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Design and Construction

________ of Concrete Masonry Buildings
IN ACCORDANCE WITH AS 3700-200 1
CONCRETE MASONRY
ASSOCIATION OF AUSTRALIA
(bNTENTS PART A
CONCRETE MASONRY
FOR BUILDINGS
Chapter 1 Application
Use tabs
to locate
Chapter 2 Manufacture Chapters
Chapter 3 Common Masonry

Units
Chapter 4 Applied Finishes
Chapter 5 Properties
"I
CONTENTS PART B
DESIGN OF CONCRETE
MASONRY BUILDINGS
Chapter 1 Overview
Chapter 2 Acoustics
Chapter 3 Robustness
Chapter 4 Fire
Chapter 5 Vertical Loads
Chapter 6 Horizontal Loads
Chapter 7 Movement
Chapter 8 Durability
Chapter 9 Thermal Performance
Chapter 10 Footings
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to locate
Chapters
a
'/'ll
CONTENTS PART C
CONSTRUCTION OF CONCRETE
MASONRY BUILDINGS
Chapter 1 Overview
Chapter 2 Specification
Chapter 3 Detailing
Lintels
Vertical Reinforcement
S
and Mullions
Bond Beams
Shear Walls and
Connections
Control Joints
Thermal Performance
Ancillary Details
Chapter 4 Estimating
Chapter 5 Construction
Chapter 6 Cleaning and

Maintenance
Appendix A CD-ROM of
CAD details
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to locate
Chapters
S
C
C
4-J
0
a-
a-
Chaster 1
Application Contents
S This chapter describes the typical applications of 1.1 THE MANY FACES OF CONCRETE
concrete masonry, ie brickwork and blockwork. It MASONRY

also describes the typical properties and features
of concrete masonry buildings, including acoustics, 1.2 WHY MASONRY
thermal performance, structural performance and
fire resistance. 1.3 AESTHETICS, COLOUR AND TEXTURE
Other concrete products such as segmental payers 1.4 STRUCTURAL VERSATILITY

and landscaping units are not dealt with in any
detail, since information on their use may be 1.5 FIRE RESISTANCE
obtained from other publications of the Concrete
Masonry Association of Australia, or their web site: 1.6 ACOUSTIC PERFORMANCE
www. cmaa. coma u
1.7 THERMAL BEHAVIOUR
I I
THE MANY FACES OF
CONCRETE MASONRY YMASONR!
Concrete masonry is a generic term covering many Large precast concrete panels, tilt-up walls and insitu
building systems that incorporate bricks and blocks of concrete require formwork, constructed precisely to
many different shapes and sizes, colours and textuies, predetermined dimensions and reinforcement that
C strengths and other mechanical properties. is accurately placed. They are suitable for repetitive
0 It includes: work or projects where a high level of supervision and
control can be exercised over formwork construction
0 decorative face masonry such a coloured, polished, and reinforcement positioning, but they are not suitable
0 textured or split bricks and blocks:
I
for projects involving lower levels of supervision or non-
0. plain blocks used as the loadbearing leaf in cavity repetitive construction.
construction and non-loadbearing partitions, Metal and glass sheeting provide attractive and
reinforced hollow blockwork in large building panels functional surfacing, but do not have the loadbearing
and retaining walls: properties necessary to support vertical gravity loads
applied from above.
mixed construction consisting of unreinforced and
reinforced hollow blockwork Similarly, metal and timber framed walls generally do
nct provide the requisite load bearing properties.
Reinforced concrete masonry provides efficient resistance
to wind loads and earthquake loads in large panels in Masonry walls do not have these disadvantages. They
low-rise commercial and industrial buildings such as: can be laid to fit into an existing structure and can
be laid around openings and other structural members.
Factories Whilst not sacrificing aesthetics, concrete masonry

Warehouses provides and efficient medium for supporting vertical
loads, as well as effective resistance to horizontal loads.
Shopping centres
Auditoriums
Schools and hospitals
Housing in high-wind areas.
Unreinforced concrete masonry is widely used in
high-rise and medium-rise commercial and residential
buildings with loadbearing and non-loadbearing fire-
rated walls, including:
Home uruts
Office buildings
Hotels.
Decorative face masonry is often used in both
prestigious residential buildings and project housing,
such as:
Single dwellings
Duplexes
Town houses
Villa units
Institutional buildings.
S
AESTHETICS,
COLOUR ANDTEXTURE
Plain face
Plain face units are available in a number of textures,
each of which tends to reflect the type of mix
employed. The coarsest face is obtained from a 'no-
fines' mix. The texture becomes less coarse as the
fines content and the moisture content in the mix is
increased, giving a more workable concrete.
Honed face
To achieve a finely striated finish that appears similar
to that produced by a diamond saw cut, dense concrete
units can be honed by passing them through a machine
that grinds approximately 2 mm from the surface Both
the face and an end can be honed to facilitate corners
in the finished masonry.
Polished face
Further polishing after honing will produce a very
smooth surface approaching that normally associated
with terrazzo. The block undergoes several passes of Rowing wall ofshotblastandsmoothface, sandstone-
the polishing disks, initially to remove scratches and coloured concrete masonry
striations, then to grind smooth and finally, to put a
shine on the surface. Both the face and an end can be
polished to facilitate corners in the finished masonry.
Colour variations can also be achieved in polished and
honed masonry.
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Polished reconstructed granite blocks used for the external
skin of a house
Split face
Split face units are amongst the most popular facing
units supplied. They are produced as double-sized'
elements. After curing, the elements are split by
shearing to defined profiles.
0 The standard splitter induces a vertical split giving a
block or brick with a tailored finish. If a more rugged
0 character is sought the unit is split in a special machine
using angled blades. Alternatively, the unit may be
0 put through a hammer mill to remove the longitudinal
arrises following splitting. The size and colour of the
coarse aggregate particles in the concrete mix have a
considerable effect on the appearance of the finished
face. Where the colour of the coarse aggregate contrasts
with that of the matrix, the aggregate particles will
'read' quite clearly in the finished face. Normally,
aggregate particles do no exceed 15 mm in size, and
10-mm maximum is preferred. Split face units often
come in the full range of sizes for 90-mm and Retaining wall blocks being split on a special splitter to
110-mm-thick units. 140-mm and 190-mm-thick units give a profiled face
are available from some manufacturers. Where it is

required to form a return using split face units it may
be necessary to form the return using quarter, half or
three-quarter length units as it is not normally practical
to manufacture full length (390 mm long) units having
the shorter face split.
"Straight splitting" to concrete blocks S
Split-face block wall to shopping centre "Angled splitting" to concrete blocks
In
S Slump block and brick
Slump block and brick umts, known as adobe units,
have irregular dense faces. They are produced using
a concrete mix having greater workability and higher
moisture content than normal masonry mixes. The unit
is extruded in the normal way but tends to slump after
manufacture - hence the name. Although the height of
the unit is constant, some variation in plan dimensions
is inevitable. However, it is the variability which is the
principal attraction of this type of unit and which gives
the resulting wall its character. The maximum height of
slump block is limited by the process. Normally, only
90-mm-high or standard brick-size units are available.
Rumbled bricks and blocks
A rumbled surface is achieved by putting the units
through a machine known as a 'rumbler'. This is a
rotating tilted drum through which the units tumble
under gravity. At the upper end a series of blades or
protuberances cause the arrises to spall. In the lower "Adobe" or "slump" bricks
end the spalls get rounded off through contact with
S
the drum wall. The resulting unit has a much softer'

appearance than the sharply defined faces of the
Colour
original units. When blended colour units are rumbled, All masonry units can be produced in a rich variety of
the resulting appearance is reminiscent of hand-made colours. The prime determinants of colour are:
bricks. Since the extent of spalling is critical, only high
strength solid or lightly cored masonry is suited to this the colour of any metallic oxides used in the mix
process. the colour of the cement
the colour of the fine and coarse aggregates
the curing system.
Australian cements may be grey, off-white or tan in
colour, the depth of colour depending partly on the
source rock. These, together with the more expensive
imported white cements, give the masonry manufacturer
a much wider range of colour opportunities from locally-
available aggregates.
Because colours are a function of variable raw materials,
curing techniques and atmospheric conditions prior to
curing, some minor colour variation, particularly between
pallets, is inevitable. It is, therefore, good practice to
select units in random fashion from several pallets
rather than to lay from a single pallet at a time. In this
way any variation in colour tends to be scattered at
Rumbled "Rustique" concrete bricks random within the wall, and areas of localised contrast
are avoided.
Where a mottled appearance is sought, units of different
colours can be used in a random pattern in the wall.
The degree of colour contrast will be a function of the
colours selected, and can be as little or as much as the
designer wishes.
'Twin-blend" rumbled bricks showing comparison between

raked and ruled joints
Multi-blend Ribbed Block
Multi-blend units exhibit a random distribution of colour Concrete masonry is one of the few loadbearing
in the face with no two units having identical faces. materials that can be manufactured having a heavily
Walls constructed using these units have a very relaxed profiled face. Although the manufacturing process
natural' look, akin to natural stone or clay brickwork. tends to dictate a face profile which 'reads' vertically
Two basic methods of manufacture are employed. In in the wall it is also possible to develop profiles to
the first, two discrete compatible mixes of different 'read' horizontally. The form of ribbing that can be
colours are partially blended together, prior to admission incorporated is almost limitless, from the provision of
to the mould box. Under compaction, the two mixes minor grooves in the face to the use of substantial
form a cohesive blend with slight yet random merging protruding nibs. Design of the face is generally a
occurring between the two colours. The resulting face function of the ability to negotiate a return whilst
exhibits the two extremes of colour of the two mixes maintaining both bend, width of joints and - even more
plus a soft gradation of colour between. The distribution importantly - vertical continuity for the grooves or nibs.
of colour is random, both within the mould box and in Ribbed block is normally made in full-height units
the individual units. (190 mm) to minimise the number of horizontal joints.
In the second process, a coloured cementitious

slurry, compatible with the parent base grey or
coloured concrete mix, is injected into the mould box
immediately prior to the admission of the parent mix.
Under compaction, partial intermixing occurs between
the grout and the parent mix, giving a unit with

a random 'flare' across each face and a soft colour
transition between the two colours employed.
Plain ribbed block to wall and balustrade of residential

units
"Multi-blend" rumbled bricks in interior application Plain ribbed blocks used to assist acoustics in an auditorium
Spilt-ribbed
Split-ribbed blocks provide the most vigorous texture
obtainable in concrete masonry. Cores set within
moulds, which are manufactured for double-sized units,
form the nibs. Since the blocks are withdrawn vertically
from the cores, at the moment of extrusion, they must
have a small draw to permit easy de-moulding. As
a result, the connecting nibs are very lightly tapered.
The units are split in the conventional way, the splitter
being applied to the mid-point in each connecting nib.
The rugged face disguises any tendency for the taper to
read in the finished wall.
A wide variety of profiles has been used, the main
variations being the size of the split nib relative to
the smooth-faced channel, the extent of draw in the
channel and the connecting radii between the channel Split-rib block detail at top of wall
face and the nib walls. Design considerations are similar
to those for plain ribbed block, and most units are
190 mm high to minimise horizontal lointng. The advent
of multi-blended colour processes has had an immense
impact on the character of wall finish possible with this

profile.
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Split-ribbed wall to domestic building
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Contra sting end wall of split-ribbed blocks to office
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Split-rib balustrade detail Split-ribbed blocks to multi-storey building

Profiled walls
These may be constructed of standard units employed
in unusual ways and have long intrigued imaginative
designers.
Lintel units can be incorporated in a wall as a
decorative element turned through 900 and laid with the
prongs" projecting.
Quoin blocks may be used as corbels in an otherwise
plain wall to provide a series of bold, square projections.
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Profiled wall of spilt-ribbed and plain blocks
Projections producing a profiled effect as part of the design to

blend a modern building into an area of "period' buildings
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Use of different blocks to produce a profiled banding effect Simple screen block wall
Screen Blocks
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The range of screen blocks is considerable. It differs
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greatly between manufacturers and it is essential to
determine local availability before detailing a screen-
block wall.
Screen blocks can be manufactured in most colours, i:
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but are probably most effective in either white or soft

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brown colours. Contrasting elements in two colours can
produce a delicate tracery or emphasise modelling to
advantage.
They provide one of the cheapest and most effective
forms of sun screening when erected in front of a
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window wall. Properly designed screen walls can also

provide a most effective windblown-debris barrier in
cyclone-prone areas.
White and grey screen blocks develop a delicate tracery
fora carport screen wall
Custom Designed Concrete Masonry
Designers can elect to design their own concrete
masonry elements and are limited only by the
operational parameters of high-speed automatic
production machinery.
The additional cost of developing custom-built masonry,
as against the use of normal production units, comes
about through:
5 92
Design and construction of moulds and mould >
accessories
Trial production runs
Change of moulds and parts at the commencement
and end of each production run. 190
Whilst these costs are significant, they are spread

over the total number of units produced. Providing a
sufficient number of units is required, the unit cost
need not be unduly high. Naturally, the larger the run
the lower the unit cost premium. SECTION A-A
Dimensional limitations on the size and shape of units 32 28 32

vary with the type of machine used and the size of
machine pallet. It is desirable to keep to the preferred
:xx
modular dimensions, remembering that actual overall 32
dimensions are 10 mm smaller than the nominal
dimensions given.
83
In the design of custom-built units it is essential to
minimise the number of types of umts required. Where
special-sized units are required to fill up the mould 57
area it is important to remember that each machine
cycle will produce these units which then have to be
incorporated in the wall in the proportion in which they
are manufactured.
51
Division plates within the mould are usually about 6
10 mm thick. To allow units to be extruded, moulds 38
and cores have to be tapered slightly so that the upper
dimensions of solid parts of each unit, as moulded, are
smaller than the lower dimensions. 6
Whilst the manufacturing process encourages the use of

a profile which reads vertically in the wall, it is possible 14
to extrude a solid unit which can be bedded at 90°

( 137
Town Centre using custom-designed
to the direction of manufacture. For example, a rebate white split-ribbed blocks
could be formed along one vertical face in manufacture
which - when bedded in the wall in this way - would
'read' as a horizontal indent. Such units are restricted
in 'length' by the maximum 'height' of unit that the
machine can extrude. Alternatively, 'core pullers' can
be used to form horizontal rebates in most modern
machines.
The least expensive approach to custom designed
masonry is in the production of special blends of
colours. It is possible to develop a special colour
combination for a building, one suited to the identity
of the company occupying the building for example In
developing special requirements it is wise to appreciate
that the light colours are often the easiest to control.
Custom-designed colours are an inexpensive approach

