the letter "
m are than the first, and will do well
guard against this to
started with a very slight curve in an upward direction habit, until after some practice the hand will become

rounding off the corner at the top, making it somewhat accustomed to form the point of juncture of the two
more full than in the corresponding slanting letters. strokes equidistant from their starting point. The letter
" " "
The letter u w" is
composed practically of two somewhat narrowed
is made in three " v"s.

R ~TfT~ _U ==*sf= VV. :

strokes as usual, The letter " 1
"
(Fig. 24) is sometimes constructed
Fig. 23.
connecting the with a lower crook to the right, when used at the side of
two down-strokes with a "
well shaped curve. If preferred, capital letter I," otherwise it is made as a down-stroke
"
however, the ordinary form of gothic lower case " u," as pure and simple. The second stroke of the " r starts

14
from the top of the second space upwards as a very explained above. When the pen is very full, the second

slight curve, similar to the one forming first part of the stroke may be made in two parts, as shown, thereby
" "
second stroke of letter n." Letter "f is best formed preventing the forming of a clot of ink at the intersection
"
by three strokes ;
the first a very short curve to the of those two strokes. The upper part of letter " y
The forms a perfect " v.' The second stroke may either be
F

right, being joined by the second or main stroke.

horizontal third executed with a slight angle terminating in a vertical
stroke should be direction, or in a perfectly straight inclined line, according
" "
made sufficient- to the draftsman's individual taste. Letter z is as
Fig. 24.
ly prominent. usual formed in one stroke ;
its
starting point should
The "j" ought to extend two spaces below the
letter be vertically above the point of turning into the horizontal.
base line and should be made in one stroke, being The ellipses of the letter shown in Fig. 26, are as

perfectly straight until the point of curve is reached. If usual constructed in two strokes, joining the respective
found however, a second right hand stroke, form-
easier, initial and terminal , _,_,

ing the curved portion, may be employed. The latter points carefully,
should be almost a semicircle and one space high. first curve starts in an =3
O*
The second stroke _ almost horizontal di-

of letter
should extend
"k" (Fig. 25)
down
Y .Y m rection towards
and terminates
the 2

to
3SE
left similarly at the right, thus prevent-

nearly the first space. ing theforming of a point at the top and bottom
The third stroke be- 2 5-
junctures. The second (right hand) stroke of the ellipse
gins at about the centre of the second one. The letter ought to be made apparently more curved than necessary,
" "
x constructed with two strokes, making the first
is as that portion is invariably made too flat by the beginner.
one apparently more inclined than necessary for reasons The ellipses should be made quite full. The vertical

15
 " " " " s "
down-strokes of letters " a,"
" d and "
g ought to run Letters " c and (Fig. 28) are started with a short
" c "
tangent to their ellipses so that the thickness of the curve towards the right the upper end of letter
;

second curve at the joint of juncture is not increased. should be slightly more curved than the lower one still, ;

The curved portion or the fourth stroke of letter "g" the form of the perfect oval should be predominant in this

extends to the left almost or nearly the full width of the letter. The letter "e" is constructed in three strokes.
"
oval of this letter. If, as is sometimes the case, the upper part of letters " c
" " " " "
The mode of construction of letters '* " and b and e should not precisely fill the allotted space, or
q," p
(Fig. 27) offers no novel features. If the pen, while otherwise they should appear too narrow, a slight flat-

rounding in the lower part .

tening of the lower _-
of the curve of letters " p
"
M ^
r^ portions of the curve,
^^ \^l ^^ \C-Cj oyjojE
1C j -*l
and "
b," should contain too making those letters ^C.
.3!
G ti 6= *6 S^
much ink, the curve may be appear leaning back- Fig. 28
2 7-
completed by a third stroke, ward will help matters and otherwise not
;
at all injure

running in an opposite direction, as shown, as in turning their appearance, as shown. The completed ovals of
" s "
into the lower portion of the curve a somewhat greater letter should, as in the inclined one, form a perfect

pressure is
involuntarily brought upon the pen, resulting figure "8." If at all uneven, the lower oval should be
if too full, in a badly proportioned lower end. made more prominent than the upper one.

Capital Letters.

