1

CHAPTER 1

POWER SYSTEM VOLTAGE STABILITY

1.1 REVIEW OF VOLTAGE STABILITY

Voltage stability is concerned with the ability of a power system to

maintain acceptable voltages at all the buses in the system under normal
conditions and after being subjected to a disturbance. Voltage instability
occurs in a power system when a disturbance causes a progressive and
uncontrollable decrease in acceptable voltage level. A disturbance such as
fault or change in operating conditions, leads to increased demand for reactive
power. This increase in electric power demand makes the power system to
operate close to their limit conditions, which indicates that the system is
operating under heavy loading conditions. Such a condition may cause
voltage collapse. As a result, voltage stability becomes one of the major
concerns and an appropriate remedy must be found to avoid the voltage
collapse in a system.

Voltage collapse is the process by which the sequence of events

accompanying voltage instability leads to a low unacceptable voltage profile
in a significant part of the power system. Voltage collapse problem is a main
concern in power system operation and planning. It can be characterized by a
continuous decrease in system voltage. The following can be considered as
the main reasons for voltage collapse:
 Small and gradual changes such as natural increase in
system load.
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 Large and sudden disturbances such as loss of generating

unit or a heavily loaded line.
 The inability of the system to meet its reactive demands.
 Large electrical distances between generation and load.
 ULTC actions.
 Unfavorable load characteristics.
 Poor co-ordination between various control and protective
system.
 Excessive use of shunt capacitor compensation.

Voltage stability problem is a dynamic phenomenon and hence

requires time domain simulation. However, such simulations do not readily
provide sensitivity information or the degree of stability. They are time
consuming in terms of computation and engineering effort required for the
analysis of results. The problem requires examination of a wide range of
system conditions and a large number of contingencies. Since system
dynamics influencing voltage stability are slow, it can be effectively analyzed
by using static methods, which examine the viability of the equilibrium point
represented by specified operating conditions of the power system. This
method also provides much insight into the nature of the problem.

The problem of reactive power and voltage control is well known

and is considered by many researchers. It is known that to maintain an
acceptable voltage profile, sufficient reactive support at appropriate location
must be provided. Nevertheless, maintaining a good voltage profile does not
automatically guarantee voltage stability.
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1.2 VOLTAGE STABILITY

Determination of steady state voltage stability is essential in power

system operation and planning. Deregulated polices, environment legislation,
construction cost of new transmission lines and continuous growth in demand
are the main factors forcing the utility to operate their system closer to
maximum power transfer capacity limits. Consequently, the risk of voltage
instability or voltage collapse increases. It is evident from various voltage
collapse incidents occurred around the world. Thus, the determination of
voltage stability limit at various operating conditions is essential to operate
the system with sufficient safety margin.

The main factor causing instability is the inability of the power

system to meet the demand for reactive power. In general, two approaches are
available to assess the voltage stability namely static and dynamic. Static
voltage stability analysis is based on the solution of conventional or modified
power flow equations. It provides the ability of transmission network to
support a specified load demand. On the other hand, the dynamic approach
tries to find why and how the voltage collapse has occurred.

Several methods are already proposed in the literature to determine

the static stability limit. They are P-V and Q-V curve, multiple load flow
solution, continuation power flow solution, minimum eigen value, sensitivity
and energy based method and bifurcation theory methods. Recently,
researchers have tried a fast method suitable for on line applications. All the
methods involve heavy computational steps and time, because it depends on
the choice of step length control. Recently, Evolutionary Techniques such as
Genetic Algorithm (GA), Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) and Hybrid
Particle Swarm Optimization (HPSO) have been applied to solve the voltage
stability problems.
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1.2.1 Importance of voltage stability

Maintaining adequate voltage has become a major problem because

many utilities are squeezing the maximum possible capacity from the bulk
transmission network to avoid the capital cost of building new lines and
generation facilities. As bulk transmission network are pushed to their thermal
capacity, the ability to maintain adequate reactive margin for given system
conditions is not an easy one to handle. Unlike the real power, it is extremely
difficult to make precise estimate of MVAR reserve margin. This problem
becomes more complicated because of the limited extent that VARS will flow
to support the bulk transmission system voltage. Under heavy load conditions,
there may be insufficient injected reactive power causing the voltages to drop.
In some cases for heavily loaded power systems, particularly when the system
configuration comprises long transmission lines, the voltage drop caused by
dropping of a generator or a transmission line cannot be recovered even if the
static capacitors at the load ends are switched on. This sort of abnormal
voltage drop is called voltage instability or voltage collapse phenomena. The
frequency of occurrence of this phenomena has prompted investigations in a
new direction of power system voltage stability analysis.