I
0
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0
The versatility of concrete masonry as a structural
building element is outstanding It may be designed
and constructed as unreinforced masonry, as reinforced
masonry (with either close-spaced reinforcement or
wide-spaced reinforcement) or as mixed construction
consisting of a combination of reinforced and
FIRE RESISTANCE
A major requirement of many walls in buildings is to

prevent the spread of fire. Various concrete masonry
wall systems/units are well suited to this application:
Masonry systems which are deemed-to-comply with
the BCA (Building Code of Australia) requirements
provide an economical solution for most walls.
unreinforced elements.
0 Tested, purpose-designed unreinforced masonry units
0 In particular, high winds of northern Australia and
with scoria and/or basalt aggregate can be used to
earthquake loadings throughout the whole of the
country make reinforced masonry a very attractive provide enhanced structural adequacy for larger wall
design option, with the requisite strength and stiffness panels or improved insulation and integrity.
properties to resist lateral loads. Where very-large walls are involved, reinforced
i1 Part B of this Manual provides detail on the

background, design requirements, design charts
masonry will provide effective solutions. Bond beams
can be used to support 190-mm hollow blockwork
and tables and worked examples covering the main in lengths up to 6.8 m. Vertical reinforcement (in
applications of concrete masonry in resisting vertical partially-reinforced masonry systems) can span up to
and horizontal loads arising from gravity, wind and 80 m high.
earthquake. Part C of this Manual provides specification
Irrespective of the material used, designers must
and detailing for structural concrete masonry.

be careful to spell out the structural adequacy
requirements, when specifying fire-resistant wall
systems.
Part B of this Manual provides the background, design
requirements, design charts and tables and worked
examples for the design of concrete masonry to resist
fire loads.
I Ifl
ACOUSTIC PERFORMANCE RMAL BEHAVIOUR
Noise can be one of the most intrusive and annoying The thermal performance of building envelopes has
phenomena in modern buildings. Noise travels from its become a major focus of government initiatives in
source through the air, through open windows or doors, Australia, with the governments of Victoria, South
thiough walls and into living or office spaces. It may Australia and Australian Capital Territory introducing
be controlled by isolating the noise at its source (eg by legislation requiring walls to have higher insulation
enclosing it within walls that will absorb and dissipate values than previously
it), or by preventing the noise from reaching the living
In 1993, Standards Australia published AS 2627.1 Thermal
or office spaces (eg by erecting sound-resistant walls in
insulation of roof, ceilings and wails in dwellings, which
its path).
sets requirements for thermal performance of walls
Concrete masonry is particularly suited to these and ceilings of dwellings, depending on the location
applications: of the dwelling within Australia. Calculated values of
It may be used for sound barriers adjacent to busy insulation to be added to various wall types, including
roads and similar sources of noise. brick veneer and cavity brick walls, are also included.
Other wall types, such as single-leaf masonry walls were
Concrete masonry loadbearing walls and non- not included in the deemed-to-comply tables, and the
loadbearing partitions in buildings, used in Standard recommends that their suitability should be
conjunction with paint and render or plasterboard, checked using the method set out in the Standard. This
can provide the sound attenuation required by the can be done using Part B:Chapter 9.
S BCA.
A masonry wall is made up of a number of components,

Part B of this Manual explains the nature of sound, each of which has a different ability to insulate against
lists BCA requirements and provides design charts/ heat flow. Lightweight concrete masonry is a better
tables and a worked example for the provision of insulator than dense weight concrete masonry while
concrete masonry capable of isolating sound. metal cavity ties are poor insulators. Thermal bridging is
the phenomenon whereby heat flows through concrete
webs, cavity ties or other bridges to enter or leave
the building, In determining the thermal insulation of
hollow concrete blocks, allowance must be made for the
thermal bridging which can occur through the concrete
webs and metal ties.
The main options to increase the thermal resistance of
the walls are:
Masonry veneer or cavity masonry with foil insulation
Masonry veneer or cavity masonry with batts
Masonry veneer or cavity masonry with pumped or
poured insulation
Single-leaf masonry with solid insulation within the
cores
Single-leaf masonry with pumped or poured
insulation within the cores
Single-leaf masonry with batts on the internal surface
The standards and regulations concentrate on insulation,
ie the ability to prevent heat from passing through a
wall. However, concrete masonry is also able to remain
cool while the ambient temperature is high and to
remain warm when the ambient temperature is low. This
property is known as thermal mass or thermal inertia.
Thermal mass is particularly useful in the tropical
and sub-tropical climates of northern Australia. The
concrete blockwork walls of a building will remain cool
during the heat of the day, but at night, when the air
temperature drops, the concrete masonry will keep the
building at a comfortable temperature.
Part B of this Manual provides the background,
I
design requirements, design charts and tables and a
worked example for the design of concrete masonry to
provide enhanced thermal performance. Part C of this
Manual provides specification and detailing for thermal
performance.
Manufacture Contents
S This chapter describes the manufacture of concrete 2.1 HISTORY
masonry units, tracing the development of the

process from its origin in the nineteenth century 2.2 MANUFACTURING METHODS AND
through to the third millennium. A description of QUALITY CONTROL
modern manufacturing equipment is included to
give designers, builders and bricklayers a feel for 2.3 REFERENCES
the features, limitations and versatility of concrete
masonry units.
I 2.1.
Masonry construction is one of the oldest forms of
construction used by man. Structures of stone, mud
brick and clay brick, some built thousands of years ago,
remain to bear witness to the durability of masonry.
Not until the nineteenth century, with the development
of hydraulic cements, did concrete masonry begin
to evolve. It began in the United States, where large
heavy solid blocks were made of a moulded mixture of
quicklime and moist sand cured by steam.
The next developments were seen in England, where
solid blocks were made using powdered lime, fine
aggregates and boiling water to give rapid set Some
of these blocks were used in London, in houses in Pall
Mall and in the Royal College of Surgeons' building.
Solid blocks, however, proved unpopular and impractical
because of their weight. About 1866, the development
of techniques of moulding hollow blocks began. During
the following ten years, a number of patents on hollow Figure 2.1
blocks were granted in England arid the United States.

These did not cover manufacturing methods, as blocks
were usually moulded in wooden moulds.
By about 1900, a number of 'machines' for making
blocks began to appear in the United States. These
were nothing more than moulds with removable sides,
cores and bases, in some cases with arrangements for
turning the freshly moulded block to permit its removal.
Mould filling and concrete tamping were by hand. In
the early moulds, the face of the block was formed on
the removable mould bottom, which could, if desired, be
provided with a patterned or rock-face finish. The cores
were supported horizontally. To remove the block, the
mould sides had to be demounted, core extracted and
the block taken away on the mould base to be cured
For the next block, a fresh mould base, referred to as a
pallet, was inserted and the process repeated.
Later 'machines', about 1904, had vertical cores, fold-
down moulds sides, and a pallet with cut-outs so it
would fit over the cores. The pallet was placed on the
bottom of the mould and was used to lift the freshly
moulded block out of the mould after hand tamping. Figure 2.2
Although the early blocks were much the same height
and thickness as the largest sizes now made, they
were up to twice as long and therefore correspondingly
heavier and difficult to handle. The early 'machines'
could make only about two hundred blocks per ten-hour
day with three men (Figure 2.1).
Between 1914 and 1924, power tamping replaced hand
tamping, improving density, strength and uniformity.
One manufacturer developed and sold a semi-automatic
machine capable of making 1800 blocks per day with
the same number of men as had made only 200
blocks on the older machines. During this period, the
dimensions of units were standardised gradually, leading
to the full modular coordination we have today.
Figure 2.2 illustrates a blockmaking machine of
this era.
Perhaps the greatest single advance in blockmaking
machinery was made in 1924 with the introduction of
the first successful 'stripper' machine using plain pallets
that did not have to be profiled around the cores In this
machine, the block was extruded downwards through
the mould, exactly the same as in modern machines.
Apart from feeding empty pallets and removal of the
freshly made blocks, the machine was fully mechanised
and automatic in operation. It used power tamping
and could produce 3000 blocks per day. Today's fully
automatic blockmaking machines are descended from
the 1924 machine.
During the following fifteen years, productivity and
automation developed. A 1929 machine is illustrated in
Figure 2.3. In 1939, tamping was superseded by mould
vibration while the "green" concrete in the mould was
under pressure. This greatly improved face texture and
sharpness of arrises and gave higher block strength.
These machines could make 5000 blocks per day
(Figure 2.4).
Since 1939, there have been progressive improvements

in productivity and product quality, resulting initially
from the introduction of automatic controls to regulate
block height and density and later from the automation
of ancillary equipment such as raw materials handling,
Figure 2.3 weigh batching and mixing.
Further productivity improvements have been gained
by developing automatic equipment to remove green
blocks from the blockmaking machine and place them
either on racks or directly in the curing chambers. This
is achieved by the introduction of rack transfer systems
to move racks to the curing chambers, and by other
equipment which will withdraw cured blocks from the
curing chambers and package them ready for despatch.
Figure 2.5 shows a modern plant incorporating a
transfer system.
Figure 2.4
Figure 2.5
I From air curing with occasional water sprays used
early in this century, curing techniques have also been
developed and refined. Low- and high-pressure steam
curing systems and burner curing systems are used
now. In some cases, these are supplemented by the
introduction of carbon dioxide into the curing chambers
after curing is completed, to reduce block shrinkage.
In Australia, concrete masonry followed American
developments, although the introduction of modern
high-production extrusion machines occurred much
later. Blocks were originally made in primitive moulds.
This practice continued until the 1950s when the first
modern blockmaking plant was established in Adelaide.
The introduction of similar machinery to other Australian
cities and towns followed.
Several types of block-, brick- and paver-making Figure 2.6a
machines are used in Australia Typical modern
blockmaking machines are shown in
Figures 2.6a, 2.6b and 2.6c.
With the introduction of segmental paving into the

Australian market in 1974, a new type of concrete unit
machine began to make its appearance. Originating in
Europe, these dedicated paving machines featured larger
pallet areas (0.5 to 1.0 m2) but slower cycle times
(20 to 30 seconds). The long cycle times mean that the
surface can be more effectively compacted, resulting
in better wear characteristics. The dedicated paving
machines are particularly suited to producing units with
complex plan shapes (such as dentated interlocking
payers) and thicknesses in the range of 60 to 80 mm.
The paving machines were generally used to augment
the older hollow-block machines, which concentrated on
the production of hollow blocks and rectangular payers.
Figure 2.6b
Figure 2.6c
MANUFACTURING METHODS
and
QUALITY CONTROL
Most concrete masonry units used in Australia are

manufactured by automatic machinery of advanced
design and capable of a very high output with a high
degree of uniformity. A typical flow diagram, Figure 2.7,
illustrates the sequence of manufacturing operations
and the points of regular quality control checks
employed by well-managed factories. These checks cover
raw materials, manufacturing operations, methods and
processes as well as the finished product. Figures 2.8
to Figure 2.20 illustrate some of these features in
more detail.
Re-design when Cement and

it Water
V
Additives Colouring Fine and coarse
Ii
necessary poolan agents aggregates
Regular checks of Regular sieve analysis
manufacturers and comparison with

auality-control report mix design assumptions
BATC H IN G
Regular checks:
Scale and dispe
Aggregate moisture content
compensating batch weights
Automawadpensing
SITE
Reguiar:. HANDLING
Correct mix consistency
Correct muungbme
BLOC STORAGE
Regular checks: and
Mould setting and wear DISPATCH
Density control
L Height control
Cycle time
Regular checks: Conbnuous inspection for culls

Cudngsequence Sampling and testingfor
Cunrrgtimes physical properties
Cunngjratures
Figure 2.7 Concrete Masonry Manufacture - Typical Flow Diagram

CONCRETE MANUFACTURE
Raw materials are delivered to silos and bins, with
the various aggregates separated, see Figure 2.8.
Cement and aggregates are weighed automatically to
predetermined quantities. Figure 2.9 shows a typical
control panel for automatic weigh batching and mixing
The concrete ingredients are proportioned to produce
the desired properties in the finished units. If incoming
raw materials change in grading or moisture content,
the mix proportions are adjusted to compensate.
Very dry cohesive concrete is used in masonry
manufacture, in conjunction with powerful mould
vibration at the same time as pressure is applied to the
concrete in the mould. As freshly moulded units are Figure 2.8 Aggregate Silos
extruded down from the machine mould approximately
every ten seconds, they must have sufficient green
strength' to permit them to be handled without damage
or distortion.
The mixing of concrete is controlled automatically in
most plants and is linked with the batching plant to

provide a concrete output suited to the consumption
of the block machine. A typical mixer for masonry
concrete is shown in Figure 2.10. A moisture sensor
controls the addition of water. It maintains the correct
moisture content and consistency in the concrete as 0
it is delivered from the mixer to the blockmaking

machine. In some plants, automatic compensation of
fine aggregate weight for moisture content is provided Figure 2.9 Auto Weigh Batching and Mixing Controls
by feedback from the moisture sensor to the batch
weigher, but in others the operator will note changes
and compensate manually.
BLOCKMAKING MACHINERY
From the mixer, concrete of the correct proportions
and workability is transported either by gravity or
mechanically to the blockmaking machine.
Machine pallets are heavy steel plates designed to
act as a mould bottom. Before each new cycle of the
machine, a fresh machine pallet is placed under the
mould. The mould is filled and the blocks vibrated. The
blocks are then extruded downwards from the mould,
remaining on the pallet which travels with them to
form a tray on which they are transported until they are
cured and about to be assembled into 'cubes' at the
packaging station.
Figure 2.10 Typical Mixer for Concrete Masonry Manufacture
Figure 2.11 shows a concrete block mould, with cores,
stripper shoes and head. The latter are laid back at
an angle in this photograph to show the details. They
normally occupy a vertical position. During mould filling,
the head and shoes are raised clear of the mould to
allow concrete to enter. When the mould is filled and
while it is being vibrated, the head and shoes press on
the top of the 'green' blocks. At the end of the vibration
period, they are moved down to extrude the blocks from
the mould. This particular mould is fitted to make four
1501 blocks, ie four 400 x 150 x 200 mm hollow blocks
and is quite small by modern standards. At the lower
left and right of the mould, the drive pulleys for the two
vibrator units may be seen. The latter are attached to
the mould body and are driven by two powerful electric
motors by means of belts.
S
Figure 2.11 Concrete Block Mould
9R
Most high production block machines used in Australia
employ similar mould, core, stripper shoe and machine
pallet arrangements. They differ only in size, the number
of units that can be made per machine cycle (ie on
each machine pallet), the system of actuation (electro-
mechanical or electro-hydraulic) and the method by
which vibration is applied to the mould and the green'
blocks. Mould vibration systems are either vibrator
units directly attached to the mould or remote units jc0
connected to the mould by rods.
Most concrete segmental payers are manufactured
using specialised paving machines of European origin,
as described previously. Hollow-block machines are
also widely used for the production of some types of
concrete segmental payers. Rectangular units can be
manufactured 'on edge' in the block machine, ensuring
that the whole of the machine cavity is effectively used.
Thus, for each machine cycle a larger number of units
may be manufactured in this way than would otherwise Figure 212a Blockmaking Machine with Automatic Rack
result from units manufactured 'on the flat'. Loading and Unloading Equipment
S
Checks are made frequently on both moulds and cores

for correct setting and wear. Machine controls are
provided to set the height of the blocks. These checks
ensure dimensional accuracy. Frequent checks are made
for density, vibration and machine cycle time to ensure
that the finished units will have satisfactory physical
properties.
Moulded 'green' blocks are transported mechanically
from the block machine on the machine pallets to
the curing chambers. Several alternative systems for
handling 'green' blocks are employed These are shown
in Figures 2.12a, 2.12b, 2.12c and 2.13. As well as
loading 'green' blocks into the curing chambers, these
systems also unload the cured blocks coming from the
curing chambers, see Figure 2.14.
The process flow may be briefly described as follows.
Freshly moulded or 'green' concrete units are deposited
on a steel pallet. These may be:
loaded into steel racks for transport by forklift or kiln Figure 212b Forklift Truck Handling Racks of Blocks from
car to and from the kilns or curing areas; Automatic Loading and Unloading Equipment, to and from
Curing Chambers
loaded directly onto an automatic transfer car; or
transported to and from the kiln or curing area by a
conveyor system.
When the hardened concrete units have been returned
from the kiln or curing area, they are automatically
removed from the steel pallets, realigned and pushed
into a cubic shape using an automatic cubing machine.
In some factories, cubes of finished product are shrink-
wrapped. When required, units may be split, rumbled or
polished using equipment installed at the factory.
Figure 2.12c Blockmaking Machine with Manually-operated