Upright capitals are, as a rule, 5spaces high, with the should be made narrower in proportion than the cor-
"
exception of the Q," the appendix of which ought to responding lower case letters.
reach one space below the base line. These letters The second stroke of letter "A" (Fig. 29), should

16
be made rather more inclined than the first one by letter " K" should in a well formed letter be vertically
the beginner. The first strokes of letters " E " and below the initial point of the second stroke. The length of
" "
Fmust be made perfectly vertical or leaning back- the horizontal portion of the " L" is again, as in the case

wards, as even the slightest inclination forward in these of the " F," determined by the
succeeding (lower case)
two letters will be painfully noticeable, especially in the letter. It is obvious, that by unduly lengthening that
" "
F." The length of the short third stroke in the F," portion of the letter, an unproportionally wide space will

is generally depending on the shape of the succeeding result between its vertical part and the succeeding letter.
"
^ (lower case) letter ; The curved part of letter "J
ought to be a(Fig. 31)
_ shorter, if the latter well shaped semicircle, beginning and ending not above
:
-Wv il:-
5

=qf-j =
begins with a verti- the middle of the second space. The second and third
Flg. 29.
cal stroke, longer, strokes of letter "M "
converge at the second line, and
if an oval or inclined stroke is to follow. We will not this point should, of course, be at an even distance from the

attempt, however, to lay down any definite rule on this vertical strokes. -
To
point, as the determining factor in each case should be
the draftsman's
best formed in
eye and good taste. Letter Z is

one stroke, care being taken to make

" "
attain this

exactly, some
draftsmen
end

will per-
;

= ^
Fig. 31.

especially the inclined portion perfectly straight. haps find it easier to put in the two verticals first and the
The letters comprising Fig. 30 are constructed upon oblique strokes afterwards, as in the construction of the
"
nearly the same . . ,, r .
T , . . . , , . . . . . - letter N." The angles in those two letters should be
principles given in sharply defined, the strokes forming them ending in a
the case of the cor- =Hi;= Elrflil clearly cut, though somewhat blunt point. The second
responding slanting pj , horizontal stroke of letter "T" ought to be evenly
capital letters. The termination of the last stroke of balanced upon the main or down-stroke.

17
 The construction of the letters shown in Fig. 32 is
forming of a lump of ink at the point of intersection.
"
chiefly guided by the principle that the rate of inclina- The two inclined parts of letter " Y
should join on the
tion of the slanting strokes should be uniform in each top of the second space ;
from there the second stroke
i. \ i ,\ . v v / <% n letter. In the case of is continued in a vertical direction down to the base line.
"
the "V" and "W" Letter " P is constructed in two strokes,
m care should be taken
(Fig.
the second one beginning at the top of the
33)
first, care-

Fig. 32.
that only the center fully round-

lines of the inclined strokes join at the base or top ing the curve
lines of the ruling, thus avoiding two extremes, either and joining 1
the formation of a vertical short end or the reverse, a the fi r s t
Fig. 33.

flattened-out point. This is made apparent in the stroke again at right angles as a perfectly straight
small illustration, Fig. 320. The line. The third stroke of letter "B" begins at the

first and fourth strokes of letter point of curve of the second, enclosing a slightly
" W "
ought theoretically to be made larger area than the second one.
"
The second stroke

parallel to the second and third ;

pj g
of letter " D should begin and terminate in a hori-
" "
but as the latter two strokes are involuntarily made zontal direction. If a slight
sagging should happen
more upright than the first one, the fourth stroke should in the curve, it
ought to be near its lower portion.
again be made more slanting to correspond with the first. The rule given for the forming of the second stroke of
" " "
The reverse mode of procedure would result in a badly letter B applies also to letter R;" its third inclined

shaped letter, as shown in brackets. Letter "X" is stroke begins at the point of curve of the second.
"
usually made in two strokes, or, if preferable, a stop may The two vertical strokes of letter "
U are made first ;

be made second stroke shortly before crossing the

in the a right hand carefully formed semi-circular curve con-

first, continuing it on the other side, avoiding thus the nects the two.

18
 Letter " C" (Fig. 34) is made with two strokes, and is cute the second stroke neatly in the way outlined the
simply a repetition of the lower case letter, relatively suggestion of a separate vertical downward stroke is
narrower. The second stroke of letter " G" follows the made. The mode of construction of the ellipses of the
" " "
outline of the "O and Q differ somewhat from that of the lower

case letters the point of juncture is shifted diagonally in

ellipse ;

wards near- tjgy- order to lessen the chance of a point forming at the top
,

ly a space ;
and bottom of the oval. The third stroke of letter
fig-34
there a short "Q" begins as shown, and extends one space belQw.
"
stop is made and the pen point is carefully pushed up- The second stroke of letter " S should for a very short
wards in a vertical direction, terminating that stroke as space run perfectly horizontal. The rules given for the
shown. The final horizontal stroke should not be made forming of the lower case letter otherwise apply to this
too short. To those who might find it difficult to exe- letter also.

Numerals.

