FOOD PRODUCTION THEORY

50 marks
UNIT 1: KITCHEN ORGANISATION (10 marks)
• Layout of a kitchen (diagram of an actual kitchen layout)
• Hierarchy of department & kitchen
• Duties & Responsibilities of kitchen staff
• Co-corporation with other departments.

UNIT 2: AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF COOKING FOOD (10 marks)

• Aims and objectives of cooking
• Techniques used in pre-preparation
• Techniques used in preparation
• Culinary Terms
• Action of heat on Proteins, fats, Carbohydrates, Minerals & Vitamins

UNIT 3: METHODS OF COOKING (10 marks)

• Classification of Methods of Cooking
• Conduction, Convection, Radiation
• Textures of Food

UNIT 4: STOCKS & SOUPS (10marks)

• Different Types of Stocks
• Definitions
• Points to be considered while preparing stocks
• Classification of Soups
• Definitions, thickening agents (roux, beurre manie etc)
• International Soups and their countries (composition, garnishes)
• Special points for sauces and preparation of soups
• Commonly used garnishes
• Names of few Indian soups (composition, garnishes)

UNIT 5: SAUCES (10 marks)

• Definition
• Classification
• Derivatives
• Thickening Agent
• Functions of Sauces
• Names of some dishes where the different sauces can be used.

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UNIT 1: KITCHEN ORGANISATION (10 marks)

• Layout of a kitchen (diagram of an actual kitchen layout)

• Hierarchy of department & kitchen
• Duties & Responsibilities of kitchen staff
• Co-corporation with other departments.

INTRODUCTION TO FOOD PRODUCTION DEPARTMENT

COOKERY: Cookery is defined as a chemical process involving the application and

withdraws of heat; proper mixing of ingredients decision-making and technical
knowledge and skill but with the changing definition cooking is defined as both an art
as well as technology. In French the word ‘cuisine’ means the art of cooking and
preparing dishes and the place kitchen where they are prepared. The art of cooking is
ancient and generally originated when by chance a chunk of meat fell into fire and
came out to be more tasty and tender and it was from this point only that cooking has
evolved to reach the present level of sophistication.

KITCHEN LAYOUT

The plan or layout of a kitchen will be determined by the catering policy of the
establishment. The plan is often limited by space availability. The production area is
divided into 3 very distinctive areas.

1. Receiving, Preparation & Storage.

2. Cooking.
3. Service (Dispatching) and wash-up.

As in any other industrial production unit, the kitchen has three functions:

1. Receiving raw materials

2. Transforming them into finished goods
3. Forwarding the products.

The main factors that determine the layout of a kitchen are:

1. Whether the hotel is primarily for guests or if there is a busy chance trade. 2.
The locality. 3. The type of customer. 4. The type of menu/service.
5. Seasonal pressure of trade & 6. Possibility of expansion.

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Layout of a 5 star Hotel Kitchen.

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LEVEL OF SKILLS AND EXPERIENCES

SKILLS may be grouped into 3 general categories.

1) SUPERVISOR: The head of the food service, whether called Executive chef or head
chef or kitchen director, must have management and supervisory skills as well as
through knowledge of food production.

2) TECHNICAL: The cooks are the backbone of the kitchen. These workers carry out the
actual food production. They must have knowledge of and experience in cooking
techniques. They must be able to function well with their fellow workers and co-
ordinate with other departments. Food production is a team activity.

3) ENTRY LEVEL: This level of workers usually requires no particular skills & experience.
The jobs assigned to them are stewarding or basic pre-preparation of vegetables. As
their knowledge, skill & experience increases, they may be given more complex task
which will eventually make them skilled chefs.

Role and function of personnel of a traditional kitchen

In many establishments it is necessary for staff to be working to provide meals

throughout the day and, in some cases, split shifts. The splits- shift system is operated
so that most staff is available for both lunch and dinner. With this system the working
hours will be, for example, from 9.30 am to 2.30 pm and 6 pm to 10 pm. Some
establishments operate two shifts to cover the lunch and dinner service, with one shift
working from 8 am to 4 pm and the other from 4 pm to 11 pm.
Under the two- shift system the parte' will have a chef de parte' in charge of one shift
and a demi chef de parte’ responsible for the other shift.

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Executive Chef
In large establishment the duties of the executive chef, chef de cuisine, head chef or
person in charge, are mainly administrative; only in small establishments would it be
necessary for the chef to be engaged in handling the food. The function of chef is to:
• Organized the kitchen,
• Compile the menus,
• Order the foodstuffs,
• Show the required profit,
• engage the staff,
• supervise the kitchen (particularly at service time) ,
• advise on purchase of equipment,
• Be responsible, in many cases, either wholly or partially, for the stores, till room
a washing up of silver, crockery, etc.

Sous Chef
The second chef relieves the head chef when the latter is off duty and is the chef’s
‘right hand’, whose main function is to supervise the work in the kitchen so that it runs
smoothly and according to chef wishes. In large kitchens there may be several sous-
chefs with specific responsibility for separate services such as banquets and grill room.
A Sous Chef must be familiar with all of the daily operations of the kitchen, and must be able to perform
any task in the kitchen if needed. A Sous Chef often acts as the intermediary between the kitchen and
wait staff, so strong leadership and communication abilities are a must. The following is a list of the
duties typically performed by a Sous Chef:
• Planning and directing food preparation. As the second in command, the Sous
Chef is most often responsible for managing kitchen staff to ensure food is
prepared properly. The Sous Chef must be a problem solver, ready to come up
with on the spot solutions for problems that may occur in the kitchen.
• Managing kitchen staff. The Sous Chef will often have the task of ensuring that
all kitchen workers are performing at the level required by a professional
kitchen. He or she may be asked to discipline workers who are not performing
their job correctly or professionally, and may come up with incentives to ensure
that workers are putting their best effort forth.
• Training and scheduling. The Sous Chef is often in charge of training new
employees and creating the schedule to ensure adequate manning for the
kitchen.
• Expediting. The Sous Chef will serve as the expeditor for the kitchen. He or she
will be responsible for arranging tickets and ordering food preparation so that
customers receive food in the order it should be sent out. For example. The
Sous Chef will tell the other chefs when to cook different menu items for a table
of customers so that they will all be hot and ready to be served at the same
time.
• Quality Control. The Sous Chef is responsible for ensuring that food that leaves
the kitchen is of the highest quality and will make diners happy. The Sous Chef
will often be asked to ensure that portions are correct and the food is plated in
an attractive manner.