Offbearer, Loading and Unloading Racks
A
Figure 2.13 Automatic Rack-transfer CarSystem, Figure 2.14 Cured Blocks on Machine Pallets being Transported
Handling Loaded Racks to and from Curing Chambers to the 'Cubing' Machine after Unloading from the Kilns
CURING
In the early days of concrete masonry, units were
usually cured by being left in the storage yard for at
least four weeks and sprinkled occasionally with water.
Curing was doubtful and variable and depended on
weather conditions. Extreme colour variations, caused
by differential surface drying, resulted from this
method of curing. With the arrival of high production
manufacturing and handling equipment, accelerated
curing techniques became necessary to avoid enormous
accumulation of stock.
Low-pressure steam curing was one of the earliest
accelerated curing methods used. In this system,
saturated steam, at atmospheric pressure and at
temperatures above about 70°C, is introduced into
insulated chambers containing racks of green blocks.
Hydration, the chemical reaction between cement and
water which causes hardening, is accelerated at high Figure 2.15a Typical Low-pressure Installation using Burners
temperature in a vapour-saturated atmosphere. About to Heat the Chamber and Produce the Steam
70 to 80% of the 28-day atmospheric-temperature cured
strength of the concrete is developed in 18 to 24
hours by this process. Units may thus be handled and
packaged the day after moulding
Other low-pressure curing systems use gas or oil
burners to heat the curing chamber. Steam is generated
by spraying water on a hot plate that is heated by
the burner. These systems offer economies in capital
expenditure, as a steam boiler is not needed. They
can be programmed for automatic operation without
the need for an attendant, resulting in economy in
operation. The results achieved are generally similar to
those available with medium temperature low-pressure
steam curing. Burner systems have the advantage that
a drying period may be added at the end of the curing
cycle. A typical installation of this type is shown in
Figures 2.15a and 2.15b,
Figure 16 shows a modern installation employing
Figure 2.15b Rear View of above Installation
automatic handling of 20-high racks.
95
PALLETISING AND PACKAGING
After being cured, blocks are unloaded from the racks
or curing chambers. They are removed mechanically
from the machine pallets and transported by conveyor
to the palletising station, where they are assembled
into 'cubes' of standard sizes, usually measuring
approximately 1.2 x 1.2 x 1.2 m. Figures 2.17a and
2.17b show typical cubing equipment.
Between the machine pallet stripping station and the
cuber, inspection is often made for units of sub-standard
appearance. If any are found, they are rejected and
removed. Sampling for testing for compliance with
Australian Standards AS/NZS 4455( 1) and AS/NZS
4456(Ref 2), as appropriate, is carried out also at this
stage.
S
Figure 2.17a 'Cube( with Magazine of Pa/lets on Right
Figure 2.17b 'Cube( with two Finished 'Cubes' of Blocks on

wood pa/lets
Figure 2.16 Low-pressure Installation with automatic

Handling of 20-High Racks
I STORAGE AND HANDLING
After palletising, the cubes' are usually moved by
forldift truck (Figure 2.18) and stacked in a storage area
for future transport to job sites (Figure 2.19). Normally,
loading is carried out in the storage yard by forklift
truck.
Road delivery vehicles fitted with mechanical handling
equipment are common to avoid laborious and time-
consuming unloading of units by hand at job sites.
Figure 2.20 shows typical truck-mounted handling
equipment. Alternatively, forklift trucks are often carried
on the road delivery trucks to facilitate unloading on
site.
Figure 2.18
Figure 2.19
Figure 2.20
i
REFERENCES
4
AS/NZS 4455-1997 Masonry units and segmental
payers, Standards Australia
2 AS/NZS 4456-1997 Masonry units and segmental
payers - Methods of test, Standards Australia
Common Masonry
Units Contents
This chapter describes the most common masonry 3.1 COMMON MASONRY UNITS
units and the coding system commonly used to
describe and specify them. 3.2 NATIONAL METRIC CODING
3.3 CATALOGUE OF MASONRY UNITS

I COMMON MASONRY UNITS
Concrete masonry units, for use in walls, fall into two

broad categories - concrete bricks and hollow concrete
blocks. Other concrete units such as concrete segmental
payers, retaining-wall blocks and landscaping units are
also produced, but are not dealt with in any detail in
this manual.
Concrete bricks are usually 76 mm high x 230 mm long
x 110 mm wide, the same shape as the more traditional
clay bricks. They are commonly produced 'on end' in
concrete block machines that have a mould cavity at
least 230 mm high. Such bricks may include a frog or
depression along the length of the brick, which assists
laying and bond, or may be solid, Bricks which are
produced 'on edge' or 'on the flat' in paver machines or
smaller block machines will not include a frog
Concrete blocks are usually:
r 90, 119, 162 or 190 mm high
90, 190, 290 or 390 mm long
90, 110, 140, 190 or 290 mm wide,

(thickness of masonry leaf).
The longer units usually have two (sometimes one,
sometimes three) cores extending vertically through
the block. Because the cores are slightly tapered, the
blocks are manufactured upside down in the machine
and, when laid in the wall, provide an enlarged area
on which to place the mortar. Many other shapes
known as 'fittings and 'fractions' are produced for
corners, openings, sills, bond beams, retaining walls and
landscaping applications.
The advantages of hollow concrete blockwork over
brickwork are:
The larger units lead to more-economical construction
The large cores enable hollow concrete blockwork
to be grouted and reinforced to resist lateral wind,
earthquake, fire and earth loads, with strength
capacities approaching those of comparable insitu
concrete.
NATIONAL METRIC CODING
The Concrete Masonry Association of Australia has

established a national metric coding for all units
manufactured by its members. This accounts for
approximately 90% of all concrete masonry manufactured
within Australia. The coding system standardises the
dimensional descriptions of masonry units. This allows
a designer to specify any unit by number and to be
certain that it can be identified correctly anywhere
within this country.
S
CODE NUMBER (for example)
Prefix identilies Suffix identifies

nominal wall unit type and
thickness configuration
(200mm) (190mm high, hollow, full length)
Figure 3.1 Coding System
KEY TO PREFIX NUMBERS
Block Width (mm) Number

40 50
76 75
90 10
110 12
140 15
190 20
290 30
Note:
With the exception of 50 and 75, the prefix numbers are
derived by adding 10 mm for the mortar joint width to
the unit width and dividing by 10.
KEY TO SUFFIX NUMBERS
Block Block Length

height Block Full 3/4 1,2 V4
(mm) type (390 mm) (290 mm) (190 mm) (90 mm)
190 Hollow 01 02 03 04
190 Solid* 31 32 33 34
90 Hollow 71 72 73 74
90 Solid* 83 84 85 86
*
Some manufacturers use an alternative method of
designating solid units.
CATALOGUE OF
4-J
(I) MASONRY UNITS
C
> The following pages include diagrams of most of the
C concrete masonry units produced in Australia
0(I) Notes:
ct
1 Segmental payers and retaining-wall units are not
included in this catalogue.
C
0 2 The suffix (NC) indicates units that are not as
E common as the others and are not produced in all
E parts of Australia. It would be prudent for a designer
00 to check the availability with the suppliers before
L specifying these units.
3 The dimensions shown are the external dimensions
of the masonry unit, which makes allowance for the
mortar joints.
Figure 3.2 Typical Dimensions of Cores

100 mm SERIES 0-mm-thick walls
PLAIN FACE - FULL HEIGHT
190 190
190
190
90
10.01 10.02 10.03 10.04 10.25

Hollow full length Hollow - three quarter Hollow - half Hollow - quarter Hollow - corner return
190 190
10.31 10.42
Solid - full length Hollow - channel
S
190
190
190
190
98
10.09 (NC) 10.10 (NC) 10.11 (NC) 10.739 (NC)

Hollow - control Joint Hollow - control joint half Hollow - universal Hollow - 450 squint
PLAIN FACE - HALF HEIGHT
10.83
Solid full length
10.71 (NC) 10.73 (NC)

Hollow - full length Hollow - half
SPLIT FACE RANGE
190
140
40
10.101 10.105 10.109 10.117

Solid - full height Solid - three quarter height Solid - half height Solid - capping
NC indicates uCits which are not as common as others and it would be prudent to chock with manufacturer before specifying them
190
90 190
190
190
110 110 110 917
1201 (NC) 12.02 (NC) 12.03 (NC) 12.11 (NC) 12.739 (NC)
Hollow - full length Hollow - three quarter Hollow - half Hollow - universal Hollow -45° oquint
ID
390
190
190 110
12.25 (NC)
Hollow - corner return
BRICKS AND MODULAR BLOCKS
e76
110 230 110 - 230
76
120.715 120.716
Standard brick Splitface brick
162 162
110 110
STANDARD BREAKAWAY
Hollow - double brick height Hollow - double brick height
NC indicates units which ore not as common as others and it would be prudent to check with manufacturer before specifying them
mm SERIES 140-mm-thick walls
190
190
190
140 90
15.01 15.02 15.03 15.04

Hollow - full length Hollow - three quarter Hollow - half Hollow - quarter
190 190 190

190
190
390
15.12 15.13 (NC) 15.20 15.42 15.709

Lintel Half lintel Knock-out bond beam Channel Thick wall - fire rated
190 190
190 190
190
190
140
15.09 (NC) 15.10 (NC) 15.22 (NC) 15.25 (NC) 15.45 (NC)
Hollow - control joint Hollow - control joint half Hollow - seven-eighths closure Hollow - corner return Clean-out stretcher
190
190
90
15.48 (NC) 15.739 (NC)
block Hollow - 45° squint
15.71 (NC) 15.73 (NC)

Hollow - full length Hollow - half
NC Indicates units which are not as common as others and it would be prudent to check with manufacturer before specifying them
190 190
190
190
190
190 90
20.01 20.02 20.03 20.04 20.12

Hollow - full length Hollow - three quarter Hollow - half Hollow - quarter Lintel
390 190 190

290
190
190 190
190 190
20.13 20.18 20.20 20.26 20.42

Half lintel Deep lintel Knock-out bond beam Three-quarter lintel Channel
190
40
390
190 - 190
20.48 20.60 20.61 20.91 50.31

H block Bonded pier Pier Double U retaining wall block 200-mm capping tile
190
20.09 (NC)
Hollow - control joist
190 190 190
190 190
190
190 190
20.10 (NC) 20.21 (NC) 20.23 (NC) 20.24 (NC) 20.56 (NC)
Knock-out bond beam corner Jamb - full length Jamb - half Pilaster
Hollow - control joint half
190
190
190 190 190
390
65 65 90
20.57 (NC) 20 713 (NC) 20.715 (NC) 20.739 (NC) 20.925 (NC)
Pilaster - with control joint Bsllnose - full length Bullnose - half Hollow - 450 squint Single corn - full length
NC indicates units which are not as common as others and it would be prudent to chock with manufacturer before specifying them
200mm SERIES -O-mm-thick walls
70
60
20.38
Sill block
90
20.71 (NC) 20.72 (NC) 20.73 (NC) 20.74 (NC)

Hollow - full length 1-lollew - three quarter Hollow - half Hollow - quarter
S
SPLIT FACE RANGE
190
90
190 90
20.121 (NC) 20.122 (NC) 20.123 (NC) 20.126 (NC) 20.127 (NC)
Hollow - full length Hollow - three quarter Hollow - half Three-quarter lintel Hollow - half height
190 190 190
390
195 195
20.120 (NC) 20.139 (NC) 20.142 (NC)

Knock-out bond beam Corner Channel
NC indicates unita which are not as common as others and it would be prudent to check with manufacturer before specifying them
300 mm S 290-mm-thick walls
190
190
190
90
290
30.01 30.02 30.03 30.04 30.18

Hollow - full length Hollow -three quarter Hollow - half Hollow - quarter Deep lintel
(Same au 1002)
190
190 190
30.48 30.91 30.925

H block Double Ii retaining wall block Single core - full length
NC indicates units which are not as common as others and it would be prudent to check with manufacturer before specifying them
SCREEN BLOCKS Decorative walls
190 90 190
290 290
390 390
90 90 90
10905 (NC) 10.908 (NC) 10.931 (NC) 10.934 (90 mm) (NC) 10.935 (90 mm) (NC)
15.934 (140 mm) (NC) 15,935 (140 mm) (NC)
190 190 190

190
390 390
90 90 90 90 190
10.936 (90 mm) (NC) 10.938 (90 mm) (NC) 10.939 (90 mm) (NC) 10.940 (90 mm) (NC) 20.925 (NC)
15.936 (140 mm) (NC) 15.938 (140 mm) (NC) 15.939 (140 mm) (NC) 15.940 (140 mm) (NC)
190
390
140
15.745 (NC)
Louvre block
NC indicates units which are not as common us others and it would be prudent to check with manufacturer before specifying them
Applied Finishes Contents
This chapter describes the finishes that are 4.1 RENDER AND PLASTER
available for use with concrete masonry.