Upright numerals ought to be like the inclined ones,

" "
five spaces high. Figure i
may again, if used in

proximity with 1
/
capital letter "I"
or lower case

"1," be con- Fig. 35.

" "
structed with a very short upstroke. Numeral 4 is

started with a perfectly straight inclined downstroke, as

 " "
Numeral 5 (Fig. 36) begins with a vertical stroke be part of a perfect ellipse and comprising as it does,
to nearly the space; from there
middle of the third nearly two-thirds of its circumference, is somewhat
the stroke follows the outline of the ellipse, which is to difficult to construct. The middle portion of the second
be three spaces high. The middle portion of the second stroke should for a short distance, run almost vertical.

stroke of numeral "6" ought to follow the vertical The upright =

^
-
direction a short - . , Roman num-
as the =
^
j-^-
(frt R (ftUQ (9h
erals,
distance, "^. g Fig. 37, Fig. 37.
gr~ r. r\ rQU tCp*iQn
general tendency y-- -^^^Q=^^= ^J w = are constructed, analogous to the inclined ones, with
in constructing this Fig. 36. upper and lower short horizontal strokes. After explain-

figure is to have that part too much curved. The third ing the mode of forming of capital letters V " and ".X," "

" 8 "
stroke ought to enclose a perfect ellipse. Numeral nothing new can be said concerning these, except that
is formed in three strokes ; its first a well-shaped ogee as a general rule it will be well to make them a trifle

curve, with its middle running very nearly

portion narrower in proportion.
"
horizontal. The first stroke of numeral " g ought to

Extended Form of Upright Lettering.

In the following illustration, Fig. 38, the upright letter- them, decidedly flat, sometimes going to the extreme to
ing is shown in extended form. It will be noticed that have the top and bottom parts of the ellipses running
for the construction of some of those letters a compara- perfectly straight for a certain distance.
tively greater number of strokes is
required. The axes The complete alphabets of the slanting and upright
of the ellipses a horizontal direction in every case, type are shown
lie in in Plate I., together with samples of
and it will be well to shape parts of the curves, composing lettering as used on working drawings. The single

20
letters,composing a word, should, especially in slanting Sufficient space should be allotted between different

lettering, be placed as close as possible,

so close, in fact, words. Of all the theories set forth upon the spacing

=
j
=>
f.
J
V-V \A / *5^ N/ x^ r
~{"~ ~T ^T(--J (~^~
should be so arranged that, when the drawing is held at the theories upon spacing, and should appear corrected

some distance, or is looked at with half closed eyes, as in Fig. 39^, showing, as it were, a more even tone
no unusually large of coloring.

white space appears

ONLY STANDARD. In expressing fractions, the accepted custom is to place

between letters, as a horizontal dash between numerator and denominator,

shown for example ONLY STANDARD. excepting the instance when numeral "4" happen to be
in Fig. 39, which, the latter, in which case, for obvious reasons, a slanting
(Corrected.)

an actual specimen Fig. 39. dash is employed. The several lines of lettering compos-

of printed type, demonstrates the fallacy of one of ing a sentence, for instance, should be placed rather close.

Freehand Lettering applied to Working Drawings.

should be side, and a dotted reference line with arrow head point-
Lettering as applied to working drawings,
bold, clear and uniform in size, with
the exception of the sub-captions, which

maybe a trifle larger. Diminutive and i. 3 j/fi|:

cramped lettering on a drawing will

never look well. If possible, the letter-

ing should be kept distinctly by itself and

never be allowed to run across lines.
If some words can not be put on the ob-
ject itself, which they are intended to des- Ends.
Expansion Joints.
cribe, they should be boldly placed out-

22
ing to the subject attached, as shown especially in Figs. dimension lines, and an appropriate space left open
40, 41 and 42. The lettering should be placed so as to while drawing those. If the space allotted for a dimen-
read from the base sion is too small
and right hand side sv^ to place the same
of the sheet, that comfortably be-
is to say, lettering myl2L'f"'6
-iPi'i'iti
tween arrow heads,
?$&/'
Distributing dircter, eitlusiw

running at an angle the figures should

of 90 to the base be written outside,
Beff: (Jmrcl:
ZWlix,48"*%
line should be made 40{63rf*g! parallel to dimen-
gffaf*
to read from the sion line, and refer-

right hand side, if ence line used.