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Chef de partie’
The chefs de partie are each in charge of a section of the work in the kitchen. This is the
job of a specialist. The chefs de partie organize their own section, delegate the work to
assistants and are, in fact, the ‘backbone’ of the kitchen.
Key responsibilities:
• Preparing, cooking and presenting dishes within your speciality
• Managing and training any demi-chef de parties or commis working with you
• Helping the sous chef and head chef to develop new dishes and menus
• Ensuring you and your team have high standards of food hygiene and follow the
rules of health and safety
• Monitoring portion and waste control to maintain profit margins

Pastry Chef
All the sweets and pastries are made by the pastry cooks, as well as items required by
other parties, such as vol-au-vents, bouchees, noodles, etc and also the covering for
meat and poultry dishes.
Ice cream and petits fours are made here. The bakery goods, such as croissants,
brioche, etc, may be made by the pastry cook when there is no separate bakery.
Key responsibilities:
• Create and prepare desserts in accordance with the existent menus;
• Create and bake breads to accompany different meals in restaurants;
• Decorate cakes and baked goods according to requirements;
• Plate desserts for serving;
• Pair recommended desserts with appropriate wines, cocktails, non-alcoholic drinks,
etc.
• Create cheese plateaus to complement a meal;
• Creates baked goods for specific diets (gluten free, sugar free, diabetes-friendly, etc.);
• Inspect the quality of the ingredients and measure them for specific recipes;

Assistant cooks (Commis chefs)

The chef de partie are assisted by commis or assistants, the number varying with the
amount of work done by the party, eg the vegetable party is larger than fish party, due
to the quantity of work to be prepared, so there are more assistants on that party. The
first commis is usually capable of taking over a great deal of the responsibility, and
some cases will take charge of the party when the chef is off duty.
Key responsibilities:

• Maintaining high standards of hygiene

• Preparing the ingredients for a more senior chef
• Measuring dish ingredients and portion sizes accurately
• Dealing with deliveries and stock rotation

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Apprentice
The apprentice is learning the trade and is moved to each of the parties to gain
knowledge of all the sections in the kitchen.

Butcher
Usually the butcher worked under the direct control of the chef or sous-chef and
dissected the carcasses and prepared all the joints and cuts ready for cooking. Many
establishments now order meat pre-jointed or pre-cut.

Scullery (Kitchen Stewards)

The sculleryman is responsible for collecting and washing all the pots and pans and
then returning them to the appropriate place in the kitchen.
In many establishments the work of the kitchen porter and the sculleryman is
combined.

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COOPERATION OF KITCHEN WITH OTHER DEPARTMENTS

Cooperation with front office

• Front office will communicate arrival and departure list which will help to forecast
about the quantities to cook.

• With the association assistance of front office kitchen people promote sales by
explaining the guest as to what is available and where it is available.

• Front office gives the list of V.I.P. arrivals in order to increase the reputation of the
establishment.

Cooperation with house-keeping

It is mainly for the supply of linen i.e. Aprons, kitchen towels, dusters etc and to keep
the kitchen clean.

Cooperation with f & b service

There should be a close liaison b/w f &b service and the kitchen staff because f & b
personal are involved in the selling of the products made by the kitchen department. It
is the duty of the f & b personal to give the intimation about the various parties to be
hosted in future and in turn it is the duty of the kitchen people to provide food at right
time in hygiene condition. Also f & b personal must be aware as to how much time
does a dish require to get ready because they are the ones who are directly associated
with the guests.

Cooperation with maintenance

Maintenance will keep the equipment in working condition. Further this department
maintains all the electrical fittings. Also they introduce as well instruct about the use of
new equipment.

Cooperation with store / purchase

This department will provide all the raw materials as required by the chef. The chef
must indent in time to insure that the purchase personal get sufficient time to procure
the raw materials. The chef also gives purchase specification from time to time
depending upon the recipe requirement.

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UNIT 2: AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF COOKING FOOD (10 marks)

• Aims and objectives of cooking

• Techniques used in pre-preparation
• Techniques used in preparation
• Culinary Terms
• Action of heat on Proteins, fats, Carbohydrates, Minerals & Vitamins

Aims and objectives of cooking

In the pre-historic times, caveman used to fill his stomach by killing animals and eating
them raw. With the discovery of fire, he realized that if food is put in this fire, it
becomes more palatable and acceptable. So, he gradually learnt the art of cooking by
using fire and made his food palatable. With the advancement of science of food, man
realized many more advantages of cooking food and slowly he mastered this art of
cooking.
Definition: Cooking of food means the use of heat to bring about desirable changes in
foods.

OBJECTIVES OF COOKING FOOD.

1. Increases palatability

a) Flavour – There is a definite development of flavour when the food is cooking.