Presently, many power systems worldwide are undergoing voltage-

related problems for more than one reason. A more systematic approach to
voltage phenomena is currently needed since new operational strategies
directly affecting the system voltage profile are taking place. This situation
calls for exploring the potential of voltage control measures that are made
more flexible to react to changing system conditions. A good voltage profile
is important for three reasons:

 Better security
 Good quality of supply
 Low transmission loss
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Hence bus voltages must be maintained in a narrow band around

specified value under all operating conditions. This has been recognized as
one of the most important operational problems.

Many power systems possess certain amount of reactive power

reserves, which is of proper amount and applied at the appropriate time would
help in achieving a better voltage profile. Theoretical work underlying this
effort is not simple as the comprehensive modeling and solution of operating
power system become very complex. Most utilities monitor system voltage
profile in the Energy Management Systems. This information is used by a
human operator to make decisions about setting reference points at particular
voltage control locations or for switching reactive power support.

For any given large utility, there are multiple objectives to be

achieved. In a power system, security, economic operation, and reliability are
typical objectives to be satisfied. It may be obvious that trade-off among these
objectives are impossible because of their different nature. In other words, it
is impossible to treat respective objectives under the identical criterion. In the
past, operators maintained reliable performance using experience and on the
spot assessment of network conditions. However, power networks are now
more complex. The increased number of possible operating scenario can lead
to problems beyond the operator’s analytical ability. Most utilities, therefore,
use computer-aided dispatch to assist the operator in system monitoring,
economic dispatch, and voltage stability assessment.

1.3 LITERATURE REVIEW

1.3.1 Optimal Reactive Power Dispatch

The Optimal Power Flow (OPF) problem has been recently

reviewed as a process of determining the state of power systems which
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guarantees affordability, reliability, security and dependability. It was first

defined in early 1950’s. It is an extension of the conventional economic
dispatch to determine the optimal settings for control variables in a power
network with respect to various constraints. The OPF is a static constrained
non-linear optimization problem employing recent trends in numerical
optimization techniques and computer technology. The OPF problem solution
aims to optimize a selected objective function such as fuel cost via optimal
adjustment of the power system control variables, while at the same time
satisfying various equality and inequality constraints. Optimal Reactive
Power Dispatch (ORPD) is a sub-problem of OPF, which allocates the
reactive power generation so as to minimize the real power transmission
losses, keeping all the voltages within the limits while satisfying a number of
equality and inequality constraints. Deeb and Shahidehpour (1990) have
proposed a fast and reliable method for reactive power optimization which
would compute the desired optimal solution for the operation of a linearized
large scale power system. Various optimization techniques were proposed to
solve non-linear ORPD problems. These techniques range from improved
mathematical techniques to more efficient problem formulations and they can
be categorized as

 Linear Programming (LP) based methods

 Non-linear Programming (NLP) based methods

Linear programming is recognized as a reliable and robust

technique to solve ORPD problems characterized by linear separable
objectives and linear constraints. In the past three decades, various
optimization techniques were proposed to solve the non-linear ORPD
problems.
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These techniques can be categorized as

 Gradient technique
 Newton based technique
 Successive Quadratic Programming (SQP) technique
 Kuhn – Tucker non linear programming (NLP) technique
 Successive Linear Programming (SLP) technique
 Interior Point (IP) Algorithm

Gomez et al (1991) have applied Bender’s decomposition technique

for reactive power planning. This technique is helpful in finding the cost of
active power loss without the violation of any operation limit. In general,
ORPD is a large-scale non-linear programming problem with thousands of
input variables and nonlinear constraints. Liu et al (1992) have solved OPF
using Newton method. Granville (1994) has dealt in detail about the gradient
technique. It was the first approach to solve ORPD problems. Despite their
mathematical rigor, these approaches exhibit slow convergence, especially
zig-zagging near the optimum. In the conventional optimization algorithms,
mathematical assumptions such as analytic and differential properties of the
objective functions and unique minima existing in problem domain have to be
given. Otherwise, it is very difficult to calculate the gradient variables.

Wu et al (1994) have discussed the solution methods of Successive

Quadratic Programming and Kuhn-Tucker Non-Linear Programming for
optimizing the transmission losses. The SQP uses the second order derivatives
to improve the convergence rate of the gradient approach. Their modeling is
based on the Quasi Newton process, in which the approximation of the
Hessian matrix of the Lagrangian function is used to overcome the difficulties
encountered in quadratic programming problems. The Hessian matrix is the
matrix of second derivatives of a multivariate function. Hessian matrix is
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dense which may make these methods and their convergence becomes slow
when control variables become large.