at a greater angle, Arrow heads
its base should be should be bold,
reversed in such a with even sides,

way that it can be the two strokes

read from the lower composing them
left hand corner; if
tapering in thick-
Details of Long Raising Girder
the angle be small- ness from the point;
and Truss Connection.
" "
er, one should then lop sided ones
be enabled to read should be avoided.
from the lower Fig. 41.
it The leneth of

right hand corner, as Fig. 44 demonstrates. the arrow heads depends upon the size of the dimension
Dimensions should be placed between, not on top of numerals, which are to go between them ;
at any rate,

23
the numerals themselves should stand out free and not an inset sheet "Engineering News'" and yet shows
in

touch the former. Where the space does not permit the lettering of the strain-sheet legible, sharp and clean

this, the reversed arrow heads may be used, so as to cut, even under a magnifying glass. The pin points, as
leave a cleaV space between them, as shown, for instance, shown, are also made prominent by using upright refer-
at left of Fig. 40, in second row of dimensions from be- ence letters. Similar prominence may be given, for in-
low. In the same figure the relative size of upright stance, to portions of a building, as shown in Plate XI

^Sfin, atf
Part Side Elevation

Fig. 42.

used for captions and sub-captions is shown.

lettering, as on plan of station building. Notes referring to draw-
In Fig. 44 and on Plate III, upright lettering is also em- ings should run parallel to base of sheet and be used as
'

"
ployed to denote the strains for the respective members, fillers."

in order to have same appear distinctly different from In Fig. 43 and Plate II, lettering as used on sketch
ordinary dimensions or descriptive matter. This plate maps is shown. Here four distinctive styles, composed
has been considerably reduced in size from a drawing for of the two alphabets above described, are employed.
The writer recommends, in such a case, to have the Profiles of railway lines, etc., may be treated in a sim-

physical features of a map, such as creeks, rivers, lakes,

ilar manner ;
the margin figures denoting vertical and
" all "
mountains, bays, inlets, denoted by cap slanting horizontal scales, should, however, be placed in uprights
"
letters ;
proposed engineering works in caps and lower and be written outside, not upon the lines of the scale.
"
case of the same type ;
villages, railway lines, stations The use of the four distinct types of lettering will at
" once allow an easier
in cap and lower
"
case upright let- reading of the pnx-
tering ; finally, file. A good ex-
counties, townships ample of this kind
or cities in "all is
given in Fig. 45.

caps," upright. The arrange-

These rules are ment of margin
all, of course, sub- figures here will

ject to more or less permit the approx-

modification, as oc- imate elevation of

casionally contour any desired point

Fig. 43.
lines, soundings, easily to be ascer-
etc., may also be designated in small upright numerals. tained by laying a rule across the vertical scales, its

Plate II illustrates the above said very well. Letters upper edge touching the point in question. In Fig.

relating to rivers and railway lines should be placed 46, the general style of lettering a diagram is shown.
parallel to those objects. Otherwise, lettering in straight The margin figures again are uprights, set opposite, not
lines is resorted to. If this should, however, be imprac- upon the lines, which they are to designate. The letter-

ticable, lettering in neat curves is used. ing of the curves, being of a descriptive character, is

25
clone in the slanting type. Since this lettering has to run well finished map. The lower two scales are best

across the ordinates and abscissae of the diagram, great adapted for map work, although the upper one, in-
care has to be exercised to keep same open and clear, tended for ordinary working drawings, can also very

especially avoiding filled in corners. well be used for that purpose. In constructing the

Examples of simple and also slightly more elaborate simpler type of scales it is advisable to employ four
meridians and scales are given on Plate XI. All of the different heights of graduation lines, a method which

former are easy to construct and will look neat on any will materially increase its clearness.

VARIOUS FREEHAND ALPHABETS.

The principles of construction of the shaded inclined the pen has to outline and shade the curves at the same
(Italic) lettering, shown on Plate IV, which is occasion- time, necessitating 2.
slight turning motion of the holder,

ally used on working drawings and maps, are practically to the beginner a somewhat delicate operation at first

the same as given for the ordinary (Gothic) slanting let- It willbe noticed, that every second row in the upper

tering. The relative height of letters and inclination portion of this plate is devoted to demonstrating the
of down-stroke remain unchanged. A fairly fine point- proper method of forming each letter and. the sequence
ed rather flexible pen should be used, such as Gillott's of strokes. Italic
lettering, in order to look well, re-
No. 303 or No. 290 (Gillott's lithographic pen). The quires a considerably wider spacing than the ordinary
lower case letters are very much like common English slanting lettering, the hair line upstrokes in most of the
shaded script. The shading
produced by an even
is lower case letters adding to their width. After all that

pressure exerted upon the pen, wh.ch in turning into has been said about slanting lettering in general, no
curves, is gradually released at the proper moment. In trouble will be experienced in constructing these letters
" " " " " " "
shading letters S and numerals 2," 7 and 8 satisfactorily.
26
 When reduced considerably, Italic lettering, as a rule, shown on Plate V. As is known to every draftsman, a
does not show up so well as the same size of the slanting lump of ink is apt to form at the end of a straight stroke,
Gothic type described before, the light lines in that case

dropping out, thus leaving only the shaded portions vis-

ible.