4.2 PLASTERBOARD
4.3 CERAMIC WALL TILES
4.4 PAINTS AND PROTECTIVE COATINGS
S
I GENERAL
RENDER AND PLASTER
Portland cement- and gypsum-based renders and

uniform, or by designing the first render coat to have
high water retention, or a combination of both. In less
extreme cases it may be possible to control suction by
light fog spraying.
plasters are commonly used with concrete masonry as For normal masonry surfaces, the only treatment
surface coatings Gypsum plasters are limited to internal required will be the design of the first render coat to
use but portland cement plasters may be used both have water retention properties compatible with the
externally and internally. As well as their decorative and suction of the masonry surface and, depending on
protective functions, renders and plasters can contribute weather conditions, light fog spraying.
to the fire resistance and acoustic performance of In all cases, marked colour differences will result from
concrete masonry walls. uneven suction. Excess suction will make the render or
Many types of external finishes and colours are plaster coating stiffen prematurely and difficult to work
available. Smooth finishes are not recommended for to achieve a satisfactory finish.
external walls since they tend to become unevenly
discoloured and weathered after a very short period of OLD CONSTRUCTION
exposure. Textured finishes, which are inherently uneven Where old surfaces are to receive render or plaster, they
do not show the effects of dirt fallout and weathering must be examined carefully before determining the
to the same degree. However, when the time comes appropriate treatment. Paint, dust, grease, oil and loose
for maintenance, they are more difficult to clean and or deteriorated surface material and other deleterious
repaint than smooth surfaces.
substances are likely to reduce both mechanical and

suction bond. Such undesirable substances should be
SURFACE PREPARATION removed before applying render. Dust and loose or
Surface preparation is of the utmost importance. For deteriorated surface material will usually respond to
satisfactory durability and performance of the render brushing and/or washing. Deteriorated render or plaster
or plaster, a good bond must be obtained between should be removed completely (by chipping) to leave a
the base surface being treated and the coating. sound base. Paint should be removed by sandblasting
Bond depends on a mechanical key and on suction or water blasting. If this is not possible, solvents should
between the base and the coating The problem of be used with great care. Grease and oil are unlikely to
obtaimng satisfactory bond between plaster and a base respond to any treatment other than with detergents or
surface is similar to that of bond between mortar and solvents.
masonry units. Surface preparation requirements for the The surface should be checked again after cleaning
application of plaster coatings to new and old concrete to determine suction, soundness and mechanical bond
masonry structures are discussed below. and may be treated as for new work of corresponding
properties. If, on the other hand, detrimental surface
NEW CONSTRUCTION substances cannot be removed satisfactorily, the plaster
Fresh concrete masonry surfaces are usually suitable will have to be applied over metal reinforcing mesh
for the direct application of render or plaster after furred out from the surface and mechanically-attached.
the removal of dust and loose material by brushing
and water spraying. The exceptions are surfaces with NUMBER OF COATS
extremely coarse or extremely fine textures. Different For internal work, its consistency of dimensions and
approaches to surface preparation and to plaster mix texture will usually make only a single coat necessaly,
design will be needed for extremes of texture. provided this gives the required thickness and provided
Very fine textured surfaces will usually have lower the masonry has been laid correctly. There is the risk
suction properties. This will have to be compensated, that some of the masonry joints may 'read' on the
either by preliminary surface treatment or by designing surface, but as these will normally be covered by paint
the first render coat for low water retention, or a this will not be particularly important.
combination of both. At least two coasts should be used for external work. In
Preliminary surface treatment involves the application extreme exposure conditions, three coats are necessary.
to the surface of a "dash coat" primer consisting of a Thicknesses should not exceed 10 mm for undercoats
rich mix of portland cement and sand, ranging from one and 3 mm for finished coats.
part by volume of cement to one to two parts of sand. Even in hot, dry weather, at least 24 hours curing time
This is applied by a throwing or 'dashing' action using a should elapse between each coat. Coats should be kept
long fibre brush, to an uneven appearance. This primer damp after application, by reducing air circulation in the
coat tends to improve mechamcal bond. Bonding agents vicinity and by using fog spray combined with covering.
or adhesives may be used before application of the first Work should be carried out in the shade whenever
plaster coat. possible.
Extremely coarse textured surfaces will usually have The first coat should be scarified before hardening to
high suction properties, which vary from point to point act as a scratch coat to provide mechanical bonding for
on the surface. Compensation is either by preliminary the second or final coat
surface treatment using a 'dash coat' similar to that
described above to reduce suction and make it more
LI')
STRENGTH OF COATS CONTROL JOINTS
The first undercoat should not be stronger than the Control joints in render and plaster coatings should
base material itself. Each succeeding coat should not be formed in the same planes as the control joints,
be stronger that the coat before it. Excessively strong construction joints or any material interfaces in the base
mixes have caused many failures. With such renders material.
and plasters, shrinkage and structural movement cause
comparatively few widely spaced cracks of considerable DETAILING
width On the other hand, weak mixes tend to crack in
For best resistance to weather and to reduce the effects
a pattern with a large number of closely spaced cracks
of weathering discolouration, careful detailing of sills,
so small as to be almost imperceptible. In the first case,
copings, drip grooves, flashing and other features is
stress development will disrupt bond between the coat
most important.
and its base but with the weaker mixes, the closer
spacing of cracks will provide sufficient stress relief to
reduce the risk of bond failure. Recommendations for
mixes for various exposure conditions are given below.
RECOMMENDED RENDER MIXES

The three recommended mix types (all proportions are
by volume) are:
Type 1 1 part portland cement: 1/2 part lime :4 to 4,4
parts sand
Type 2 1 part portland cement: I part lime : 6 to 6
parts sand
Type 3 1 part portland cement :2 parts lime : 8 to 9
parts sand
Types of mix recommended for given exposure
conditions are set out in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1 Recommended Mix Type for Various Exposure Conditions
First and subsequent undercoats, Final coat,

for following exposures for following exposures
Base material Severe Moderate Sheltered Severe Moderate Sheltered
Dense, strong materials Type 1 Type 1 Type 2 Type2 Type2 Type2or3
I Moderately strong
porous materials
Moderately weak
porousmaterials -
Type 1
Type2
Type 2
Type2
Type 2
Type2
Type2
Type2
Type2or3
Type2or3
Type2or3
Type2or3
PLASTERBOARD
Plasterboard 600 25
600
GENERAL Masonry with max
25
true surface
As an alternative to wet render and plaster, plasterboard
may be fixed to masonry walls to provide an internal
lining.
FIXING PROCEDURES
Fixing to masonry using plaster cement - fixing
methods for true or irregular surfaces are illustrated in
E1
r
Figures 4.1 and 4.2.
SPECIAL FIXING REQUIREMENTS L

All new masonry surfaces should be allowed to dry
out to normal levels before plasterboard is installed,
1
10mm high nbs of cornice cement
A gap approximately 13 mm wide should be left at
the top and bottom of the plasterboard to ensure
adequate ventilation of the cavity. As an alternative
applied to back of plasterboard
Figure 4.1 P/as terboard Fixing to Masonry with True

'4
to leaving a gap, suitable vents should be installed Surface

in the wall to maintain a net free-ventilating area of
8000 mm2 per 10 m2 of wall.
Control joints incorporated in the building and
masonry walls should be carried through all
areas lined with plasterboard. Suitable details are
illustrated in Figure 4.3. .
Where heavy objects aie to be fixed to the wall,
spacers should be provided between the masonry and
the plasterboard so that fixings can be made direct
to the masonry.
Further information should be obtained from
plasterboard manufacturers.
1200
max
75x50x 10mm
Plaster daub
plasterboard alignment pad
surfaces delete alignment pads and use

m 10-mm-thick plaster daubs
I
Figure 4.2 Plasterboard Fixing to Masonry with True or
Irregular Surface
Masonry control joint
A.
Plasterboard Control joint bead
Figure 4.3 Plasterboard Fixing at Masonry Control Joint

CERAMIC WALL TILES
structural control, expansion or contraction joint, such
joint should extend to the outer surface of the tiles
GENERAL through any intermediate coatings. Tiles should not
abut or interlock with any adjoining construction or
Ceramic wall tiles may be fixed to concrete masonry material and expansion joints must be provided at such
block and brick walls either directly to the masonry
junctions.
surface or to a render background coat.
PREPARATION FOR TILING
CAUSES OF FAILURE
Walls should be reasonably dry before tiling or using
Differential movement between tiles and the backing
adhesives. They should be free of contamination such
is the principal cause of failure. Tiles, in common with as deteriorated surfaces, loose material, dust, oil, paints,
other fired clay products, expand with age as a result etc. Where tiles are to be applied directly to wall
of long-term chemical and physical changes after firing.
surfaces, walls should be completed at least two weeks
In this context, moisture movement is a less significant before tiling starts. Where tiles are being applied to
problem.
render coatings, render should be applied as long as
Concrete and concrete masonry both tend to long-term possible after the wall is completed, and left at least
shrinkage, ie the tiling and the background material are seven days to cure and dry before tiles are applied.
moving in opposite directions. Shear stresses are thus
set up at the interface, and bond will be broken unless
stresses can be absorbed or otherwise contained
A second effect of differential movement is the setting

up of compressive stresses in abutting tiles by failure to
accommodate tile expansion. This causes them to bow
and lift off the bedding. A similar problem can occur
where tile surfaces tightly abut other materials Provision
must be made for expansion in the gaps between tiles
and also by providing expansion joints in large tiled
areas and at junctions with other materials.
FIXING METHODS
To overcome problems of differential movement when
fixing to plain or rendered concrete masonry walls, tiles
are fixed using flexible adhesives rather than cement
mortar. Adhesives allow relative movement between
tiles and the wall without cracking or bowing. The
dimensional accuracy of concrete masonry units provides
true wall surfaces, which make possible the fixing of
tiles with very thin coats of adhesive provided the units
have been laid accurately. If not, a thin rectifying render
coat should be applied before applying the adhesive and
fixing the tiles.
ADHESIVE TYPES
Both cement base and organic adhesives may be used,
many types are available for different uses and service
conditions. It is therefore impracticable to suggest
detailed fixing methods other than to say that the
adhesive manufacturer's instructions should be followed
exactly.
JOINTS
Joints between tiles should not be less than 2 mm
wide for tiles up to 100 x 100 mm and proportionately
wider for larger tiles. They should be filled with flexible
material or a crushable tile grout. These are readily
available from manufacturers of sealants.
Provision for movement must be made by expansion
joints at not more than 5-rn spacing horizontally
and vertically and at internal corners. Expansion
joints should be at least 5 mm wide and filled with
compressible material. Where the wall itself has a
I GENERAL
PAINTS AND
PROTECTIVE COATINGS
Paints and protective coatings are applied to concrete

ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS
Of major importance is the selection of a paint system
and its likely interaction with the environment, both
during application and throughout its service life. Some
masonry surfaces for decoration or increased resistance of the factors involved are discussed below.
to weather penetration, soiling, other forms of All paint films exposed to the weather gradually erode
environmental hazards, chemical attack, wear and under the combined effects of ultra-violet radiation and
abrasion under extreme service conditions. Reducing moisture, resulting in a chalky surface. Films of acrylic
interior temperature of the building by the application paint erode more slowly than conventional solvent-based
of white or pale coloured coatings is another common paints. They offer the further advantage of permeability
reason for their use. to water vapour, allowing surfaces to dry without
The selection of a coating system should be based on causing paint flaking.
the following considerations: Interior surfaces may pose special problems of chemical
The function that the coating is expected to perform. attack or soiling from handling. Illumination may also
be critical when gloss uniformity of the painted surface
The conditions under which it will be applied, such
becomes important. In such cases, a flat finish is
as dampness, alkalinity and temperature.
preferred.
The environmental conditions to which the coating
Exposure to chemical fumes such as ammonia may
will be subjected in service. cause yellowing of oil-based paint films.
The required life.

The most common chemical exposure problem
At all stages from selection through specification to encountered in concrete masonry is alkalinity, contained
application, the recommendations of the manufacturer either in the masonry or in the mortar. Acrylic paints
of the selected coating should be followed exactly. In have excellent resistance to alkali attack and, as
particular, such matters as selection of the coating mentioned above, allow passage of water vapour so that
system, surface preparation, the condition of the the surface can dry.
surface during application, the sequence and method
Under the most severe conditions of chemical attack,
of application and the ambient conditions during and
heavy-duty chemical-resistant coatings, for example,
immediately after application, should be considered.
chlorinated rubber, epoxy or polyurethane, may be
necessary. These are 'barrier' coatings and require a dry
WATER RESISTANCE surface for application.
Where resistance to rain and water penetration is the Chemical curing systems such as epoxies or
only requirement and the natural appearance of the polyurethanes tend to become very hard and require
surface is to be retained, this may be achieved by using sanding, solvent washing or blasting to allow
clear water-repellent coatings. However, care must be satisfactory recoating.
taken to ensure that the masonry does not crack and
therefore leak.
WEAR AND ABRASION
DECO RATION Water and abrasion may present problems on surfaces

subjected to passing traffic, special conditions of
Conventional acrylic and solvent-thinned paints not only mechanical abuse and general wear and tear. Thick
perform a decorative function but also promote water coatings of vinyl solution paint, chlorinated rubber
resistance provided they are properly applied to fill the paint or hard two-pack epoxy or polyurethane may be
surface. Ingress of water from behind the coating must necessary to cope with the most extreme conditions
be prevented.
TEMPERATURE OF APPLICATION
PROTECTION
Painting is not recommended, at temperatures below
Many environments are aggressive, particularly in coastal 1000 or above 35°C. Below 10°C, chemically-cured
locations and in areas exposed to industrial atmospheric coatings harden very slowly and many acrylic paints
pollution. Careful selection of the coating system and will not form a coherent film. At high temperatures,
close attention to manufacturers' recommendations will application can be difficult. It is generally good practice
give maximum protection against such environments. to hose down the wall and apply acrylic paint to the
cool, damp (but not wet) surface.
CORRECTION OF SURFACE IRREGULARITIES
If the surface is irregular or open, it is essential to treat TEMPERATURE IN SERVICE
all parts of the surface voids. Small uncoated areas Once satisfactorily applied, most coatings behave well
will act as drains for water collected over much larger at temperatures up to about 90 to 100°C, although
surface areas, and local water penetration could result. darkening of light colours may occur in the upper
part of this range. For higher temperatures, specially
formulated heat-resistant paints are necessary.
TOXICITY pastel colours can be used to reduce the unsightly
effect. Among the more common causes of efflorescence
In applications involving contact with or proximity to
are detailing or constructional faults such as omitted
foodstuffs, special coatings are available. Advice should
be sought from paint manufacturers. or inadequate flashings and damp proof courses. These
should be checked and rectified if necessary.
VENTILATION Mould and Moss
Mould and moss must be treated if present on the
Adequate ventilation should be provided during the
surface Good results can be obtained using proprietary
application and drying of the film to ensure good drying
anti-mould solutions and following manufacturers
and reduce the irritant effect of solvent fumes.
instructions. For slight contamination, washing with
household bleach diluted in the proportions of one part
TIMBER OR IRON STAINING of bleach to three parts of water by volume may be
Contact between unprimed timber or ferrous metals and adequate.
concrete masonry (or water dripping on masonry from
these materials) should be avoided by care in design. SURFACE PREPARATION FOR
Staining is likely to result where surfaces are exposed to PREVIOUSLY-PAINTED SURFACES
weather. Existing problems of this nature are best dealt
with by priming and painting the offending materials
Paint in Good Condition
If the painted surface is in good condition, it should be
to prevent further deposition of staining material.
washed with a detergent solution or a solvent to remove
Treatment of the stained areas can be difficult. Stains
all traces of dirt, grease and other contaminants. Glossy
may respond to the use of dilute solutions of oxalic