Raw food generally does not have a strong flavour but on cooking the flavour
improves. E.g. raw dal does not have any flavour but on cooking it develops a
typical flavour. We all are familiar with the lovely aroma of rawa when it is
heated or roasted to prepare sheera.
b) Taste – A raw potato or raw rice will not at all be tasty but on cooking the some
food develops a good taste.
c) Texture – Food develops variety of textures on cooking. Legumes, rice and potato
become soft on cooking with water whereas potato wafers become crisp when
fried in oil.
d) Colour – Some foods develop an attractive colour which increases the palatability
considerably. Browning of cake, brightening of colour of some vegetables like
spinach or peas are a few examples.
2. Improves digestibility – Cooked food is easy to chew and swallow. It is also easily
acted upon by digestive juices, hence digestibility improves. This also increases
the availability of nutrients to the body.
3. Adds variety to the diet – By cooking the foods in different ways, inlimited
number of products can be prepared, having a variety in colour, flavour, texture,
taste and shape. This variety decreases monotony and makes eating a pleasure
e.g. raw potato can be cooked in number of different ways to make variety of

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 preparations like boiled and mashed potatoes, potato bhaji with or without
adding any other vegetable, potato cutlet, potato wada, potato wafers, finger
chips, potato chivda and potato kachori.
4. Safety – Spoilage of food can be avoided by application of heat. Cooking of food
to a specific temperature for a specific length of time may destroy the harmful
microorganisms in foods, thus making if safe for consumption e.g. boiling of milk,
preparation of khoa milk by heating for a long time and preparation of milk
powder. Cooking also improves the keeping quality of milk.

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 PREPARATION OF INGREDIENTS
(MISE- EN- PLACE)

Many techniques are used for food preparation before cooking; they are done
according to the requirements of the various dishes. This helps to improve appearance,
texture, palatability and flavors and foods combine readily.
The techniques are divided into two:-
1) Sub- divisions and fractionation.
2) Combining and mixing in the preparation of foods.

Mise - en- place

“Everything in its place,” preparation prior to a task or serve...

Sub- division and fractionators

Washing: - this is necessary to remove superficial dirt, meat, fish, vegetables and fruits
are washed in cold water before any preparation, e.g. peeling or cutting. If cut and
soaked for a long period or washed after cutting, there is a great loss of water soluble
vitamins and minerals. The more cut surface exposed, the more nutrition lost.

Peeling: - spoilt, soiled and inedible portions are removed skin of vegetables or fruits
are either peeled or scraped. The outer layer can be shipped by steam, or caustic such
as lye solution.

Cutting: - Reducing to small pieces by means of a knife. When a similar result is

obtained with a chopping knife, or with a mechanical foe chopper, other process is
called chopping (small pieces).

Dicing: - Cutting as cubes, as in dicing potatoes, carrots etc.

Mincing:-cutting into very fine pieces e.g. mutton, onions, etc.

Shredding :- cutting in to long narrow pieces by means of a shredder or a knife e.g

cabbage.

Slicing :- cutting into thin pieces but not so fine as shredding.

Slitting :- making a slit in the middle lengthwise i.e. green chilies, lady’s finger etc.

Grating :- reducing to small particles by rubbing on a rough surface, as in grating lemon

peels , cheese etc.

Grinding: - reducing to small fragments by crushing, as in grinding spices, or coffee in a

mill or a grinding stone.

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Mashing: - method of breaking up of soft foods with pressure, with a potato masher or
with a fork.

Sieving: - paring through a fine wire mesh to remove apprentice. It also helps in
enclosing air and mixing ingredients evenly, like sieving of flour for cakes.

Refining: - freeing any maternal from impurities as in refining cane sugar.

Skimming :- removing a floating layer by using a utensil under it ( ladle ) as in skimming

cream from milk.

Evaporation or reduction: - removal of water, commonly accelerated by heating

without the lid.

Emulsification: - disposing one liquid in another in which it is insoluble. If the

dispersion is to the temporary, a stabilizer which coats the droplets of the disposed
phase, must incorporated, e.g. in mayonnaise.

METHODS OF MIXING FOOD

Beating: - this method can be used with this mixtures or liquids. This should be done
carefully with an aim of enclosing air. This term is used synonymously with whipping
e.g. beating of eggs.

Blending: - mixing two or more ingredients thoroughly.

Cutting in: - usually the incorporation of fat in flour and other sifted ingredients with a
knife. This method produces a relatively coarse division of the fat and does not result in
blending e.g. cutting fat into pastry mixture.

Creaming: - softening of fat by friction with a wooden spoon, generally followed by the
gradual incorporation of sugar as in cake making.

Folding: - mixing mixture by a careful lifting and dropping motion. The edge of the
spoon is used and the mixture is lifted, turned completely and gently replaced. All the
movements in this method, though deft, should be so gentle that the different
ingredients are almost coated together.

Kneading: - manipulating by alternating pressure by folding and stretching. The food is

pressed with knuckles. The dough is brought from the outside of the bowl or put to the
center and at the same time the bowl is moved so that a different section is kneaded
each time. This ensures a through distribution of ingredients e.g. bread dough or
chapatti etc.

Rubbing in: - rubbing fat into flour using the tips of the fingers and thumb and lifting
the hand out of the basin as in the case of short crust pastry. Rub until the mixture
looks like breadcrumbs.

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Rolling in: - rolling butter or fat in soft dough e.g. puff pastry.

Stirring: - mixing foods with suitable tools such as a spoon by a circular motion in
contact with the pan. Generally this is the gentle movement but changed to suit
different dishes, as when used to prevent sticking or burning in halwa and toffees. If
used too vigorously, it is apart to drive out air or other gas previously enclose as a
raising agent.

TECHNIQUES USED IN PREPARATION (COOKING TECHNIQUES)

1. Blanch – To cook an item partially and very briefly in boiling water or in hot fat.
Usually a pre-preparation technique, as to loosen peels of vegetables, fruits, and
nuts, to partially cook French fries or other foods before service, to prepare for
freezing or to remove undesirable flavours.
2. Deglaze – To swirl a liquid in a sauté pan, roast pan, or other pan to dissolve
particles of food remaining on the bottom.
3. Glaze – To give shine to the surface of a food, by applying a sauce aspic, sugar, or
icing, and /or by browning or melting under a broiler or salamander or in an oven.
4. Parboil – To cook partially in a boiling or simmering liquid.
5. Par cook – To cook partially by any method.
6. Reduce – To cook by simmering or boiling until the quantity of liquid is decreased,
often done to concentrate flavours.
7. Sear – To brown the surface of a food quickly at a high temperature.
8. Sweat – To cook slowly in fat without browning, sometimes under a cover.