The type of lettering shown in lower part of Plate IV,

is in fact only a modification of the ordinary upright

SZO'O"
Half Side Elevation.

Fig. 44.

freehand lettering, and used as a part of title looks very when the pen is fairly full. This propensity of the ink
well when used with the black faced Gothic
lettering, is made use of in
constructing this type of lettering and
27
the flow of ink thus diverted. The relative number of of which have been exhaustively explained in the fore-

strokes remains the same, as with the ordinary upright going, will experience no trouble whatever in sketching

style. Afew modifications are introduced in the shape these letters in good shape. As shown, the relative
height of lower case and capital letters
remains unchanged the width of the
;

stem of the capital may be taken as 4-5,

in some cases 7-8, that of the lower
case letters as 3-5 the width of a square.

5000 6000 7000

Fig. 45.

of lower case "

a
"
and "
This lettering is best pro-
g."
On Plate V sug-
duced with a ball point pen, insuring a stroke of almost gestions are
uniform strength. As a precaution, it may be said that made as to sev-

the pen should never be too full while making this type eral methods of
of lettering. shading these
Plates V to VII inclusive, contain Freehand Letter- letters, although,

ing suitable for main titles, which may easily be con- as a rule, they
structed by dividing the space to be lettered into squares look very well 20 10

and sketching in the letters in outline afterwards, as without it.

1879.
shown on tracing linen, cross-section paper may of
;
When this kind Metal Prcesl879,l880cmd!895.

Fi 46
course be used for this purpose. A draftsman able to of lettering is de-
' '

satisfactorily construct the upright lettering, the principles sired to be of medium or small size, it can neatly and

28
expeditiously be constructed in the way shown by Fig. turning the paper, so as to permit the draftsman to draw
47# Throw in the stems of these strokes in a direction towards him. If, as the
WAYNC
:

(Origin*,)
the letters with a broad nibbed case may be, the draftsman should desire more ornamen-
pen, insuring a bold stroke (Spurred bMc.)
tal letters, he will be able, by the aid of his eye and the
analogous to ordinary Gothic exercise of some originality, to devolve the letters de-

upright lettering, with the ex- (Plain Gottiio.)

VVAYN E sired out of the types given. It should, however, be
of the horizontal 47a borne in mind, that a composed of highly orna-
title,

ww
ception Fig.

strokes, which, together with mented letters, does not atone for any poorly drawn and
the tops and bottoms of the lettered sheet to which it
may be attached, but on the
M. Z.
letters, rule in, and fill in the other hand, a simple title, constructed of well executed
Fig 476.
corners freehand, as shown en- letters of reasonable size, with the several lines compos-

larged in Fig. 47$. As is well known, short freehand ing it, centered, will make an ample -heading for any
strokes are somewhat difficult to draw horizontally, well executed drawing, and conform in style with the

therefore this method is

certainly preferable to that of subject represented.

LETTERING OF TITLES.
On Plates VIII and IX, and the accompanying text routine work a technical journal.
in the drafting office of

figures, reduced specimens of freehand titles are given, These samples, as given here, represent reductions from
and pains have been taken to present, as much as pos- originals which range in size from one-half to nearly
sible, different types of easily formed and fairly well bal- one-fifth linear measure.
anced titles, such as could be selected during the daily The specimens exhibited on those two plates show

29
more or prominence which is to be
less clearly, that the

given to different portions of a title, depends upon the

relative importance of the lines. The draftsman is
gener-

3S"
second word are to come to the left of the center shows the draftsman's lack of practice in freehand work,
line, and the remainder of the line to the right. If, while relying sole-
after the spacing of a line of letters needs re-ad-
all, ly upon his skill

justment after the letters are sketched in, the drafts- with bow pen and
man may easily rectify the matter by going over that ruling pen. The END AN SECTIONAL VQEW
OF
line again, working first to the left and then to the right writer would not
of center. consider this work EUREKA DRIERS
complete without
giving passing LONGITUDINAL SECTION
0u tletSewer notice to F.g, 50.