surfaces should be rubbed lightly with sandpaper. Any
acid, hydrochloric acid or bleach. These solutions are
defective paint should be removed by scraping back,
toxic and should be used with great care. To prevent
cracks should be filled and the surface allowed to dry
permanent damage to masonry surfaces, the precautions
thoroughly before painting.
outlined in Chapter 6, should be followed when
cleaning with acids or bleaches. Paint in Poor Condition
If the existing paint is in poor condition and shows
SURFACE PREPARATION FOR signs of blistering, flaking or lack of adhesion, all paint
PREVIOUSLY-UNPAINTED SURFACES must be removed by sandblasting or high pressure
water treatment. The surface should then be treated
Conditioning as described above for new surfaces. Special attention
Most paints should be applied only to dry surfaces should be given to 'chalky' surfaces. These should be
with low alkalinity. Exceptions to this rule are cement treated with a surface binding primer or solution before
paints, where the surface should be damp, and acrylic the first paint coat is applied.
paints, which will tolerate a damp (but not wet) surface
if necessary. An electrical moisture meter should be
used in doubtful cases to check surface moisture. It is
preferable to allow concrete masonry surfaces to cure
and dry for at least 28 days before painting. If such a
delay is not possible, artificial drying should be used
Cleaning
All dirt, dust, loose surface material, grease, oil, form
release agents, mould and moss, efflorescence and other
undesirable contaminants should be removed completely
by brushing, washing, scrubbing, hosing, solvents or
chemical treatment. In some cases, sand blasting or
high-pressure water treatment may be necessary.
Loose or Projecting Surface
Any loose surface material or surface projections should
be removed by 'blocking down' with a flat stone or
piece of concrete, immediately before painting.
Efflorescence
When painting masonry on which efflorescence is
visible, the safest practice is first to remove the
efflorescence, determine the cause and rectify it.
Painting should be deferred until rectification is
verified by the non-appearance of fresh efflorescence.
If the cause is not removed before painting, further
development of efflorescence can force the paint film
from the surface. If painting cannot be deferred, acrylic
paints are recommended The vapour-permeable film will
allow efflorescence to continue with minimum damage,
although the white deposit will be visible white or
S
S
Properties Contents
This chapter describes the typical properties of 5.1 INTRODUCTION
concrete masonry units.

5.2 PROPERTIES
5.3 REFERENCES
I
4-J
INTRODUCTION
QUALITY CONTROL AND QUALITY ASSURANCE

In concrete masonry manufacture, the selection of raw
materials and the design and proportioning of mixes are
equally as important as for structural concrete.
For the finished concrete masonry to possess the
AUSTRALIAN STANDARDS
The use of concrete masonry in buildings is governed by
the BCA)ReI 2), which is adopted into legislation in each
of the state Building Regulations. The BCA in turn calls
up AS 3700 3), which sets out rules governing the
use of unreinforced, reinforced and prestressed masonry.
From the perspective of a structural designer, it is
ci) particularly useful that AS 3700 has combined design
required properties of strength, density, resistance to
0 water penetration, colour, texture, acoustics, thermal rules for both reinforced, unreinforced masonry into a
insulation and fire resistance, the concrete masonry single document.
units must have consistent mix proportions and Concrete masonry units must comply with
aggregate grading. Proper curing conditions and AS/NZS 4455-1997 Masonry units and segmental
techniques play a vital part in product properties. pavers)Ret 4), This standard combines the requirements
Good control of curing methods and raw materials for all masonry units of concrete, clay, calcium silicate
grading, quality and proportioning ensure that variations and stone, together with the requirements for paving
in the finished product are kept within acceptable units of these materials.
limits. Automatically controlled proportioning, mixing, The tests relevant to masonry units and payers are
moulding and handling equipment and curing controls specified in AS/NZS 4456-2003 Masonry units, payers
eliminate human error from these processes. and flags - Methods of test11 5), This standard consists
Most concrete masonry manufacturers adopt sound of eighteen parts, but only some of the parts are
management techniques and some have quality applicable to concrete masonry wall units and only a
systems complying with AS/NZS/ISO 9002(Ref ) which few are relevant for commonly-available products. The
set out internationally-recognised quality assurance testing standards that are relevant to the supply of
requirements. concrete masonry walling units to most projects are as
follows.
Designers are required to specify the dimensional
tolerances, compressive strength and resistance to salt
attack using the following standards:
AS/NZS 4456.3 Determining dimensions
AS/NZS 4456.4 Determining compressive strength of
masonry units
AS/NZS 4456.10 Determining resistance to salt attack
For face masonry, which does not have an applied
finish, designers may also wish to specify limits for
efflorescence potential and permeability to water using
the following standards:
AS/NZS 4456.6 Determining potential to eflloresce
AS/NZS 4456.16 Determining permeability to water
The following standards are also available for use by
manufacturers and in abnormal circumstances (such as
research or product development), and should not be
routinely called up by specifiers or designers.
AS/NZS 4456.1 Sampling for compliance testing
AS/NZS 4456.2 Assessment of mean and standard
deviation
AS/NZS 4456.7 Determining core percentage and
material thickness
AS/NZS 4456.8 Determining moisture content and dry
density
AS/NZS 4456,12 Determining coefficients of contraction
AS/NZS 4456.14 Determining water absorption properties
AS/NZS 4456.15 Determining lateral modulus of rupture
AS/NZS 4456.17 Determining initial rate of absorption
(suction)
PROP ERTI ES
SHELL THICKNESS AND WEB THICKNESS OF
HOLLOW BLOCKS
DIMENSIONS AND TOLERANCES
Minimum thicknesses of face end shells and webs of
The work sizes of a masonry unit are the principal hollow concrete blocks can be calculated from
dimensions from which any deviations are measured and AS/NZS 4455, which states:
are nominated by the manufacturer. For example, overall Masonry units and segmental payers shall be able to be
lengths, heights and widths of prismatic units are work handled, transported to the purchaser and laid.
sizes. So too are the principal dimensions of the cores
and face shell in hollow units, since they influence NOTE: Integrity does not include aesthetic characteristics
strength and weight. of masonry or paving units.
AS/NZS 4455 Clause 2.1 requires manufacturers For hollow masonry units, this requirement is deemed to
to make available the work sizes, face shell width be satisfied if the characteristic uncon fined strength is at
of hollow units and the characteristic unconfined least 3 MPa for cored units and 2.5 MPa for solid units
compressive strength ('0) discussed in detail below.
AS/NZS 4456.3 provides two methods of determining For solid and cored masonry units, this requirement is
dimensions, one based on averaging the dimensions deemed to be satisfied if the average measurements of
over 20 units and the other based on measuring the each part of five random-sampled units (measured at the
dimensions of individual units. same positions on each unit) are not less than the values
given in Table 2.4-
AS/NZS 4455 Table 2.1 sets out dimensional deviation
categories from DW0 (no requirements) to DW4 (the

tightest requirements) for masonry wall units. It requires Table 5.1 Minimum Average Width of Section of Hollow
that, unless specified and agreed otherwise, masonry Units [Based on AS/NZS 4455 Table 2.4]
wail units (including concrete units) should comply with
category DW1. Minimum average width of section, W,
for characteristic unconfined
Category DW1 requires that, when 20 walling units
compressive strength of
are placed in a line (end to end or side to side) the Id entification o f
cumulative dimension should not deviate from 20 times section under 10 MPa 10 MPa or over
the particular work size (the dimension being checked)
Width of section
by the following limits. The corresponding average
supported atone
tolerance per unit based on 20 units is also tabulated.
end only (Wc)
L
AS/NZS 4455, Corresponding
Width of sections
DW1 permissible average deviation
supported at both
Work size deviation per unit
ends (W5) 0.15 Is 0.1 I
Under 150 mm ±50mm ± 2.5mm
distance of
150 to 250 mm ± 90mm ± 4.5mm
core holes (W)
Over 250mm ± 100 mm ± 5.0mm
NOTE: Symbols in the above table are defined in Figure 5.1.

Thus, dimensional deviation category DWI permits the
average length of units to be outside specification by up
to ± 5 mm, with no controls on the lengths of individual IC Is
units at all.
Because of the method of manufacture, concrete
masonry units can be manufactured to much tighter
tolerances than other masonry units and they generally
meet category DW4. Category lDW4 requires not only
the average dimension of units to be within ± 3 mm of
the work size, but also that the dimensions of individual
units be controlled by requiring that the standard
deviation of dimensions be not more than 2 mm. This
limits the potential for big variations in the size of
Figure 5.1 Proportions of Units
concrete masonry units, which is common for other
[Based on AS/NZS 4455 Figure 2.1]
types of masonry units.
I The most commonly applied minimum face-shell
dimensions and web dimensions for hollow concrete
blocks, complying with AS/NZS 4455 Table 24, are
given in Table 5.2.
Table 5.2 Typical Face-shell and Web Dimensions for

Hollow Concrete Blocks, Complying with AS/NZS 4455,
Table 2.4
CORE PERCENTAGES AND MATERIAL
THICKNESS
The core percentage of cored units and the material
thickness of hollow units are required when determining
a masonry wall's fire resistance level for insulation.
The material thickness of units with a core percentage
of greater than 30% is the net volume of material in a
unit, divided by its face area. In other words, it is the
volume of material compressed solid without cores.
Minimum total
Minimum Minimum web thickness per The material thickness of units with a core percentage
Hollow face shell thickness course in any of less than 30% is the gross volume of the unit
block width thickness of any web 200-mm length (neglecting any cores) divided by its face area. This is
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) numerically equal to the external thickness of the unit.
90orless 25 25 25
Testing for core percentage and material thickness does
not need to be carried out as part of routine quality
over 90 to 140 25 25 30 control. If a test is required, it should be carried out in
25 accordance with AS/NZS 4456.7.
overl4Oto 190 30 30
over 190 35 30 38
These minimums apply for structural reasons. They are

frequently exceeded for production purposes, or where
acoustics or fire resistance requirements govern. When
dimensions or mass of units are critical, information
should be obtained from the manufacturer.
MASS AND DENSITY The core dimensions are commonly dictated by fire
and sound requirements and, if required, the ability to
The mass of masonry units depends on.
include grout and reinforcement.
the external dimensions;
Commonly-available, dense-weight concrete masonry
the core dimensions, and hence the material units have a density of approximately 2100 to 2250 kg/
thickness (effective thickness if all cores were m3. Special units for fire resistance, thermal performance
compressed); and or lightweight construction are often produced down to
the density of the material. 1600 kg/m3. These densities are the 'stockyard' densities
(ie the weight of units as sampled divided by their net
The external dimensions are dictated by structural volume) and are the sum of the dry density and the
considerations and the economics of manufacture and ambient moisture content.
construction. AS/NZS 4456.8 provides the test method for determining
these parameters.
Table 5.3 gives the mass of various masonry units.
Table 5.3 Mass of Various Masonry Blocks
Mass of unit, (kg), based on density(2) of

Length Height Width Percentage Material
of unit of unit of unit solid(1) thickness 2180 2000 1800 1600
(mm) (mm) (mm) (%) (mm) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3)
390 190 90 70 90 10.2 8.4 7.4

110
140
100
55
110
77
17.8
12.4
I9.3 16.3
11.4
14.7
10.3
13.0
9.1
190 51 97 15.7 14.4 12.9 11.5
390 140 90 70 90 7.5 6.9 6.2 5.5

110 100 110 13.1 12.0 10.8 9.6
140 55 77 9.2 8.4 7.6 6.7
190 51 97 11.5 10.6 9.5 8.5
390 90 90 70 90 4.7 4.3 3.9 3.4

110 100 110 8.4 7.7 6.9 6.2
140 55 77 5.9 5.4 4.9 4.30
190 51 97 7.4 6.8 6.1 5.4
290 162 90 70 90 6.5 6.0 5.4 4.8

110 100 110 11.3 10.3 9.3 8.3
140 55 77 7.9 7.2 6.5 5.8
S 290 119
190
90
51
70
97
90
9.9
4.8
9.1
4.4
8.2
4.0
7.3
3.6
110 100 110 8.3 7.6 6.8 6.1
140 55 77 5.8 5.3 4.8 4.3
190 51 97 7.3 6.7 6.0 5.4
290 90 90 70 90 3.7 3.4 3.1 2.8

110 100 110 6.3 5.7 5.2 4.6
140 55 77 4.4 4.0 3.6 3.2
190 51 97 5.5 5.1 4.6 4.0
290 76 90 70 90 3.1 2.9 2.6 2.4

110 100 110 5.3 4.8 4.4 3.9
140 55 77 3.7 3.4 3.1 2.7
- 190 51 97 4.7 4.3 3.8 3.4
230 76 90 70 90 2.5 2.3 2.1 1.9