The NLP approach, based on the Kuhn-Tucker technique attempts to

solve ORPD by satisfying the Kuhn-Tucker (Granville and Rodrigo de
Miranda Alves 1994) optimality condition directly. It has limitations in
handling non-linear, discontinuous functions and constraints, and functions
having multiple local minima. The combinatorial search approach, branch and
bound and cutting plane algorithms have been studied by Momoh et al (1994).
They proposed a new algorithm to solve power system optimization problem
using an extended quadratic interior point method which guarantees a global
optimum within the interior feasible region. It creates a sequence of interior
feasible points, converging to the optimal feasible solution. Actually it is an
optimizing technique which can compete with other known techniques used in
OPF problem in handling general class of problems such as Economic
Dispatch, VAR planning and loss minimization. They suffer from “curse of
dimensionality” for large-scale applications and system loss reduction.

The solution methods to the ORPD problem have been proposed over
the last three decades. Among them, IP methods with complex properties and
computational efficiency have been of recent interest. Due to the recent input
and research in IP methods for solving large scale linear programs have
proved effective in reaching the optimal solutions. Karmarkar’s method was a
big breakthrough for IP methods with his polynomial time convergence
algorithm for LP. The efficiency and robustness of IP algorithm is applied for
power system optimization. Zambroni de souza (1998) has devised a method
based on the tangent vector technique has been shown to be accurate as a
voltage stability index and also as an indicator of the system weak area.
Zambroni de souza (2001) has proposed a vanishing and accurate voltage
collapse index, which is helpful if some control actions are required, since this
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index provides some important information about the system critical bus.
Mantovani and Garcia (1996) have proved that the heuristic method for
reactive power planning is superior over the conventional solution methods.
Bansilal et al (1996) have improved the voltage stability using ORPD
algorithm. Rezania and Shahidehpour (2003) have applied IP method for real
power loss minimization. Araujo Ferrerira et al (2002) have applied IP
method for voltage collapse problem to find the optimal solution in few
iterations especially in some test cases where the optimal results are expected
to be obtained easily.

The SLP approaches are based on the linearization of ORPD

constraints and objective functions. The basic formulation is then extended to
include security and environmental constraints. Some decomposition
strategies are introduced to aid in solving (Yan et al 1996) large scale
problems. Menezes et al (2004) have proposed a methodology that provides a
solution for the one-day-ahead pre-dispatch problem considering the
evaluation and improvement of the voltage stability margin by optimizing the
reactive power injections by generators and synchronous condensers. Modal
participation factor identifies the most adequate reactive power injection for
each generator or synchronous condenser to maximize the voltage stability
margin. The advantage of the proposed methodology is that the optimal
solution for real power injection of generators is maintained unchanged.
Hence the voltage stability margin is improved by simply managing the
reactive power dispatch. It can be used to find a solution with an increased
level of security for short term planning of operation. Kundur et al (2004)
have reported aiming to define power system stability more precisely, provide
a systematic basis for its classification and discuss linkages to related issues
such as power system reliability and security. Their objectives are to
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 Define power system stability more precisely, inclusive of

all forms.

 Provide a systematic basis for classifying power system

 Stability, identifying and defining different categories and

providing a broad picture of the phenomena.

 Discuss linkages to related issues such as power system

reliability and security.

In general, conventional optimization methods require calculation

of derivatives and gradients, which require large computational time. On the
other hand, many mathematical assumptions (Bhagwan Das and Patvardhan
2002) such as convex, analytic and differential objective functions have to be
given to simplify the problem. Reactive power optimization problem is a
global optimization problem, which inherently has more local minima
solution. These methods can only lead to a local minimum, not able to locate
or identify the global optimum and may also result in divergence in solving
ORPD problems.