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EFFECT OF HEAT ON FOODS
Foods are composed of proteins, fats, carbohydrates, and water plus small amounts of
other compounds such as minerals (including salt), vitamins, pigments (colouring
agents), and flavour elements. It is important to understand how these components
react when heated or mixed with other foods. You will then be better equipped to
correct cooking faults when they occur and to anticipate the effects of changing
cooking methods, cooking temperatures, or ingredient proportions. In other words,
when you know why foods behave as they do, you can then understand how to get
them to behave, as you want them to.

Proteins
1. Protein is a major component of meats, poultry, fish, eggs, milk, and milk products.
It is present in smaller amounts in nuts, beans, and grains.
2. Coagulation. As proteins are heated, they become firm, or coagulate. As the
temperature increases, they shrink, become firmer, and lose more moisture.
Exposure of proteins to excessive heat toughens them and makes them dry. Most
proteins complete coagulation or “worked” at 160oFto 185oF (71oC to 85oC).
3. Connective tissues are special proteins that are present in meats. Meats with a
great deal of connective tissues are tough, but some connective tissues are
dissolved when cooked slowly with moisture. By cooking tough meats properly,
they can be made more tender.
4. Acids, such as lemon juice, vinegar, and tomato products, do two things to proteins:
• They speed coagulation.
• They help dissolve some connective tissues.

Carbohydrates
1. Starches and sugars are both carbohydrates. Both compounds are present in foods
in many different forms. They are found in fruits, vegetable, grains, beans, and
nuts. Meats and fish also contain small amounts of carbohydrate.
2. For the cook the two most important changes in carbohydrates caused by heat are
caramelization and gelatinization.
• Caramelization is the browning of sugars. The browning of sautéed vegetables and
the golden colour of bread crust are forms of caramelization.
• Gelatinization occurs when starches absorb water and swell. This is a major
principle in the thickening of sauces and in the production of breads and pastries.
Acids inhibit gelatinization. A sauce thickened with flour or starch will be thinner if
it contains acid.

Fruits and Vegetable fiber

1. Fiber is the name for a group of complex substances that give structure and
firmness to plants. This fiber cannot be digested.

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2. The softening of fruits and vegetables in cooking is in part, the breaking down of
fiber.
3. Sugar makes fiber more firm. Fruit cooked with sugar keeps its shape better than
fruit cooked without sugar.
4. Baking soda (and other alkalis) makes fiber softer. Vegetables should not be cooked
with baking soda because they become mushy and lose vitamins.

Fats
1. Fats are present in meats. Poultry, fish, eggs, milk products, nuts and whole grains,
and, to a lesser extent, in vegetables and fruits. Fats are also important as cooking
mediums, as for frying.
2. Fats can be either solid or liquid at room temperature. Liquid fats are called oils.
Melting points of solid fats vary.
3. When fats are heated, they begin to break down. When hot enough, they
deteriorate rapidly and begin to smoke. The temperature at which this happens is
called the smoke point and it varies for different fats. A stable fat – one with a high
smoke point – is an important consideration in deep fat frying.

Minerals, Vitamins, Pigments, and Flavour Components

1. Minerals and vitamins are important to the nutritional quality of the food. Pigments
and flavour components are important to a food’s appearance and taste and may
determine whether the food is appetizing enough to eat. So it is important to
preserve all these elements.
2. All of these components may be leached out, or dissolved away from foods during
cooking.
3. Vitamins and pigments may also be destroyed by heat, by long cooking, and by
other elements present during cooking.
4. It is important, then, to select cooking methods that preserve, as much as possible,
a food’s nutrients, and appearance. These will always be a consideration when
cooking techniques are explained.

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UNIT 3: METHODS OF COOKING (10 marks)

• Classification of Methods of Cooking

• Conduction, Convection, Radiation
• Textures of Food

No written recipe can be 100 percent accurate. No matter how carefully a recipe is
written, the judgment of the cook is still the most important factor in making a
preparation turns out well. A cook’s judgment is based on experience, on an
understanding of the raw materials available, and on knowledge of basic cooking
principles.
This chapter deals with basic principles. You will learn about what happens to food
when it is heated, about how food is cooked by different cooking methods. It is
important to understand the theories so that you can then put them into practice
successfully in the kitchen.

Classification of Methods of Cooking

Cooking methods are classified as “moist heat” and “dry heat”. Moist heat methods are
those in which the heat is conducted to the food product by water (including stock,
sauces, etc.) or by steam. Dry heat methods are those in which the heat is conducted
without moisture, that is, by hot air, hot metal, radiation, or hot fat. We usually divide
dry heat methods into two categories: without fat and with fat. Different cooking
methods are suited to different kinds of foods. For example, some meats are high in
connective tissue and will be tough unless this tissue is broken down slowly by moist
heat. Other meats are low in connective tissue and are naturally tender. They are at
their best and juiciest when cooked with dry heat to a rare or medium done stage.

There are many other factors to consider when choosing cooking methods for meats,
fish, and vegetables, such as the flavour and appearance imparted by browning, the
flavour imparted by fats, and the firmness or delicacy of the product.

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Moist – Heat Methods

Poach, Simmer, and Boil

To poach, simmer, and boil all mean to cook a food in water or a seasoned and
flavoured liquid. The temperature of the liquid determines the method.

1. To boil means to cook in a liquid that is bubbling rapidly and is greatly agitated.
Water boils at 212oF(100oC) at sea level. No matter how high the burner is turned,
the temperature of the liquid will go no higher. Boiling is generally reserved for
certain vegetables and starches. The high temperature would toughen the proteins
of meats, fish, and eggs, and the rapid bubbling breaks up delicate foods.
2. To simmer means to cook in a liquid that is bubbling very gently. Temperature is
about 185oF to 205oF (85oC to 96oC). Most foods cooked in a liquid are simmered.
The higher temperatures and intense agitation of boiling are detrimental to most
foods. The word “boiled” is sometimes used as a menu term, as when simmered
fresh beef is called “boiled beef”.
3. To poach means to cook delicate foods such as fish and eggs out of the shell. It is
used to partially cook foods such as variety meats, in order to eliminate flavours
and to firm up the product before final cooking.