110 100 110 4.2 3.8 3.5 3.1
140 55 77 2.9 2.7 2.4 2.2
190 51 97 3.7 3.4 3.0 2.7
NOTES:
1 Percentage solid will vary, depending on the manufacturer
2 Some low densities may not be available in various locations
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH LATERAL MODULUS OF RUPTURE
AS/NZS 4455 specifies a characteristic unconfined Lateral Modulus of Rupture is a measure of the
compressive strength (0) of at least 3 MPa for hollow 'sideways' bending strength of masonry units. If the
units and 2.5 MPa for solid units. These values are lateral modulus of rupture of units is too low, a wall
in the standard to ensure that the units have a basic could crack vertically when subjected to horizontal
level of resistance to breakage during handling and out-of-plane loads such a wind or earthquake. AS 3700
transport. However, AS 3700 requires the designer to uses a default value of 0.8 MPa for characteristic lateral
nominate the required strength on the drawings, and it modulus of rupture.
is recommended that this be done in consultation with It is not common, nor is it a requirement of AS/NZS
the manufacturer. 4455, to test for lateral modulus of rupture. If a test is
Compressive strength tests should be carried out in required, it should be carried out in accordance with
accordance with AS/NZS 4456.4. A masonry unit is AS/NZS 4456.15. This test requires three units to be
placed in a compression testing machine and subjected glued together
to increasing load until it fails. From the maximum load, end-to-end, the resulting beam to be supported on its
the unconfined compressive strength may be calculated. side and subjected to a breaking load, see Figure 5.2.
Solid or cored units must be fully bedded in the test Unless required otherwise, it is a reasonable expectation
and the compressive strength calculated using the that hollow concrete masonry units have a characteristic
full-bed area. On the other hand, hollow units must be lateral modulus of rupture in excess of the AS 3700
bedded only on the face shells, and the compressive value of 0.8 MPa, probably in the range 1.0 to 2.0 MPa.
strength calculated using the face-shell area. An aspect
ratio factor is applied to account for the confining effect

of the machine platens on short, wide units, such as
locks glued Loading bars
bricks.
together
A common characteristic unconfined compressive
strength specification, set out in Part C:Chapter 2, is
as follows:
4 MPa for units used in unreinforced non-loadbearing
masonry
10 MPa for cored or solid loadbearing masonry
(determined using full-bed area) lest specimen Support bars
15 MPa for reinforced hollow masonry or loadbearing

Figure 5.2 Lateral Modulus Of Rupture Test
hollow masonry (determined using face-shell area).
SALT ATFACK RESISTANCE PERMEABILITY
The Salt Attack Resistance Grade is a measure of Permeability is a measure of the amount of water that
the resistance of the masonry unit to deterioration will pass through a masonry unit, or the face shell of a
under the action of various salts resulting from sea hollow masonry unit, when a 200-mm hydraulic head is
spray or ground water. AS 3700 Table 5.1 sets out the applied.
requirements for various applications, the most common Hollow blocks with thin face shells exhibit a higher
being General Purpose Grade. permeability than hollow blocks with thick face shells
Protected Grade units may only be used in mild or solid blocks of the same mix, because the water
environments, in the interior of buildings above the traverses a thinner section of concrete to escape from
damp course, or above the damp course as exterior the test apparatus. Thin face shells are more difficult
walls that are coated with a waterproof coating and are to fill with concrete and are therefore of lower average
properly flashed. Exposure Grade units should be used density than thick face shells or solid blocks of the
in severe marine environments, interior environments same mix. They are therefore more permeable.
subject to saline wetting and drying, in contact with Low permeability (high impermeability) is gained by
aggressive soils, in saline or contaminated water and good mix design to achieve minimum voids and high
within 1 kilometre of industry producing chemical density, and is aided by proper curing. The quantity and
pollutants. quality of the cement binder is a primary determinant
It is not common, nor is it a requirement of AS/NZS of low permeability and low total absorption. These
4455, to routinely test for salt attack. If a test is properties improve with improvements in the binder.
required, it should be carried out in accordance with
The common method of lowering the permeability

AS/NZS 4456.10 Method B. Specimens are cut from
is to increase the fines content of the mix and, if
masonry units and are subjected to cycles of soaking necessary increase the cement content to compensate.
in salt solution, oven drying and cooling. When particle This provides more paste, which not only fills the voids
loss occurs, the total mass of the particles lost is within in the body of the block, but also provides a
determined by weighing. slick on the block surface as it is extruded from the
mould. The slick tends to cover the face, making it more
impermeable than the body of the unit. However, three
common specification requirements combine to increase
the difficulty in achieving impermeability:
The requirement for uniformity of colour and texture
effectively precludes a use of a slick.
The splitting of units to create a 'split face' removes
any slicked surface.
The specification of a particularly high lateral
modulus of rupture and transverse strength places
a requirement for the mix to include sharp angular
aggregates, thus increasing its coarseness, lowering
Graduated
cylinder the density and increasing the permeability.
Sponge nibber 60-mm bore
packing approx.
It is not common, nor is it a requirement of AS/NZS
10-mm thick 4455, to test for permeability If a test is required, it
Locking boft
should be carried out in accordance with AS/NZS
4456.16. A masonry unit is subjected to a measured
head of water in a cylinder sealed to the face of the
unit. The passage of water through the unit over time is
used to determine permeability, see Figure 5.3.
Unless required otherwise, it is a reasonable expectation
that dense weight concrete masonry units have a
Perforated base plate Test specimen maximum permeability of 2 mm/minute,
SEC11ON A-A
PLAN
Figure 5.3 Permeability Test

EFFLORESCENCE POTENTIAL CONTRACTION
Efflorescence is the white encrustation of salts, which Concrete masonry units shrink as the cement cures.
may occasionally appear on the surface of masonry To ensure that this does not contribute to cracking of
walls. It occurs when soluble salts, usually of sodium the completed masonry, units should be properly cured
or potassium, or calcium hydroxide are borne to the before delivery to the site. Saturated units should not be
exposed surface of the wall by moisture in the units. laid as they could lead to subsequent drying shrinkage
Sometimes, the salts are present in the masonry units as the moisture evaporates from the wall.
from manufacture, but often they are leached into the AS/NZS 4456.12 provides two tests, Coefficient of
units from the mortar binding them together in the wall. Residual Curing Contraction and Coefficient of Drying
Soluble salts can be readily washed off, but the Contraction, for contraction of concrete masonry units
calcium hydroxide reacts with the carbon dioxide in the These tests are not routinely performed, and are
atmosphere to form insoluble calcium carbonate, which specified only when dealing with specific problems
is extremely difficult to remove. related to shrinkage and cracking.
Reduced risk of efflorescence deposits on a wall can be Coefficient of Residual Curing Contraction is the
achieved by: shrinkage which takes place in newly manufactured
a minimising moisture entering the wall by using concrete units (at constant saturated moisture content).
It is an indication of the likelihood of shrinkage-related
correct flashings;
cracking as a result of cement hydration in the units.
inhibiting the migration of moisture to the exposed It is indicative of the lower bound of shrinkage in the
surfaces by venting cavities and cores; wall.

ensuring that mortars are impermeable to moisture For example:
and manufactured only from clean materials; and 0.1 mm/rn represents at least 0.8 mm in an 8-metre
ensuring that the concrete units are manufactured length of wall.
from materials free from soluble salts and that they 0.3 mm/m represents at least 2.4 mm in an 8-metre
are correctly cured.
length of wall.
It is not common, nor is it a requirement of AS/NZS Although there are no limits set in AS/NZS 4455 or
4455, to test for efflorescence potential. If a test is
AS/NZS 4456, a value over 0.1 mm/rn would probably be
required, it should be carried out in accordance with relatively high.
AS/NZS 4456.6.
A number of units are placed in a dish of water, Coefficient of Drying Contraction is the change
allowed to soak for seven days, followed by air curing in length which takes place in concrete units (when
for two days. These units are then compared and dried from a fully-saturated condition to a stable dry
assessed with respect to a matching unit, which has condition). It is an indication of the likelihood of
not undergone the soaking, for the development of shrinkage-related cracking as a result of expelling all of
efflorescence above the waterline on each external face. the moisture from the units. When combined with the
shrinkage caused by the mortar, it gives an indication of
Unless required otherwise, it is a reasonable expectation
the upper bound of the possible shrinkage in the wall.
that concrete masonry units have an efflorescence
potential of nil or slight. For example:
0.6 mm/rn represents at least 4.8 mm in an 8-metre
length of wall.
0.8 mm/rn represents at least 6.4 mm in an 8-metre
length of wall.
No limits are set in AS/NZS 4455 or AS/NZS 4456. A
value over 0.6 mm/rn would probably be considered to
be quite high.
MOISTURE CONTENT INITIAL RATE OF ABSORPTION
Moisture content is the quantity of free moisture present Initial Rate of Absorption (IRA) is not necessarily
in the unit expressed as the mass of moisture per unit related directly to the properties of total absorption or
volume (kg/m3). Moisture content must be distinguished permeability. Initial rate of absorption is the property of
from total absorption and initial rate of absorption, masonry units commonly known in the building industry
which will be dealt with in the following sections. as 'suction'. It is a measure of the quantity of water
It is not common, nor is it a requirement of AS/NZS absorbed in one minute per unit area of the bedding
4455, to test for moisture content. However, if it is face of a unit under standard conditions, and may be
required, the test should be carried out in accordance used to compare the 'suction' of different units.
with AS/NZS 4456.8. A reasonable expectation is that A test method for initial rate of absorption is given in
concrete masonry units have a maximum moisture AS/NZS 4456.17, A masonry unit is oven-dried, then
content before laying of 80 kg/rn3. This is to ensure cooled and placed with its bed face in contact with
that units are constructed in reasonably dry condition, water for a period of a minute. From the increase
so that the tendency to drying shrinkage of units after in weight from water absorption, the initial rate of
placing in the structure is reduced. absorption is calculated, see Figure 5.4.
Bond developed between masonry units and mortar
depends to a great extent on the initial rate of
absorption of the unit, the water retention properties of
the mortar, and the balance achieved between them.
S
If units with low initial rate of absorption are combined

with mortars of high water-retentivity, the mortar will
take too long to set and good bond will not occur. If
units with a high initial rate of absorption are combined
with mortar of extremely low water-retentivity, the
mortar will stiffen too quickly and bond again will be
lost. The ideal solution in this case is a compromise
mortar design. Careful matching of the water retentivity
of mortar to the initial rate of absorption of the units is
important.
Generally, it is found that concrete masonry units have
considerably lower suction than most clay masonry,
and so require mortar with lower water retentivity.
An experienced mason, familiar with bond strength
requirements should be able to adjust the mortar
appropriately. Typical values of initial rate of absorption
for concrete masonry units are:
Top of concrete hollow block 2.7 kg/m2/min
Bottom of concrete hollow block 1.8 kg/m2/min
Bedding surface of concrete brick 0.9 kg/m2/min.
Test specimen
Tank
I Tap
Support bars Overflow
Figure 5.4 Initial Rate of Absorption Test

I TOTAL ABSORPTION
The total absorption of a masonry unit measures its
total capacity to absorb moisture. It is, in effect, a
measurement of the voids content of the units, but
not necessarily of the permeability, which is the units
resistance to passage of water under pressure.
AS/NZS 4456.14 provides a standard test method for
assessing this property. No limits are given in the
standard. Table 5.4 gives the levels of total absorption
common in concrete masonry.
Table 5.4 Typical Levels of TotalAbsorption in Concrete Masonry

Units
Ultra- Medium- Normal-

lightweight Lightweight weight weight
units units units units
n-dry density
concrete,
(kg/rn3)
Maxium water
<1400 1400-1700 1700-2000 >2000
I
absorption,
(kg/rn3) 320 290 240 210
c in
EN C ES
1 AS/NZS/ISO 9002-1994 Quality systems - Model

for quality assurance in production, installation and
seridcing, Standards Australia
2 BCA - Building Code of Australia - Volumes 1 and 2.
3 AS 3700-2001 Masonry structures, Standards Australia
4 AS/NZS 4455-1997 Masonry units and segmental r
payers, Standards Australia
5 AS/NZS 4456-2003 Masonry units, payers and flags
- Methods of test, Standards Australia
S
Contents
1.1 GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
1.2 DESIGN FOR ACOUSTICS
1.3 DESIGN FOR ROBUSTNESS
1.4 DESIGN FOR FIRE
1.5 DESIGN FOE VERTICAL LOADS
1.6 DESIGN FOE HORIZONTAL LOADS
1.7 DESIGN FOR MOVEMENT
1.8 DESIGN FOR DURABILITY
1.9
DESIGN FOR THERMAL PERFORMANCE
1.10 DESIGN OF FOOTINGS
1.11 GLOSSARY
1.12 STANDARD DESIGN CHARTS
1.13 BIBLIOGRAPHY
>
0>
Chaster 1
Overview
For many years, concrete masonry has been a The purpose of this Part of the Manual is to
mainstay of Australian building. However, unlike redress these shortfalls by:
its glamorous sisters, reinforced concrete and explaining the requirements of the Building
structural steel, this Cinderella product receives Code of Australia (BCA) and the use of AS 3700
little attention in structural engineering courses Masonry structures to design concrete masonry
and its aesthetic qualities are shunned in favour of buildings and building components;
clay brickwork.
providing simple design charts which will assist
the rapid selection of concrete masonry
members; and
providing comprehensive design examples
which show the origin of the charts and the
use of the Standard.
EN!L
DESIGN CONS
1.1.2 MASONRY WALL TYPES
The main types of masonry wall are as follows.
1.1.1 BUILDING TYPES Single leaf:
In this manual, buildings are considered under three Unreinforced single-leaf walls Figure 1.1(a)
broad headings: Reinforced single-leaf walls Figure 1.1(b)
Low-rise commercial and industrial buildings Veneer:
with large wall panels Unreinforced veneer walls Figure 1.1(c)
Factories Cavity:
Warehouses Unreinforced cavity walls Figure 1.1(d)
Shopping centres Cavity walls with one or more
Auditoriums reinforced leaves Figure 1.1(e)
Schools and hospitals
Hybrid:
High-rise and medium-rise commercial and Diaphragm walls Figure 1.1(f)
residential buildings with loadbearing and Reinforced-cavity walls Figure 1.1(g)
non-loadbearing fire-rated walls
Home units Table 1.1 compares these wall types.
Office buildings There are many options open to designers for the
Hotels provision of attractive finishes to concrete masonry.
Residential buildings Walls may be face block or brick (plain face, ribbed or
Single dwellings split) or may be coated with paint, render or other

Duplexes decorative finishes.
Town houses To avoid the ingress of rainwater, single-leaf masonry
Villa units walls should be coated with a continuous membrane
Of the ten building classes in the Building Code of such as three coats of 100% acrylic-based paint. Clear
Australia (BCA), the most likely classifications of these water-repellents may be satisfactory, provided
buildings are: reinforcement has been incorporated into the masonry to
control cracking and special attention has been given to
Class Building Type and Element the permeability of the masonry units and mortar, and
Low-rise commercial and industrial buildings quality of laying. Where practical, large eaves should be
with large wall panels provided to shield walls, with clear sealers, from rain.
3 Hotel or motel foyers
6 Shopping centres and sales show rooms
>
7 Warehouses and public car parks
8 Factories
9 Auditoriums and assembly halls
ii
High-rise and medium-rise commercial and
residential buildings
2 Home units
3 Boarding houses, guest houses, hotels, motels,
aged accommodation
4 Dwellings within other buildings
5 Offices
6 Shops
8 Laboratories
Residential buildings
I Single dwelling houses, multiple dwelling houses
such as town houses, row houses, villa houses,
boarding houses and group houses.
iDa Non-habitable out-buildings such as garages and
sheds
1')
Solid or hollow concrete masonry Hollow concrete blockwork
II
Vertical steel
reinforcement
(optional)
Honzontal steel
reinforcement
to bond beams
(optional)
Bed-joint
reinforcement
(optional)
(a) un reinforced Single-leaf (b) Reinforced Single-leaf
Masonry-veneer ties
Solid or hollow concrete
S masonry outer leaf