Lee et al (1995) have presented a modified simple Genetic

Algorithm, which utilizes new population selection and generation method
which makes use of Bender’s cut, which is desirable to find the optimal
solution in few iterations especially in some test cases where the optimal
results are expected to be obtained easily. It has the advantage of obtaining
the optimal results with less number of iterations. Lai and Ma (1997) have
developed Evolutionary Programming for solving Reactive Power Planning
(RPP) problem and proved that the optimal solutions as well as convergence
characteristics are superior over the conventional Broyden method.
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Wu et al (1998) have implemented adaptive Genetic Algorithm

(GA) for ORPD and voltage control of power system. In this, control of bus
voltages, tap position of transformers and reactive power sources are involved
to minimize the transmission losses of the power system. Yoshida et al (2000)
have applied Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) for reactive power and
voltage control to assess the voltage security. Abido (2002) has employed
PSO algorithm for optimal settings of OPF problem control variables. It has
been applied to minimize the fuel cost, voltage profile improvement and
voltage stability enhancement. Venkatesh et al (2000) have proposed a
multiobjective fuzzy linear programming for minimizing the transmission
losses and maximizing the voltage stability margin while satisfying the
violated load bus voltage constraints. Ching Tzong Su and Chien-Tung Lin
(2001) have proposed a new approach using fuzzy set theory. Its purpose is to
find a solution which takes both voltage security enhancement and loss
reductions which indirectly controls the voltage and reactive power control of
the system.

Malachi and Singer (2006) have applied GA to control voltage and

reactive power in large power system and proved that GA is efficient for the
above control. Wei yan et al (2006) have formulated a hybrid algorithm
(hybrid of GA and Interior Point Method) for real power loss minimization.
This hybrid algorithm has both the benefits of IPM and GA. Wang (2001) has
presented a Multi Agent (MA) co-ordination for secondary voltage control to
regulate a power system voltage in contingencies. The results are encouraging
because the voltage violation in power system contingencies is quickly and
effectively eliminated by the secondary voltage control of AVR, SVC and
STATCOM. Yong jun Zhang and Zhen Ren (2004) have presented a MA
based method for the problem of large scale ORPD. It has an advantage over
traditional algorithms namely global optimization capability and real time
processing efficiency.
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Due to the complexity of ORPD of large scale power system, it is

necessary for using Multi Agent System (MAS) to enhance the capability and
efficiency of the global optimization. The application of MAS turns the real
time application of ORPD to large scale power system into realizable. Esmin
et al (2005) have applied shunt reactive power compensation to the critical
area of the power system which is identified by using the tangent vector
technique under the point of view of voltage instability. They have applied
PSO and Hybrid PSO algorithms for optimizing the amount of shunt reactive
power compensation in each bus. The optima obtained by the hybrid were
better than by the standard PSO model and the convergence speed was faster.
Zhao et al (2005) have applied Multi Agent based PSO (MAPSO) to ORPD,
evaluated on an IEEE 30 bus and a practical IEEE 118 bus system. It has been
developed for the determination of the global or near global optimum solution
for ORPD. This algorithm is able to undertake a global search with a fast
convergence rate and a feature of robust computation. McArthur et al (2007)
have dealt in detail about the concepts, applications and technical challenges
for power engineering applications. McArthur et al (2007a) have also
discussed about the technologies, standards and tools of MAS.

1.3.2 Optimum cost of generation for Maximum Loadability Limit

To estimate voltage stability, Maximum Loadability Limit (MLL)

is one approach. MLL is the margin between the operating point of the system
and the maximum loading point. The optimum cost of generation for MLL of
power system can be formulated as an optimization problem, which consists
of two steps namely computing MLL and the optimum cost of generation for
MLL. Various mathematical techniques to solve MLL can be categorized as

 Successive Quadratic Programming (SQP)

 Interior Point method (IP)
 Continuation Power Flow method (CPF)
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Loadability limit corresponds to nose point in P-V curve and it is

usually calculated by the CPF technique (Ajjarappu and Christy 1992).
However the method is time consuming. The CPF technique has a wide range
of applications like evaluation of maximum loading point and simulation of
power systems static behavior due to load and generation variation with or
without control devices. If the system is already near the maximum loading
point, the CPF may face some convergence problems. Tracing the PV curves
by means of predictor, which predicts the next solution by calculating the
tangent vector and a corrector to achieve accurate solution, solves the critical
point. It is time consuming for large power systems. Also it has a drawback of
increasing error with a large step size and the step size is dependent on the
experience of the users.

Chiang and Jean-Jumeau (1995) have foundout the maximum

loading points in electric power system. The SQP approach (Irisarri et al
1997) uses the second order derivatives to improve the convergence rate.
Their modeling is based on the Quasi – Newton process, in which the
approximation of the Hessian matrix of the lagrangian function is used.
Hessian matrix is dense which may make these methods too slow as the
number of control variables becomes very large. IP methods (Irisarri et al
1997) are computationally efficient. However, if the step size is not chosen
properly, the sub – linear problem may have a solution that is infeasible in the
original non-linear domain. IP method has severe limitations in handling non-
linear, discontinuous functions and constraints. The limitation of starting and
terminating conditions of this method has limited its application to practical
and real time power system problems. In most cases, they are unable to solve
non-linear and quadratic objective functions.