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Steam
To steam means to cook foods by exposing them directly to steam. Steaming also
refers to cooking an item tightly wrapped or in a covered pan, so that it cooks in the
steam formed by its own moisture.

Braise
To braise means to cook covered in a small amount of liquid, usually after preliminary
browning. In almost all cases, the liquid is served with the product as sauce.

Dry Heat Methods

Roast and Bake

To roast and to bake means to cook foods by surrounding them with hot, dry air,
usually in an oven. Cooking on a spit in front of an open fire may also be considered
roasting. Roasting usually applies primarily to meats and poultry.
Baking applies to breads, pastries, vegetables, and fish. It is more general term than
roasting.

Broil
To broil means to cook with radiant heat from above. Broiling is done in a broiler,
grilling on a grill, and griddling on a griddle.

Pan-Fry
To pan-fry means to cook in a moderate amount of fat in a pan over moderate heat.
Pan-frying is similar to sautéing, except that more fat is generally used and the cooking
time is longer. The method is used for larger pieces of food, such as chops and chicken
pieces, and the items are not tossed by flipping the pan as they often are in sautéing.

Deep Fry
To deep fry means to cook a food submerged in hot fat. Many foods are dipped in a
breading or batter before frying. This forms a protective coating between food and fat
and helps give the product crispness, colour, and flavour.

HEAT TRANSFER
In order for food to be cooked, heat must be transferred from the heat source (such as
a gas flame or an electric element) to and through the food. Understanding the ways in
which heat is transferred helps the cook control the cooking process. Heat is
transferred in three ways: conduction, convection, and radiation.

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Conduction
Conduction occurs in two ways:
1. When heat moves directly from one item to something touching it. For example:
from the top of the range to a soup pot placed on it, from the pot to the broth
inside, and from the broth to the solid food items in it.
2. When heat moves from one part of something to an adjacent part of the same
item. For example: the exterior of a roast to the interior, or from a sauté pan to its
handle.

Different materials conduct heat at different speeds. Heat moves rapidly through
copper and aluminium, more slowly in stainless steel, slower yet in glass and porcelain.
Air is a very poor conductor of heat.

Convection
Convection occurs when heat is spread by the movement of air, steam, or liquid
(including hot fat). There are two kinds of convection.
1. Natural. Hot liquids and gases rise, while cooler ones sink. Thus, in any oven, kettle
of liquid, or deep – fat fryer there is a constant circulation that distributes heat.
2. Mechanical. In convection ovens and convection steamers, fans speed the
circulation of heat. Thus, heat is transferred more quickly to the food, and the food
cooks faster.

Stirring is a form of mechanical convection. Thick liquids cannot circulate as quickly

as thin ones, so the rate of natural convection is slower. This explains in part why it
is so easy to scorch thick soups and sauces. The heat is not carried away from the
bottom of the pan quickly enough, so it stays concentrated on the bottom and
scorches the food. Stirring redistributes the heat and helps prevent this. (Using
heavy pots made of a material that conducts heat well also helps prevent scorching,
because the pot conducts the heat more quickly and evenly all across the bottom
and up the sides.)

Radiation
Radiation occurs when energy is transferred by waves from the source to the food. The
waves themselves are not actually heat energy, but are changed into heat energy,
when they strike the food being cooked. (Light waves, radio waves, and X-rays are
examples of radiation not used for cooking.)

Two kinds of radiation are used in the kitchen:

1. Infrared. Broiling is the most familiar example of infrared cooking. In a broiler, an
electric element or a ceramic element heated by a gas flame becomes so hot that it
gives off infrared radiation, which cooks the food. There are also high-intensity
infrared ovens designed to heat food rapidly.

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2. Microwave. In microwave cooking, the radiation generated by the oven penetrated
part way in to the food, where it agitates the molecules of water. The friction
caused by this agitation creates heat, which cooks the food.
• Because microwave radiation affects only water molecules, a completely water less
material will not heat up in a microwave oven. Plates become hot only when heat is
conducted to them by hot foods.
• Because most microwaves penetrate no more than about 2 inches into foods, heat
is transferred to the center of large pieces of food by conduction, just as in roasting.

COOKING TIMES
It takes time to heat a food to a desired temperature, the temperature at which a food
is “done” (meaning that the desired changes have taken place). This time is affected by
three factors:

1. Cooking temperature. This means the temperature of the air in the oven, the fat in
the fryer, the surface of griddle, or the liquid in which a food is cooking.
2. The speed of heat transfer. Different cooking methods transfers heat a different
rate, as shown by these examples: Air is a poor conductor of heat, while steam is
much more efficient. A jet of steam (212oF/100oC) will easily burn your hand, but
you can safely reach into an oven at 500oF(260oC). This is why it takes longer to
bake potatoes than to steam them. A convection oven cooks faster than a
conventional oven, even if both are set at the same temperature. The forced air
movement transfer heat more rapidly.
3. Size, temperature, and individual characteristics of the food. For example: A small
beef roast cooks faster than a large one. A chilled steak takes longer to boil than
one at room temperature. Fish items generally cook more quickly than meats.

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UNIT 4: STOCKS & SOUPS (10marks)

• Different Types of Stocks

• Definitions
• Points to be considered while preparing stocks

• Classification of Soups
• Definitions, thickening agents (roux, beurre manie etc)
• International Soups and their countries (composition, garnishes)
• Special points for sauces and preparation of soups
• Commonly used garnishes
• Names of few Indian soups (composition, garnishes)

STOCKS
Definition of a stock: A stock is a liquid that has been formed by extracting flavours,
nutrients and salts during the cooking process from bones, vegetables and aromatic
herbs.
It is a liquid in which meat or meat bones, fish or fish bones and various
vegetables have been cooked to extract flavor. Stocks are nutritious, aromatics,
strongly- flavoured liquids. They are important foundation liquids that are used in the
preparation of various dishes such as soups, sauces, gravies, stews, curries, braising,
rice and cold dishes.