Round Writing,
INDEX TO MAP the principles of which are shown on Plate X. For the
IN SHEETS ATTACHED
production of this kind of lettering regular round writ-
Fig 4 9.
ing pens are used, although very satisfactory lettering of
In Fig. 5o, an actual fac-simile of a title once met with thistype can be produced with goose-quills cut by the
is exhibited. It explains in short how not to do it, and draftsman, and the writer even yet prefers the latter.

31
 LETTERING FOR PHOTO-REPRODUCTION.
The lettering and drawing for reduction purposes may at considerable reduction, provided each is formed by a
be made on any quality of drawing paper, tracing linen solid ridge of ink.
or paper. Yellowish tinted papers however, will as a A good standard to adopt for lettering for reproduc-

rule, not give as good results as the pure white or blue- tion is to have the smaller lower case letters, such as
ish ones. In order to insure good, unbroken lines on " " reduce to not less than one millimeter
a," e," etc.,

tracing cloth the writer would recommend the thorough (slightly more than ? in.) in height ; therefore, if a
rubbing of the surface with pumice powder. The other drawing is to be reduced three-fourths, (i. e., to one-
materials mentioned, of course, require no special prepa- fourth its original length) make those letters 4 times
ration. Erasures on tracing cloth are also best made that height
with the same agent ; the powder is sprinkled upon the
Freehand Lettering millime-

part to be erased, and a little brisk rubbing with the end ters (about
of the finger or a hard rubber, while replacing the dis- A in.) high
colored pumice with fresh powder, will thoroughly clean with the
Fig. 51 .

the effected surface, which may be lettered over again of

ORIGINAL FOB THBEE-FOtJRTHS REDUCTIONS. strength
without danger of the ink spreading. Where, however, body in pro-
erasures have otherwise been made, Chinese white may the height of the capitals and numerals must be
portion ;

be applied with a soft brush over the discolored parts. in accordance. A drawing to be reduced to one half
Letters and lines must be made perfectly black if very size (one-half its length) has to contain
;
lettering just
fine lines are used on a drawing, they will still reproduce twice the standard given above. The lettering on draw-

32
ings to be reduced to a size about halfway s between A drawing should never be reduced at a lesser rate

three fourths and two-thirds reduction, should be made than to three-fifths of its original length. What may be

Freehand 'i millimeters (about A in.)

called a good average Freehand Lettering-
reduction is

Lettering-
high, minimum size. All the two-thirds (i.
e., to one-third its
Fig. 51c.
the foregoing is sufficiently length.) When the BEPRODUTION FROM condensed
KITHEB OF THE
made type of lettering is used ABOVE ORIGINALS. on drawings
Fig. 516. clear by the illustra-
OBIGINAL FOR REPRODUCTION BETWF-ES
ONE-HALF AND TWO-THIRDS. tions, Fig. 5 a, b and c.
1 for reduction purposes a proper safeguard to adopt is to
The two illustrations shown on Plate XII (details of exaggerate somewhat the width of ovals or small loops,
and section of reservoir) have been reproduced such as for instance of the letter " e," to guard against
rail-joint
from originals five and the "filling in" of

four times their re- those parts. A close Note: - "The Top of Cap will
be stfgntiy ovat, and ThtCtn-
-tral square, triangle, and
circle will be raised about
sizes. Al- study of the three labove the letterirtij.
spective
of
though the draftsman types lettering
is
supposed to know given on Fig. i of
the exact rate of re- this work, which tend

duction, the directions to illustrate the same

to the engravers are principle, will also be
better given in inches useful. The reason Section of
Cast Iron Cap.
or fractions thereof, for giving a limit of
Fig. 526.
placed in pencil un- Fig- 52a. reduction (i. e., one
derneath they are for our puposes reproduced on Fig.
;
millimeter height for smaller lower case letters) and the

5ia and b, but would, of course, not be reproduced by employment of gothic letters of uniform strength, is

the engraver ordinarily. made evident by referring to the illustrations, Fig.

.33
which presents an example of engraving, such as is ployed are-the photo- lithographic and zinc etching pro-
sometimes indulged in, and Fig. 826, redrawn and cess. Both require a similar grade of preparation of the
reduced to some scale. drawing. The writer uses on such drawing the water-
The strength of the lines of a drawing to be repro- proof ink, which perhaps blacker than the ordinary
is

duced depends of course altogether upon the rate of re- kind and possesses more body, Any kind of black
duction. For larger reductions it will be quite essential drawing ink however, is suitable for the purpose well
; ;

to show as much of a white space between lines as possi- rubbed stick India ink will permit of very fine black
such as designates the thickness of flange
ble, for instance lines. The main objection to the use of ordinary inks,
of an I-beam in elevation. The work should in all cases however, is their liability of blurring, when handled,
be clear and open, and this detail, immaterial as it
may or the ink mixing with the Chinese white, render-
appear, not be overlooked. ing the application of the color sometimes very
The processes of photo-reproduction ordinarily em- difficult.