Stmctural
backing
Flashing
Weepholes
I
(C) Unreinforced Veneer
Vertical steel
reinforcement (optional)
Outer leaf
Outer leaf
Inner leaf Cavity ties
Horizontal steel
reinforcement
(optional)
Cavity ties
Inner leaf
Open perpends
p as weepholes
for drainage
of cavity
flashing solidorhollowconcrete flashing
Cd) Unreinforced Leaves (e) Reinforced Leaves
Vertical steel reinforcement

Headers bonded to the in mortar-filled cavity
internal and external
leaves with ties Outer leaf
Cavity ties
Outer leaf
I Horizontal steel
reinforcement
in cavity
Inner leaf
Inner leaf
Inner leaf outer leaf may be
hollow concrete masonry
(f) Diaphragm () Reinforced-cavity

I-
Figure Li Masonry Wall Types

Table 1.1 Comparison of Masonty Wall types
Aspect Single-leaf walls Veneer walls Cavity walls Hybrid walls
Construction Hollow or cored Hollow, cored or solid Brick or hollow or cored Brick or hollow or cored
concrete block brick or block concrete block Concrete block
Reinforcement Can include vertical Requires structural Not usual, but there is no Diaphragm wall is not
reinforcement or support reason why one leaf should reinforced. Reinforced-cavity
bond beams not be reinforced wall has horizontal and
vertical reinforcement
Waterproof No, requires painting Yes, provided Yes, provided Yes, generally
or sealing to prevent construction is flashed construction is flashed
water penetration
Aesthetics Depends on the coating Face masonry does not Face masonry does not Face masonry does not
system, painted split or require painting require painting require painting
painted ribbed units are
attractive
Cost Most economical form Structural support adds Approximately 50% more More expensive than
of masonry but must be considerably to cost expensive than single-leaf cavity wall
waterproofed
Reinforcement continuous Reinforcement

past supports. Wall fixed to lapped at mid-height
intermediate floor improves of large span
structural efficiency (Suggested max.
lift-3.2 m)
Reinforcement continuous past supports.

Wall fixed to floor where possible
Figure 1.2 Large Wall Panels Continuous Over Two or

More Storeys
ILl
1.1.3 LOW-RISE COMMERCIAL AND Each system is particularly suited to single-leaf
INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS WITH LARGE construction but can also be constructed as the
WALL PANELS structural leaf of a cavity wall.
Selection of the appropriate masonry system will depend Each system can be either loadbearing (supporting roof
on the wall panel sizes, the support conditions and the or floor loads) or non-loadbearing, eg contained within a
magnitude of the design out-of-plane horizontal wind, grid of supporting members.
earthquake or fire loads.
Once the masonry walling system has been selected
and checked for these out-of-plane horizontal loads, it Note: The maximum permissible
must be checked for in-plane horizontal shear load, length of honzontal bond beam is.
vertical load and combined load. 9.12 metres for 190-mm thick walls
6.72 metres for 140-mm thick walls
If masonry walls are continuous over two or more
storeys, the fixing of walls to intermediate floors will
greatly improve the structural efficiency by reducing the
wall spans. Reinforcement may be continuous at
intermediate floors, thus reducing the bending moments
at mid span (Figure 1.2)
In buildings with large internal clear spans (eg
S factories and warehouses), the spacing of portal frames,
trusses, beams and columns will generally be dictated

by the roof system. Historically, the frame spacing has
been six to seven metres. With the more widespread use
of high-strength deep purlins, frame spacings of seven
to eight metres are more likely.
Once the roof-beam spacing is determined, the column Long horizontal openings.
spacing logically follows. Thus, in these buildings, walls such as banks of windows,
spanning six to seven metres vertically and seven to make vertical reinforcement difficult.
eight metres horizontally could be required. In such cases, horizontal reinforcement is preferred
(It is usual, however, to provide some vertical reinforcement aswéfl)
Walls may be supported by steel portal frames, concrete
beams and columns, steel or timber mullions, steel or
timber girts or masonry piers. Figure 1.3 Unrein forced Masonry Between Horizontally-
Rein forced Bond Beams
Notwithstanding the limitations placed on the frame
spacing by the roof system, the most expedient wall
support system will be determined by the positions of
doors, windows, shutters, loading docks and partition
walls.
Full-height roller shutter openings could negate designs
based on horizontal bond beams. Articulation of the
walls could prevent continuity of the bond beams. A
bank of windows could make vertical reinforcement
difficult. All these points require consideration.
Two systems of large wall panels are available to
designers depending on the size of the panels and the
horizontal loads expected.
Unreinforced hollow blockwork supported by
horizontally reinforced concrete masonry bond beams.
This is suitable for 190-mm walls up to 6.84 metres
long between vertical supports (Figure 1.3).
a Reinforced masonry consisting of unreinforced
blockwork supported by vertically-reinforced cores at
up to 2-metre centres. This is suitable for 190-mm Full-height openings,
walls up to 6.84 metres high and supported at the such as for roller shutters.
I I
top (Figure 1.4). make horizontal reinforcement difficult. I
In such cases, vertical reinforcement is preferred.

There are several variations on each of these systems (Some horizontal reinforcement is used eg above openings)
employing different block types, different methods of
fixing reinforcement and different construction Figure 1.4 Reinforced Wall System with
sequences. Vertically-Reinforced Cores
1.1.4 HIGH-RISE AND MEDIUM-RISE
Vertical gravity loads supported
by beam/column system COMMERCIAL AND RESIDENTIAL
BUILDINGS
These buildings commonly incorporate walls in the
range 2.4 to 3.0 metres high although there could be
some applications such as auditoriums and foyers where
Gap ensures larger panels are involved. Reinforced masonry is ideal
no vertical load is for these large-panel applications.
transmitted to wall
Within most commercial and residential applications,
Lateral pressures two masonry walling systems are available to designers:
due to wind, fire
Self-weight of wall
or earthquake, Non-loadbearing panels or partitions, which are
distributed to supported laterally within a structural frame but
columns through
masonry wall receive no imposed load from it, Figure 1.5. Where
non-loadbearing walls are built between concrete
floor slabs, they should be adequately attached at
the top to the underside of the slab, and at the
sides, to prevent lateral movement, Figure 1.6.
Figure 1.5 Non-Loadbearing Wa//System
Bonded or tied piers and cross walls will provide
further lateral support. These walls may be either
cavity wall or single-leaf construction.

Loadbearing walls supporting imposed vertical loads,
commonly used in buildings up to five storeys high,
either with or without a reinforced concrete or
concrete masonry shear core to provide lateral
stability, Figures 1.7 and 1.8 These walls may be
either cavity wall or single-leaf construction. It is
common for the internal leaf of an external wail to
be loadbearing, while the external leaf is treated as
a non-loadbearing veneer.
/
/ Typical head fe set in
/ full perp joint and fixed

to slab. This permits
vertical shrinkage and/or
expansion of wall and
deflection of slab while
providing lateral support
Control gap, may

require fire-rated filler to
maintain fire-resistance
level of wall
Figure 1.6 Tying Non-Loadbearing Walls to S/abs to

Prevent Lateral Movement
1.1.5RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS
Vertical gravity loads
supported by masonry wall The structural design considerations for houses centres
around:
Analysis for wind uplift and lateral pressures in high
wind areas,
Detailing for earthquake resistance,
Selection of a slab or footing system that is
compatible with the proposed masonry
superstructure, and
Lateral pressures
duetowind, fire
Detailing appropriate movement joints to account for
or earthquake, movement of the foundations, slabs and footing and
distributed to shrinkage in the masonry.
wall supports
The most common form of house construction in
Australia is masonry veneer (usually brick veneer),
although single-leaf reinforced masonry is very popular
Figure 1.7 Loadbearing Wa/I System in northern Australia due to its ability to withstand high
wind loads and earth movement. The older form of
cavity masonry exhibits superior thermal properties and
sound insulation, but is more expensive than the other

two forms of masonry for housing.
Localised siab stiffening or shallow beam
Pngnonloadbeadng
walls in this manner avoids
complicated slab reinforcement
Slab action predominantly

one-way with
some negative
J Two-way
action of
>
Ti moments at slab
I Q)
supports
>
0
Localised slab
stiffening over
windows
Figure 1.8 Typical Layout of Loadbearing Wall System for

Commercial arid Residential Buildings
ii
DESIGN FOR ACOUSTICS
Designing for acoustics is a primary consideration,

usually dealt with by the architect. Selection of a Living Bed Bed
suitable masonry system either with or without cladding

must be made early in the design process.
UNIT 3
Low-Rise Commercial and Industrial Buildings
with Large Wall Panels
There are no specific acoustic requirements for these
buildings.
High-Rise and Medium-Rise Commercial and
UNIT 4
Residential Buildings
The BCA Vol 1, Part F5 sets out the requirements for
airborne sound insulation and impact sound insulation
between various parts of Class 2 and Class 3 buildings. UNIT 2
The BCA Vol 1 requires that walls that separate Uving Living
soleoccupancy units or walls that separate a sole-
Living
occupancy unit from a plant room, lift shaft, stairway, Living
public corridor, hallway or the like, have certain values UNIT 1 UNITS
of R(N0te 1) It also requires that walls between a
bathroom, sanitary compartment, laundry or kitchen

and a habitable room (other than a kitchen) in an () Walls requiring: R + C (airborne) not less than 50
adjoining unit have higher values of R(Note 1), provide Walls requiring: R + C1 (airborne) not less than 50,
B
a satisfactory level of insulation against impact sound and Impact Sound Resistance
and not incorporate a duct that reduces the R value of () Walls requiring: (airborne) not less than 50
R
the wall. (Figure 1.9).
There are no specific acoustic requirements for single Figure 1.9 Example of BCA Requirements for Sound and
dwellings. However, the BCA Volume 2, Section Impact Insulation in Class 2 and Class 3 Buildings(NOte 1)
P2.4.6 and Part 3.8.6, set out the requirements for
airborne sound insulation and impact sound insulation
between adjoining dwellings in Class I buildings. The
requirements are similar to those listed above.
NOTES:
I Values given are the basic BOA requirements, however,
different states have elected to vary some of these values
which will require checking with the local authority.
DESIGN FOR ROBUSTNESS
All walls must meet the robustness criteria of AS

3700 which provide an upper limit on sensible design.
However, compliance with the robustness criteria must
not be considered to be a substitute for rational design
for calculated wind, earthquake, fire and gravity loads.
If large walls of low-rise buildings do not meet the
robustness criteria, consideration should be given to
using thicker units or cavity construction, increasing
the support system (perhaps by using steel mullions) or
introducing reinforcement into unreinforced elements.
The walls of high-rise or medium-rise buildings that
are most likely to fail the robustness criteria are those
where:
there are long runs without intersecting cross walls;
there are isolated piers between window or door

openings; or
there are chases or control joints that destroy
two-way action which may have been assumed in
the design.
In all cases, the top of the wall must be tied to the
slab or roof above with connectors capable of
supporting the applied lateral loads. All intersecting
cross walls should be bonded or tied into the wall. If
the thickness of masonry unit can not be increased, the
most practical solution is the inclusion of reinforcement
or steel mullions into the wall.
Provided veneer ties are used at the spacings specified
in AS 3700, masonry veneer construction will meet the
robustness provisions.
Except perhaps for unsupported gable end walls, most
cavity masonry construction will also satisfy the
robustness requirements.
Single-leaf partition walls may exceed robustness limits
and should be checked. Reinforcement or steel mullions
can be used to ensure that isolated piers between
window or door openings do not present a problem.
DESIGN FOR FIRE
Table 1.2 Type of Construction Required
Certain walls defined in the BCA Part C must meet the (Extract from Building Code of Australia Table Cli)
three fire resistance levels (FRL5) of structural adequacy
(stability against collapse), integrity (resistance to Class of Building
cracking) and insulation (resistance to the passage of Rise (storeys) 2,3 and 9 5,6,7 and 8
heat). Insulation and integrity can be improved by using
masonry units with a greater material thickness 4 or more A A
(measure of the equivalent solid thickness) or by using 3 A B

units incorporating lightweight materials (usually scoria,
blast furnace slag or boiler ash, depending on
availability). In large wall panels, structural adequacy
under fire loading can be a major consideration. If there
are problems, consider using a thicker unit, increase
2
1
B
C q C
the support system (perhaps by using steel mullions)

or introduce reinforcement into unreinforced elements.
Reinforced masonry is usually an effective way of
achieving structural adequacy.
See Table 12 for the type of construction required by
the BCA, then Tables 1.3 to 1.5 for the required fire
resistance levels.