TYPES
There are three basic kinds of stock/fond; white stock (fond blanc), brown stock (fond
brun) and vegetable or neutral stock (fond maigre).

WHITE STOCK is made with white meat or beef, veal bones, chicken carcasses and
aromatic vegetables. The bones, or meat, are put in cold liquid and slowly brought to a
boil. The mirepoix (flavouring base of diced vegetables and occasionally pork fat) is
sweated in suitable fat and then added to the liquid before it develops colour. The
mixture is reduced to a simmer to finish cooking. This stock is used for white sauce,
Blanquettes, fricassee, and poached dishes.

BROWN STOCK is made with beef veal and poultry meat and bones. The bones are
roasted till golden in colour, not burnt. The mirepoix is added when the bones are
three-quarters roasted. Tomato product may also be added at this time. When the
bones and mirepoix are golden in colour, cold liquid is added and the mixture is slowly
brought to boil, then reduced to a simmer to finish cooking. This stock is used for
brown sauces and gravies, braised dishes and meat glazes.

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VEGETABLE STOCK is basically a neutral stock composed of vegetables and aromatic
herbs sautéed gently in butter and then cooked in liquid. Its use is limited to vegetarian
cooking.

FISH STOCK (FUMET DE POISSON) is categorized separately from other basic stocks
because of its limited usage. The basis of fish preparation is the fumet or fond. It has
been said that all fish produce a fumet, but not all fumet are equal. Some fish produce
better quality stock than others. The result from some fish are stocks which are too
gelatinous and fishy tasting. Fish, which are oily yield stock, has a bitter taste or that is
milky.

The preparation of stocks call for understanding, care and discerning taste. Long, slow
simmering of food and cold water used for stocks (except for fish stock) is required to
draw out the flavor- and nutrients into the liquids. After cooking it is properly stored
for a day when it ripens and gives a fuller flavour. To improve taste of Indian curries,
pulaos, etc., it is important that stocks should be used.

As stock in an important ingredient in various dishes, care should be taken in the

preparation as follows:
a) All fat should be removed from bones at the outset, as the stocks becomes very
greasy and becomes rancid soon.
b) Marrow must be removed and put aside for use as a separate dish (marrow
toast) or as a garnish (petite marmite, i.e. a soup).
c) Stocks should only simmer. If allowed to boil, the agitation and particles of fat
cause an emulsification and it becomes milky or cloudy.
d) Bouquet garnish should be tied to a handle of the stock- pot. Cut large pieces of
vegetables, should be added later on, as it flavors the stock. If allowed to
remain in the pot too long, the vegetables will begin to disintegrate, discoloring
the stocks.
e) The scum should be discarded.
f) For storing, the stock should be strained and the liquid should be cooled. No fat
should be allowed to remain on the surface, as heat is prevented from escaping
and may cause the stock to turn, i.e. become sour.
g) Stock could be stored in a refrigerator or cold room.
h) Stocks turn cloudy, if boiled too rapidly and if a lid is used and not carefully
strained and not skimmed properly.

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The procedure for making white stock differs from that of brown stock mainly in that
rather than roasting the bones beforehand, they are blanched instead. Blanching helps
get rid of the impurities in the bones that can cloud the stock.

Note that a white stock can be made using chicken bones, veal bones or beef bones.

Procedure:
1. Rinse bones in cold water.
2. Transfer the bones to a heavy-bottomed stockpot.
3. Add enough cold water to the pot to completely cover the bones. Figure about a
quart of water for each pound of bones.
4. Bring pot to a boil.
5. Drain and rinse bones.
6. Return the blanched bones to the pot and again cover with fresh, cold water.
1. Bring pot to a boil, then immediately lower the heat to a simmer.
2. Skim off the scum that rises to the surface.
3. Add chopped carrots, celery and onion, (also called mirepoix) to the pot along with a
sachet d'epices (dried thyme, parsley stems, bay leaf, whole peppercorns &
whole cloves These ingredients are tied inside a piece of cheesecloth ; tie the sachet
string to the stockpot handle for easy retrieval later).
4. Continue to simmer the stock and skim the impurities that rise to the surface. Liquid
will evaporate, so make sure there's always enough water to cover the bones.
5. After 4 to 6 hours, remove the pot from the heat.
6. Strain the stock through a sieve lined with a few layers of cheesecloth. Cool the
stock quickly, using an ice bath if necessary.
Tips:
1. The best bones to use for making stock are ones with a lot of cartilage, such as the
so-called "knuckle" bones in the various leg joints. The bones of younger animals also
have more cartilage, which is why veal bones are so desirable.
1. Always start with cold water when making stock. It will help extract more collagen
from the bones, which will produce a stock with more body.
2. Don't let the stock boil, but rather, keep it at a gentle simmer. Also, don't stir the
stock while it simmers. Just let it do its thing. All you need to worry about is skimming
the scum off the top, and possibly adding more water if the liquid level drops too low.

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SOUPS

• Classification of Soups
• Definitions, thickening agents (roux, beurre manie etc)
• International Soups and their countries
• Special points for sauces and preparation of soups
• Commonly used garnishes
• Names of few Indian soups (composition, garnishes)

Definition

Soups may be defined as a liquid food deserved from meat, poultry, fish, veg, cereals
either dried or fresh as available.

Soups play an important role in the menu. They are regarded as appetizers as they
stimulate the appetite. They are served as the first course on the menu but snacks are
not served.

CLASSIFICATION OF SOUPS

THIN SOUPS

Most of the thin soups are clear, flavoured nutritious liquids. They are also known as
clear or un-thickened soups. These soups are based on a clear, un-thickened broth or
stock. They may be served plain or garnished with a variety of meats and vegetables.

1) Broth and Bouillon are two terms used in many different ways, but in general
they both refer to simple, clear soup without solids ingredient. Broth is the
flavorful liquid obtained from simmering meat and / or vegetables.