34 .
a bcdefqhijklm nopqrstuvwxyz.., 123456 78910. 1894.

ABCDEFOHIJKLMNOPQR5TUVWXYZ. Ordinary Type.

I1ENVVIVE WKX. Details of Cross Framing. CR055 SECTION OF 6IRDER.
Extended Lettering. LONGITUDINAL. SECTION. &.
Compressed Type; INTERSTATE BRIDbE. ^WW,%'^7*/w,%"/m&
a bcdefghij kl
mnopq rstuvwxyz. 12345678910. I3"., ^f" %".

ABCDEFOHU K LM N OPQR5TU VWXYZ.

Ordinary Lettering. I Beam. Eye Bar. 4l?,6"x6"xJi"= 85.12
EZxtendool. Q5 F"-h. Spotn '
. Eimol
Compressed. UZ't,-lbs.peryd. NEW YORK CENTRAL. 2V 5'7^ TBolt, S
Outer Elevation.

Material for Reenforcinq Bottom Chord: Material for Chord Section1 =

UK samples of Lettering on Lower
QoanfDIZAlrR'rfiA'suiff nhnvp rhnrd s ?4-"x^"x?^'0"
J. GDQW Mora. ( L?WohPl Pl-x*
mon, U *0 ^
Portion of this Plate show
-

5faang fUnes and also Mode of

appmimal,

/
,7Z*x%x8'0'netf1oWeb.
" "
n'
ld?"x Th
m !?-,''/"/'/)"
*5 Crowding in Fraction Numerals.
It willa/so be seen that it becomes
Itwillalsobeseen becor,
L
II -i-D 7?/ 77 X
"2"X >'n"
I
\,72'*/'*6'9t'/nsJfr. I L dT.urCIC6ri., y/ OU necessary to occasionally shorten a
9 11 11 PI5 ll-'-x-L'^l'ini" Capital orlonqer Lower Case Letter.
Outs. Stiffeners,fcl?,4'x5*xgx3'lO'
",'// *-^- fc'ol"* //" o/ //X" , c' ?1 2 n Occasional Brackets orHorizontal
Fillers 4Baffer/P/?, 15 X*"*?/ Dashes are best made Free Hand-,
:/i> c,? nr n i ii the latter with a slow, "wobbling"
Diaphragmsflns.), 3 PI* % "thick.
X x P o r.0 U Stroke ofthe Pen.

PLATE I.
PLATE II.
 _*
Vertical Section
at ftint 31, n^ ^^ V12
Enlarged.

Detoil Showing
Elevation of Girders and Bracina
at Center of Trusses.

Connections of Rjnel Fbtnt^ 28-31,

Enlarged.

Section on L'meA-B,
Showing Connection of 15"Channete
toStrut5-8.
abode fghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
<a> fly tc* tcff & W'f'*<i:?l

A B CDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
!b'
ij M i m^^fity** tffc jU} %,yl

Treehand
%$&&&** $ Printing
Shaded Inclined (Italic) Lettering, Used for Working Drawings.

abcdefg hij klmnopqrstuvwxyz

ABCDEFG HIJKLMNOPQttSTUVWXYZ
123456789 10.

Freehand Lettering for Captions, Produced very Fast.

THROUGH PASSENGER SERVICED etc.
PLATE IY.
PLATE V
PLATE VI,
PLATE VI!,
 I 5 I
^J

i ! N| 1 I 6
<S J

a p < o Jt v w

ABrAEZH6IKAMJV5OTIP Z T Y X <P f J2

GREEK ALPHABET.
(SCRIPT)

Application
of

Alphabet.

Position o, Stream O.

PLATE VIII.
Suspervdad Coir
Apparatus for the
SVup CoorvoA - PuUxXV^VAmn., Aeration of Water.
O.K. P.Turner- 1 scale 12=1-
William Wheeler,
June I-4.I90O. Consulting Engineer,

Commonwealth of Massachusetts.
NORTH GERMAN LLOYD,
Metropolitan Water Works.
PLANS FOR
PROPOSED piERN?3, STANDARD DETAILS
( 9O FT WIDE.)
HOBOKEN, N.J. LIFTERS
-*
FOR SCREENS
OCT. 1900. AND -**

STOP- PLANKS.
Hoboken, New Jersey.
Full Size

J&&1NGEMENT OF TESTING STATION.