Haque (2003) has proposed a very simple and straight forward

method of determining the maximum permissible loading and voltage
stability margin of a power system using information about the current
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operating point. The method simply requires some locally measurable

magnitude, active and reactive components of load power and are carefully
processed to estimate the maximum permissible loading and voltage stability
margin of a system. The proposed method can correctly estimate the
maximum permissible loading at the voltage collapse or critical point using
the information of current operating point even though it is far away from the
actual critical point. Haque (2004) has proposed a simple method of assessing
the static voltage stability limit of a power system through V-I characteristics
of load or buses. A simple optimization technique is then applied to estimate
the maximum or critical load along the characteristics. Simulation results
indicate that the critical load estimated by the proposed method are in
excellent agreement with the corresponding actual values found through
repetitive power flow simulations, even though the estimations are made at a
load level which is distant from the actual voltage collapse point. The results
of the proposed method can also be used to develop a control strategy such as
load shedding to avoid the potential threat of voltage collapse. Due to its
simplicity and the availability of required information, the proposed method
has very good potential for online application.

Kataoka and Shinoda (2005) have investigated the smoothness of

the loadability surface. They observed that this surface was smooth for only
one constraint and was non-smooth for problem with more than one
constraint. Sode Yome et al (2006) have obtained the maximum loading
margin for static voltage stability of a system.

Evolutionary Techniques have been applied to obtain the MLL of

the power system over the last two decades. Narendra Udupa et al (1999)
have proposed a new approach using fuzzy set theory for a control with the
purpose of improving the voltage stability of power system. Voltage stability
index and controlling variables are translated into fuzzy set notations to
formulate the relation between voltage stability level and controlling ability of
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controlling devices. A fuzzy rule based system is formed to select the

controllers, their movement direction and step size. The performance of the
fuzzy system is compared with conventional optimizing techniques and
results obtained are encouraging. The proposed fuzzy system technique is
found suitable for online application in energy control centre as the solution is
obtained fast with significant speedups. Kassabalidis et al (2002) have used
enhanced PSO to identify the border or the section of the border close to the
current operating conditions. Naka et al (2003) have proposed a HPSO for
distribution state estimation which can handle non-linear characteristics of the
practical equipment in distribution system. Amgad et al (2006) have applied
HPSO to MLL and proved that it is superior over PSO in computing time and
results.

Economic Dispatch (ED) problem is one of the fundamental issues

in power system operation. In essence, it is an optimization problem and its
objective is to reduce the total generation cost of units, while satisfying the
constraints. Previous efforts on solving the ED problems have employed
various mathematical programming methods and optimization techniques.
These conventional methods include the lambda iteration method, the base
point and participation factors methods and the dynamic programming
method. In these numerical methods for solving ED problems, an essential
assumption is that the incremental cost curves of the units are monotonically
increasing piecewise-linear functions. Unfortunately, this assumption may
render these methods infeasible because of its nonlinear characteristics in
practical systems. Furthermore, for a large-scale mixed-generating system, the
conventional method has oscillatory response resulting in a longer solution
time. In order to make numerical methods more convenient for solving ED
problems, artificial intelligent techniques have been successfully employed to
solve ED problems for units with piecewise quadratic fuel cost functions and
prohibited zone constraints.
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Chowdhury and Rahrnan (1990) have discussed about the recent

advances in Economic Dispatch. Bakirtzis et al (1994) have applied GA to
ED and proved GA is superior over conventional methods. Sheble and Brittig
(1995) have applied refined GA to ED problem. Chen and Chang (1995) have
applied GA for large scale Economic Dispatch problem. Eberhart and Shi
(1998) have compared the performance of GA and PSO and inferred that PSO
is superior to GA. Kumaran and Mouly (2001) have applied Evolutionary
Computation to ED problem. Chang wook Ahn and Ramakrishna (2002) have
presented a GA approach to the shortest path routing problem, which helps in
obtaining the solution space effectively and speedily. The mutation introduces
a new alternative which maintains the diversity of population thereby
avoiding local traps. The population sizing equation appears to be a
conservative tool to determine a population size in the routing problem. Zwe
Lee Gaing (2003) has applied PSO to ED problem, considered non-linear
characteristics of a generator such as ramp rate limit and prohibited operating
zone for actual power system operation. Kannan et al (2004) have applied
PSO to generation expansion planning. Peng Yeng Yin et al (2006) have
applied HPSO for optimal task in distribution systems. Selvakumar and
Thanushkodi (2007) have applied PSO to ED. Venkatesh et al (2007) have
applied Evolutionary Programming to ED problem. Zambonelli et al (2003)
have discussed about the basic concepts and the developments of MAS.
Wecai Zhong et al (2004) have applied Multi Agent Genetic Algorithm for
global numerical optimization problem.