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 2) Vegetable soup is a clear, seasoned stock or broth with the addition of one or
more vegetables and sometimes meat or poultry products and starches.

3) Consommé is a rich flavorful stock that has been clarified to make it perfectly
clear and transparent. Far from being a plain cup of soup, a well- made
consommé is considered the greatest of all soups. Its sparkling clarity is a
delight to the eye, and its rich, full flavor, strength, and body make it a perfect
starter for an elegant dinner.

THICK SOUPS

Unlike clear soups, thick soups are opaque rather than transparent. They are thickened
by a thickening agent such as roux, or by pureeing one of the ingredients to provide a
heavier consistency.

1) Cream soups are soups that are thickened with roux, beurre manie or liaison.
Cream soups are usually named after the main ingredient such as cream of
chicken or cream of tomato.

2) Purees are soups that are naturally thickened by pureeing one or more of their-
ingredients. They are not as smooth or creamy as a cream soup. Purees are
normally based on starchy ingredients like dried peas or from fresh starchy
ingredients like potato. Purees may or may not contain milk or cream.

3) Bisques are thickened soups made from shellfish. They are usually prepared like
cream soups and finished off with cream.

4) Veloutes are thick soups made with stock, liaison, roux and a flavoring. Are
similar to cream soups but are much richer.

5) Chowders are hearty soups of American origin and are made of fish, shellfish
and/ or vegetables. Although they are made in different ways, they usually
contain milk and potatoes. Processed pork products like ham, bacon or dried
sausages are also added. There is also aversion based on tomatoes.

6) Potage is a term sometimes associated with thick, hearty soups, but is actually a
general team for soup. A clear soup is called potage clair in French.

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COLD SOUPS

Chilled soups include those that are jellied by the natural gelatin in the meat stock or
by addition of gelatin powder or those that are thickened with a starch or puree. Cold
consommé Madrilene is popular. Vichyssoise is a rich cream of potato soup, which is
served cold, and garnished with chopped chives. Borscht can be served cold or hot.
Scandinavians love cold fruit soup which contains a blend of assorted fruit and juices,
usually garnished with mint leaves.
Andalouse gazpacho is a refreshing tomato and cucumber soup with a garnish of
thin strips of pimentos, cumin seeds for flavour accompanied with croutons.
Cold soups have become popular and a summer menu is incomplete without it.

INTERNATIONAL SOUPS

There are many varieties, cold or hot, thin or thick soups. They have been placed in
a special category, as they have different origin. There are soups that originated in a
certain locality and are associated with that particular place. In some cases, these
soups have a great tradition, as the New England clam chowder, helped the early
colonists survive many winters. Crecy soup originated when nothing was available at
the site of the battle of Crecy. The carrots that were grown in the land were taken and
cooked.

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SOME OF THE INTERNATIONAL SOUPS

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28
COMMONLY USED GARNISHES FOR SOUPS

Croutons dices or other shapes made from bread, toast, pastry.

Cereals rice or barley.

Cheese cheese balls, or grated parmesan served with croutons on one side.

Cream unsweetened whipped cream or sour cream.

Meats usually small dices or juliennes.

Poultry same as meat.

Seafood diced or flaked. Large enough pieces distinguishable.

Pastas noodles, spaghetti, other pasta products

Vegetables cut in various sizes, shapes- juliennes, round slices, dices

Special points for the service and preparation of the soups

1) First- class, clean, strong and flavourful stock should be used, as it would help in
producing good quality soup.
2) If there is a heavy entrée, the soup should be thin or light.
3) If a heavy soup is served, the portion should be small.
4) The soups should not in any way be filling or consist of food particles that require
much chewing.
5) Garnish should be small and dainty, so that they can be picked up easily by a
soup- spoon.
6) Soup should be always moderately seasoned.
7) Serve hot soups piping hot and cold soups very cold.
8) A little sugar should be added to tone the acidity of the soup, before mixing
cream as it prevents curdling.
9) Consommé should be amber in colour. ( onions halved and browned on hot plate
are added to the soup for colour)
10) Accompaniments of the soups should be of a crisp character, e.g. Melba toast,
various crackers, bread- sticks, cheese croutons, bread rolls, etc.
11) Entrée portions of one litre of soup yields five portions.

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INDIAN SOUPS

Palak Soup: Pureed Spinach Soup.

Milagu Rasam or Pepper Rasam: Pepper rasam is typically a mix of toor dal, pepper,
tamarind and other spices grinded together and cooked to make a clear-spiced liquid.

Murgh Makkai Shorba: Chicken and corn are both beneficial ingredients. Corn being a
good source of dietary fibre, potassium and folate, combined with the goodness of
protein-rich chicken makes for an appetizing broth.

Tamatar ka Shorba: Hot tomato soup spiced with Indian tadka.

Paya Shorba: Paya are the trotters of a goat or lamb, and are considered a gourmet
delicacy. Typically a Mughlai speciality, paya shorba is a favourite among non-
vegetarians.

Mutton Shorba: A mutton shorba is typically the stock of mutton cooked with some
spices like pepper, salt, garam masala, ginger-garlic and a few mutton pieces.

Dal Shorba: Made of yellow moong dal or yellow split gram, this soup is spiced with
onions, garlic and pepper.

Chicken Yakhni soup: A Kashmiri specialty, chicken yakhni soup is prepared with
chicken stalk cooked with cumin, cilantro, garlic and white pepper.

Mulligatawny soup: Mulligatawny means ‘pepper water’ in the literal sense. A south
Indian specialty, this soup is prepared by cooking any meat along with fresh veggies
and spices for flavouring.

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UNIT 5: SAUCES (10 marks)
• Definition
• Classification
• Derivatives
• Thickening Agent
• Functions of Sauces
• Names of some dishes where the different sauces can be used.

SAUCES

DEFINITION OF SAUCE

A sauce is definition as a liquid or semi- liquid mixture used as an accompaniment or

part of various culinary preparations of meat vegetables, fish or fruits to enhance the
flavour and taste of that particular dish.