INSIDE -5HOP/A/O OF THE
/&
-=COLUMB)AN FIREPROOFING CO;
U.S.S. OPEGON. BOSTON, MASS.

PLATE IX.
 COMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS.

METROPOLITAN WATER WORKS.

ROUND CORNER DETAILS.
SCALE '/a INCH** I FT.

WACHUSETT DAM, These details forSE.Corner-Similar construction at N.E.comer.

GENERAL PLAN OF DAM

AND APPURTENANCES.
40 60 '20 '60 ?00 FT. /?Y

G&nero/ E/eraf'on, Cross Sections

COATM/SS/OAS sco/e. i'/'~/ff-.

ce..

Chicago
>ec.3o*99.
Ch/cayo.
"
2-4

PITTSBURGH, PA.
DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC WORKS
New York 8c
Brooklyn Bridqe BUREAU OF FILTRATION
Present Details of Bottom Connections-, CONTRACT NO. I

Suspenders Sc Stays. FILTERS.BASINS AND APPURTENANCES

Scale INTERIOR DRAINS
x^in.to I ft. Sep-t. I9OI.
DETAIL PLAN OF ONE FILTER

PLATE X.
a/ /$> Ay b d/ A/ sv/t>

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3
96

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PLATE XI.
 Women -<5as -'

Waiting Baggage Room

& Room SncJi >t Finish
Concrete floor
-
4l'fr,

,,,.!.,,.

10 EO 30 40 50 60

10' 20' 30' 40' 50' 60'

0' 10' 20' 30' 40' 50'

PLATE XII.
 PLATE XIII.

Cross Section, Millimeters.

THREE STANDARD TEXTS FOR DRAUGHTSMEN
PUBLISHED BY

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Third Edition Revised Part I Now Ready Just Published

l-2mo., U.. 98 Pages 87 Illustrations 8ro., Cl., 70 Pages Illustrations Text and Plates, j x :% in. hes

A PRACTICAL COURSE IN
MACHINE DRAFTING AND
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A Text Book for Students in Engineering
By WILLIAM FOX, M. E. Schools, and others who are Beginning For TRADE SCHOOLS
Assistant Professor of Applied Mathematics, the Study of Drawing as Applied
BY
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CHARLES W. THOMAS, IB. E. BY CHARLES C. LEEDS
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student does not appreciate these sub- ing, and work as a whole towards a development
view to its being followed throughout the of the creative draughtsman.
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comprehensible and to preclude it serves its purpose best, where

'

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TESTIMONIALS
"
"I have examined the book carefully and am much Mr. Rein-
pleased with it. "It will form a useful supplement to Mr. Reinhardfs 'System of Lettering.'
hardt is be congratulated on having clearly, simply and briefly explained the
to Prof. E. H. Lockwood. Sheffield Scientific School.
methods he bas used in making his drawings remarkable for their great clearness
and legibility. It is a book that should be on the desk of every draftsman." "Have adopted it as a reference book for our civil engineering students. Your
Prof. C. B Wing. Leland Stanford. Jv., University. 'Lettering' has been the means of bringing about a distinct lift in the standard of
freehand lettering, anil I predict a like result in the field covered by your new
"I find it most excellently adapted to the purpose for which it Is intended." work." Prof. W. D. Pence, Purdue University.
Prof. Walter Flint. University of Maine.
"Reinhardfs 'Technic of Mechanical Drafting,' is a book that should be in the
"Am greatly pleased with it: itoccupies a field of its own among books on draft-
drafting department of every engineer's office. It describes those subtle details in
ing." Prof. Robt. L. Lund, Vanderbilt University. execution which constitute the essentials of effective expression in a drawing, both
W. Marx, Missouri as to truthfulness in its representation as well as its artistic finish. This state-
"It should be in the library of every draftsman." Prof. C.
State University.
ment is admirably illustrated by the contrasts shown in Figs. 6, 7, 22 and 46. In
view of the important part of detail drawings in all kinds of construction, it is an
"It admirably fills a long-felt want." Prof. John L. Mann, Thayer School of important service to show how the element of thorough legibility may be assured
Civil Engineering.- without necessarily increasing the cost of the drawing. My early experience of six
years in a drafting-room leads me to appreciate the importance of many hints which
"It is certainly the best compendium of instruction and elegant examples that might otherwise appear to be of little, if any, value. Each of the chapters on
I have seen." Prof. Robert Fletcher, Ph.D., Director Thayer School of Civil Engi- 'Outline Shading,' and on "Section Lining.' are alone worth the price of the book."
neering. Prof. Henry S. Jacoby, Cornell University.

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