In general, conventional optimization methods are based on

successive linearizations and use the first and second differentiations of
objective functions and its constraint equations as the search directions.
These methods are in general not able to locate or identify global optimum,
can only lead to a local optimum and sometimes result in divergence.
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Optimal Reactive Power Dispatch and Optimum Cost of

Generation for Maximum Loadability Limit problems are a mixture of
discrete and continuous variables and they are formulated as non-linear
optimization problems.

1.4 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

 Development of computer program for Optimal Reactive Power

Dispatch and Optimum Cost of Generation for Maximum
Loadability Limit of the power system.

 Develop computer program for implementation of Hybrid Multi

Agent based Particle Swarm Optimization (Hybrid of Genetic
Algorithm, Multi Agent System and Particle Swarm
Optimization) technique to ORPD and Optimum Cost of
Generation for MLL and test it on IEEE 30 bus, IEEE 57 bus,
IEEE 118 bus and TNEB 69 bus systems.

 Develop computer program for implementation of Multi Agent

based Particle Swarm Optimization (Hybrid of Multi Agent
System and Particle Swarm Optimization) technique to ORPD
and Optimum Cost of Generation for MLL and test it on IEEE
30 bus, IEEE 57 bus, IEEE 118 bus and TNEB 69 bus systems.

1.5 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

By adopting the above contributions, the main objectives in this

research are,

 To exploit the Hybrid Multi Agent based Particle Swarm

Optimization technique for Optimal Reactive Power
Dispatch problem to minimize the transmission losses.
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 To obtain the Optimum Cost of Generation for Maximum

Loadability Limit of Power System using Hybrid Multi
Agent based Particle Swarm Optimization technique.

 To test the above problem in the standard IEEE test systems.

 To compare the Hybrid Multi Agent based Particle Swarm

Optimization technique with other evolutionary techniques
such as Genetic Algorithm, Particle Swarm Optimization,
Hybrid Particle Swarm Optimization and Multi Agent based
Particle Swarm Optimization.

1.6 SUMMARY

The reduction of transmission loss (By optimal reactive power

dispatch) and maximum loadability limit are one among different methods to
evaluate voltage stability. The new proposed algorithm Hybrid Multi Agent
based Particle Swarm Optimization has been applied to Optimal Reactive
Power Dispatch and Optimum Cost of Generation for Maximum Loadability
Limit of the system. The performance of the proposed algorithm has been
validated by applying it to IEEE 30 bus, IEEE 57 bus, IEEE 118 bus and
TNEB 69 bus systems. The results obtained by proposed Hybrid Multi Agent
based Particle Swarm Optimization algorithm to Optimal Reactive Power
Dispatch and Optimum Cost of Generation for Maximum Loadability Limit
of the system show that it is capable of obtaining global optimum solutions
which in turn prove the applicability of the proposed algorithm to other power
system optimization problems.

In chapter 2, the review of evolutionary technique such as GA,

PSO, HPSO, MAPSO and the proposed HMAPSO algorithms is made.
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Chapter 3 discusses the importance of HMAPSO technique to

ORPD. Simulations are done on IEEE 30 Bus and IEEE 118 Bus Systems
using MATLAB 7.0 in 2.6 GHz processor to validate the results. The
obtained results by HMAPSO algorithm are compared with existing
evolutionary algorithms such as GA, PSO, HPSO and MAPSO and the
conventional Newton-Raphson power flow method.

Chapter 4 discusses the importance of HMAPSO technique to

Optimum Cost of Generation for MLL of the system. Simulations are done
on IEEE 30 Bus, IEEE 57 Bus and IEEE 118 Bus Systems using MATLAB
7.0 programming language in 2.6 GHz processor to validate the results. The
results obtained by HMAPSO algorithm are compared with existing
evolutionary algorithms such as GA, PSO, HPSO and MAPSO and the
conventional Repetitive Power Flow method.

In Chapter 5, conclusive remarks are presented and possible future

attempts are suggested.