GRAVY: - A gravy is a mixture obtained from the pan- dripping, left over after cooking
of meat, fish vegetables; fruits etc. Gravy is much thinner than sauce. It has the same
flavour as the food from which it is made and it is used as a base for preparing sauces.

CLASSIFICATION OF SAUCES
There are a large variety of sauces. It is difficult to find a system for the classification of
sauces. The Escoffier system is based on Mother sauces, Compound sauces, and a
broad grouping of other sauces. Sauces may also be classified as Mother Sauces,
Proprietary Sauces and Contemporary

1. MOTHER SAUCES

These are the main basic sauces from which all the other sauces are derived.

• Béchamel ( classic white sauce) : Sauce consist of milk and thickened with white
roux. Béchamel sauce is named after “ Marquis Louis de Béchamel”
DERIVATIVES:
• Mornay- grated cheese and egg yolks
• Soubise-with chopped onions and PASSED!
• Onion- with chopped onions -NOT PASSED!!!
• Parsley- with chopped parsley
• Cream- cream, milk, and yogurt!

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• Espagnole ( brown sauce): Espagnole meaning “Spanish” in French was the original
brown sauce and still is one the glories of the French kitchen. Brown Stock thickened
with Brown Roux. Used for base of all brown sauces, stews, braises
DERIVATIVES:
• Robert-The King Of Naples-mustard, onions, vinegar & demi glace.
• Bordelaise-Demi Glace with red wine
• Chasseur-shallots, mushrooms, parsley, red wine and demi glace.
• Diable-deviled-cayenne pepper, red wine, shallots and demi glace!!

• Velouté( white stock sauce): It literally means velvet. It is a very light blond coloured
sauce, made from chicken, fish, or veal stock , thickened with a blond roux.
DERIVATIVES:
• Supreme-subtle flavor of mushrooms with liaison.
• Cardinal-scarlet -shellfish stock, lobster coulis and truffles!
• Bonne Femme-mushrooms and cream!
• Ivoire-supreme with a meat glaze
• Allemande-supreme with nutmeg
• Aurore-supreme with tomato puree

• Hollandaise ( butter sauce): A warm emulsified sauce is based on egg yolk and
clarified butter. Hollandaise is French word meaning “ Dutch Style”. This sauce is a
versatile sauce and is served as a topping on a dish and gratinated to give colour.
DERIVATIVES:
• Maltaise-orange juice and orange rind
• Noisette-with nutty brown
• Béarnaise-with chopped tarragon

• Mayonnaise (cold sauce): It is a cold emulsified sauce based on egg yolk. If it is not
handled carefully it will separate giving a curdled appearance.
DERIVATIVES:
• Aioli- Garlic and mayonnaise
• Tartare-Capers, gherkins, parsley & hard boiled eggs
• Thousand Island – Tarter sauce + ketchup
• Remoulade- tartare sauce with Anchovy

• Tomato ( classic tomato sauce): The traditional French tomato sauce is thickened
with a roux.

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2. PROPRIETARY SAUCE These sauces are industry made.
• Soya sauce
• Worcestershire sauce
• H.P. Sauce
• Barbeque Sauce
• Ketchup

3. CONTEMPORARY SAUCE These sauces are simple, less rich and easy to prepare.
These are more likely to be specifically tailored to be given food or techniques.
• Beurre Blanc
• Pesto Sauce
• Compound Butter

THICKENING AGENTS
Thickening Agents (liaison):- a sauce must be thick enough to cling lightly to the
food otherwise it will just run off and lie in a puddle in the plate. This does not
mean that it has to be heavy and pasty. The commonly used liaisons are: -

A. Roux: - the most popular and the most widely used thickening is Roux. It is a mixture
of flour and butter cooked to a definite degree- white, fawn or brown colour. Flour
and butter are generally used in the same proportion.

1) White Roux is roux cooked in a pan over a moderate fire without allowing it to
get discoloured.

2) Blond Roux or Roux blonde: - is prepared by cooking it over a slow fire or in the
oven till gets a fawn colour.

3) Brown Roux or Roux Brun: - it is generally known as stock Roux and can be
prepared in bulk and stored. It is prepared like Blond Roux but it is better to finish
a brown roux in a slow oven so as to make it more brown without burning. This
will also improve the aroma with brown or blond. Roux a mirepoix is added to give
the flavouring to the sauce.

B. Beurre Manie: - equal quantities of soften butter and flour mixed into a paste
used if consistency needs adjustment.
NB: - consistency is checked only when boiling point is reached.

C. Slurry: - A mixture of cornstarch, potato flour (arrowroot) and water used

mostly in Chinese and other Asian sauces.

D. Corn starch: - produces a viscous liaison- transparent and glossy used in jus- lie
and Chinese cuisine. Starch is added like for white wash ( i.e. with water )

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E. Bread and breadcrumbs: - Produces a nice tasting liaison, used in braised meat
sauces or bread sauce.

F. Fresh dairy cream: - thickens by reduction if fresh.

G. Liaison - The egg yolk are beaten up and diluted with a small quantity of cream,
milk or cold white stock and used to thicken sauces.

Function of sauces
1) To enhance the flavor of the dish.
2) To provide a contrast in taste in case of bland foods (not spiced).
3) To provide a contrast in colour e.g. Albert pudding with jam sauce.
4) It helps in digestion e.g. Roast pork with apples sauce.
5) It helps in improving or attaining correct textures and consistency.
6) Sauces help as a moistening agent.
7) It improves the appearance of certain dishes e.g. Fish Mayonnaise.
8) It increases the nutritive value.

Example of dishes where sauces are used

• Prawn Cocktail: Cocktail sauce (Mayonnaise)
• Cauliflower Mornay : Mornay sauce (Bechamel)
• Cream of Mushroom Soup: Crème sauce (Bechamel)
• Poached Fish Hollandaise: Hollandaise sauce
• Roast Duck: Orange sauce (Espagnole)
• Chicken supreme: Supreme sauce (Veloute)

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