Most srngle-storey commercial or industrial buildings
require Type C construction except where area or
building volume limitations determine otherwise.
High-rise and medium-rise commercial and residential
buildings require Type A or B construction except for
two-storey non-residential building which may be of
Type C construction.
The BCA requires that:
In a Class I building (residential), any external walls
that are within 1 metre of an allotment boundary
or within 2 metres of another building on the same
allotment (other than a Class lOa shed, garage or
carport) shall be of concrete, masonry or masonry
veneer construction with a minimum thickness of
90 mm and a Fire Resistance Level (FRL) of 60/60/60
(ie able to provide structural adequacy, integrity and
insulation for 60 minutes).
In a Class lOa garage or shed (excluding open
garage), any external walls that are within I m of an
allotment boundary shall be non-combustible material
or lined with non-combustible material.
Any common walls must be of concrete or masonry
construction and extend to the underside of a
non-combustible roof or not less than 450 mm above
a combustible roof. If a common wall separates a
Class 1 residential building from another Class 1
residential building or from a Class 10 shed or garage
on a different allotment, it shall have a minimum
Fire Resistance Level of 90/90/90 (ie able to provide
structural adequacy, integrity and insulation for
90 minutes).
If a common wall separates a Class lOa shed or
garage from another Class lOa building, it shall be of
non combustible material.
I lfl
Table 1.3 Fire Resistance Leve/s (minutes) for Structural Adequacy/lntegrity/lnsu/ation in Type A Construction,
Excluding Carparks (Extract from Building Code of Australia Table 3 in Specification C1.1)
Class of Building
7 or8
2,3 or4 part 5 or 9 6 (Factories,
Building Element (Residential) (Offices) (Retail) Warehouses)
External Walls
(including any column and other building element incorporated therein) or other external building element excluding a roof,
where the distance from any fire-source feature to which it is exposed is:
For loadbearing parts -
I less than 1.5 m
1.5 to less than 3 m
90/ 90/ 90
90/ 60/ 60
120/120/120
120/ 90/ 90
180/180/180
180/180/120
240/240/240
240/240/180
3ormore 90/60/30 120/ 60/ 30 180/120/90 240/180/90
For non-loadbearing parts -
lessthan 1.5 m - / 90/ 90 - /120/120 - /180/ 180 - /240/ 240
1.5 to less than 3 m - / 60/ 60 -/ 90/ 90 - /180/120 - /240/180
3 m or more -I -I - -I -I - -I -I - -I -/ -
Common Walls and Fire Walls
90/ 90/ 90 120/120/120 180/180/180 240/240/240

Internal Wafls
Fire-resisting lift and stair shafts -
Loadbearing 90/ 90/ 90 120/120/120 180/120/120 240/120/120
Non-loadbearing - / 90/ 90 - /120/120 - /120/ 120 - /120/120
Bounding public corridors, public hallways and the like -
Loadbearing 90/ 90/ 90 120/ -/ - 180/ -/ - 240/ -I -
Non-loadbearing -/ 60/ 60 -I -I - -I -I - -I -I -
Between or bounding sole-occupancy units -
Loadbearing 90/ 90/ 90 120/ -I - 180/ -/ - 240/ -I -
I' Non-load bearing - / 60/ 60 -I -I - -I -I - -I -I -
Ventilating, pipe, garbage, and like shafts not used for the discharge of hot products of combustion -
90/ 90/ 90 120/ 90/ 90 180/120/120 240/120/120
Non-loadbearing
ILoadbearing -/90/90 -/ 90/ 90 - /120/120 - /120/120
Other Loacthearing Internal Walls; and Internal Beams, Trusses and Columns
90/ -/ - 120/ -/ - 180/ -/ - 240/ -/ -
Note: A dash, eg 90 / - / - or - / - / -, means there is no requirement for an FRL for that criterion.
Table 1.4 Fire Resistance Levels (minutes) for Structural Adequacy/Integrity/Insulation in Type B Construction,
Excluding Carparks (Extract from Building Code of Australia Table 4 in Specification Cli)
Class of Building
7 or 8
2,3or4part 5or9 6 (Factories,
External Walls
For loadbearing parts -
less than 1.5 m 90/90/90 120/120/120 180/180/180 240/240/240
1.5tolessthan3m 90/60/60 120/ 90/ 60 180/120/ 90 240/180/120
3 to less than 9 m 90/ 30/ 30 120/ 60/ 30 180/ 90/ 60 240/ 90/ 60
9tolessthan 18m 90/30/ - 120/ 30/ - 180/ 60/ - 240/ 60/ -
l8mormore -/ -/ - -/ -/ - -/ -/ - -/ -/ -
For non-loadbearing parts -
lessthan 1.5m -/90/90 -/120/120 -/180/180 -/240/240
1.5tolessthan3m -/60/30 -/90/ 60 -/120/ 90 -/180/120
-/ -/ -/ -I -/ -/ -
3mormore - - -/ -/ -
90/90/90 120/120/120 180/180/180 240/240/240
Internal Walls
Fire-resisting lift and stair shafts -
Loadbearing 90/90/90 120/120/120 180/120/120 240/120/120
Non-loadbearing -/90/90 -/120/120 -/120/120 -/120/120
Bounding public corridors, public hallways and the like -
Loadbearing 60/60/60 120/ -/ - 180/ -/ - 240/ -/ -
Non-loadbearing - / 60/ 60 -/ -/ - -/ -/ - -/ -/ -
Between or bounding sole-occupancy units -
Loadbearing 60/60/60 120/ -/ - 180/ -/ - 240/ -/ -
Non-loadbearing -/60/ 60 -/ -/ - -/ -/ - -/ -/ -
Other Loacthearing Internal Walls; and Internal Beams, Trusses and Columns
60/ -/ - 120/ -/ - 180/ -/ - 240/ -/ -
Table 1.5 Fire Resistance Levels (minutes) for StructuralAdequacy/Integrity/Insulation in Type C Construction,
Excluding Carparks (Extract from Building Code of Australia Table 5 in Specification Cli)
Class of Building
7 or8
2,3or4part 5or9 6 (Factories,
'External Walls
lessthanl.5m 90/90/90 90/ 90/ 90 90/ 90/ 90 90/ 90/ 90
1.5 to less than 3 m -/ -/ - 60/ 60/ 60 60/ 60/ 60 60/ 60/ 60
3mormore -/ -/ - -/ -/ - -/ -/ - -/ -/ -
90/ 90/ 90 90/ 90/ 90 90/ 90/ 90 90/ 90/ 90
Internal Walls
Bounding public corridors,
publichallwaysandthelike 60/60/60 -/ -I - -/ -/ - -/ -/ -
Between or bounding
sole-occupancy units 60/ 60/ 60 -/ -/ - -/ -/ - -/ -/ -
Bounding a stair if required
to be fire-rated 60/60/60 -/ -f -/ -/ - -/ -/
119
DESIGN FOR
VERTICAL LOADS
Loacibearing Walls
Medium-rise commercial and residential buildings (up to
1.5.1 GENERAL approximately five storeys) are often designed with
loadbearing masonry walls supporting concrete floor
Although masonry walls have traditionally been slabs (Figure 1.11). In this case, the walls must be
relatively thick, there is an increasing trend towards analysed for vertical load capacity. The magnitude of the
thinner loadbearing walls. While walls were once loads can vary considerably, while loads of
230-mm bonded brickwork, they evolved to two leaves of approximately 30 to 35 kN/m per supported floor are
110-mm brickwork separated by a cavity and to 110-mm common.
single-leaf masonry. More recently they have continued
to evolve to two leaves of 90-mm masonry separated by Residential Buildings
a cavity and to 90-mm single-leaf masonry, which is now The gravity loads on low rise residential buildings are
common. generally of a low magnitude, thus obviating the need
for stringent analysis provided the robustness limits are
Historically, little attention was paid to the vertical observed, careful engineering judgment is exercised and
gravity loads on masonry walls, but today, as the there is suitable detailing to accommodate wind uplift.
designs are being refined and the margins of safety are
being trimmed, it is necessary for the design engineer
1.5.2 ROOF LOADS
to check the loads and wall capacities.
It is necessary to consider the uplift forces applied by
the roof structure to masonry walls, tie down and
with Large Wall Panels lintels. In areas of high wind, these uplift forces will be
Most large wall panels are usually non-loadbearing

particularly severe. This part of the manual is intended
(being supported within a grid of loadbearing steel
to give designers a feel for the more common roof loads,
or concrete members) or are subject to only light roof
rather than cover all options for the design of roof
loads. If the wall is subjected to externally applied
systems.
vertical loads, it will be necessary to check the vertical
load capacity. If the walls are reinforced vertically, AS 1684 gives guidance on suitable timber roof
eccentric vertical loads may be assumed to consist of a structures for housing. Depending on the type of timber
vertical concentric component and a bending moment, and its stress grade, here can be a wide variation in
which is resisted by the reinforced section. However, if permissible spans of most structural members.
the walls are unreinforced (or reinforced only with Unfactored permanent loads of timber framing or trusses
horizontal bond beams) it will be necessary to should be calculated and will be commonly in the range
determine an eccentricity and calculate the reduced of 0.2 to 0.3 kPa. These may be added to the permanent
load capacity. load for the appropriate roofing/ceiling combination
given in Table 1.6.
Residential Buildings For non-trafficable roofs, excluding street awnings, with
Non-loadbearing Walls an area more than 14 m2, AS/NZS 1170.1 requires an
High-rise commercial and residential buildings are most unfactored imposed load of 0.25 kPa to be applied.
commonly constructed with concrete slabs and beams For smaller areas, the load increases. It also specifies
supported on concrete columns (Figure 1.10). In such various concentrated actions.
cases, masonry partition walls are non-loadbearing and Table 1.7 gives the net downwards pressures for
there is no need to analyse for vertical load capacity. factored permanent and imposed loads and the net
uplift for factored permanent loads and wind loads
Vertical gravity loads supported Vertical gravity loads

by beani/column system
Gap ensures
no vertical load is
transmitted to wall
t.atera pressures
due to wind, fire Lateral pressures
or earthquake, due to wind, fire
Self-weight of wall
distributed to or earthquake,
columns through distributed to
masorny wall
4
wall supports
Figure 1.10 Non-Loadbearing Wa/I System Figure 1.11 Loadbearing Wall System
1.13
Table 1.6 Permanent Loads of Typical Roofing/Ceiling Linings (Extract From AS 1684)
Rooting Permanent Load

Type Description (kPa)
A Steel or copper roofing, 0.55 mm and thinner plus battens

- Aluminium roofing, 3.0mm and thinner plus battens 0.1
B Fibre-cement slates or corrugated fibre-cement sheet up to 6-mm thick, plus battens

Steel roofing, 0.90 mm and 0.70 mm plus battens 0.2
D
Timber decking 45-mm thick with roofirigof mass 10 kg.m2 and battens
Timber plank or plywood 45 mm thick covered by metal-foil-coated bituminous membrane
plus 10-mm plaster ceiling and battens
Roofing of mass 10 or 20 kg/rn2 plus 10-mm plaster ceiling, battens and lightweight insulation
_,wboard 50 mm thick plus roofing of mass 10 kg/rn2_______
Natural slates or terracotta or concrete tiles with battens

Timber planks or plywood 19 mm thick covered by bituminous membrane with gravel
Roofingof mass 60 kg/rn2 plus 10-mm plaster, ceiling battens and lightweightinsulation
0.4
0.6
0.9
I
Table 1.7 Wind Uplift and Downward Pressures
Working Working Ultimate Ultimate Ultimate

permanent imposed wind load uplift pressure downward pressure
load, 0 load, Q W = 0.9G + W Pdown = 1.2G + 1.5Q
I
Roofingtype (kPa) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa)
-1.0 O.5 1.1

1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
B 0.7 0.25 -1.0 -0.4 1.2

-2.0 -1.4 1.2
-3.0 -2.4 1.2
-4.0 -3.4 1.2
-5.0 -4.4 1.2
Li 1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
D 1.1 0.25 -1.0 -0.0 1.7

-2.0 -1.0 1.7
-3.0 -2.0 1.7
-4.0 -3.0 1.7
-5.0 -4.0 1.7
I
1.4 0.25 -1.0 0.3 2.1
. - -.- -2.0
-3.0
-4.0
-0.7
-1.7
-2.7
2.1
2.1
2.1
-5.0 -3,7 2.1
Important Note: These tables must not be used as a substitute for proper calculations in accordance with Australian Standards
and the Building Code of Australia.
A simplified approach for the uplift due to wind loads Table 1.8 Wind Pressures on Roof
on housing is given in AS 4055 (Table 1.8) (Extract from AS 4055)
The formulae given in Figure 1.12 may be used to
calculate the vertical forces on internal and external Ultimate Net pressure UpUft pressure
walls of a simple building. Wind wind speed coefficient on roof, p (kPa)
category V(m/s) Tile Sheet
It is not uncom.rnon for strong wind or cyclonic wind to
cause sufficient uplift on a roof to peel off the cladding Ni W28N 34 0.04 0.44
or even to remove the rafters or trusses. To prevent this N2 W33N 40 0.34 0.74
occurrence, roof structures must be properly anchored to N3 W41N 50 0.93 1.33
the walls or, if uplift is particularly severe, to the N4 W5ON 61 1.74 214
footings via the walls. Several alternatives are shown in N5 W6ON 74 2.89 3.29
Figure 1.13 N6 W7ON 86 4.16 4.564
In reinforced masonry construction, the roof structure Cl W41C 50 -1.6 t 1.68 2.08
may be secured by holding-down bolts or brackets to C2 W5OC 61 -1.6 285 3.25
a horizontal bond beam tied to the slab below via C3 W6OC 74 -1.6 454 4.94
vertical reinforcing bars in the masonry cores and C4 W7OC 86 -1.6 1.6.38 6.78
starter bars set into the footings.
In cavity masonry construction, roof anchors may 4
S pass down the cavity between the two leaves of
masonry. The anchors should be fixed to one leaf of

the wall before the second leaf is built. If there is
insufficient weight in the wall, there must be a
positive connection to the concrete slab or footings.
In masonry veneer construction, timber or metal stud B - S1/2 + 0.45
walls of masonry veneer construction may be used to
B- (S1 S2)/2
transmit the roof uplift down to the concrete footings
or slab. Connections between the roof and wall
framing and between the wall framing and slab must Pup.ext = Pup x Bext Pdownext = Pdown x Bext
have sufficient tensile capacity to resist pull-out. pup.int= Pupx B Pdown Jot = Pdown X B10t
Figure 1.12 Vertical Forces on External and Internal Walls

of Simple Buildings
:______
ii Holding-down
Hoop-iron
- Connector
between
top plate
'in, bolt hooked under
strap fixed to
roof truss
and truss
horizontal bars
in bond beam
4 Steel bars grouted - Hoop-iron

into cores at strap hooked
irii -
0.8-to 2.4-rn
centres
under bottom
block in wall
F-
1: Steelstarterbars
fromfooting
- Bottom
plate
Thickness of Mass of Weight of leaf
!IF inner leaf units one unit 2.4-rn-high
bolted to
slab
1mm) (kg) (kN/m)
Bar diameter Tensile capacity 90 11.0 3.2 lOx bolt
(mm) (kN) 110 11.5 3.4 diameter
16 75 140 12.5 3.7

20 116 190 140 4.1 75
* 190-mm-high units
SINGLE-LEAF WALL CAVIfl' WALL BRICK-VENEER WALL
Figure 1.13 Roof-Fixing Systems

1.5.3 FLOOR LOADS
Suspended floors may be reinforced concrete or timber.
This manual is not intended to cover all of the options
for floor design but the following information has
been included to give designers a feel for the more
common systems. Permanent and imposed loads on the
suspended floors of residential buildings are given in
AS/NZS 1170.1 and typical values are set out in
Table 1.9.
AS 1684 provides the dimensions of suitable joists and
bearers for timber floors for houses.
AS 3600 provides the requirements for the design and
construction of concrete suspended floor slabs. These
may be designed to span in one direction (supported on
two opposite sides) or in two directions (supported on
at least three, and commonly four sides) by loadbearing
masonry. In both cases they will require steel
reinforcement to be placed near the bottom face to
resist bending tension. This positive" tensile
reinforcement should span between supports Transverse

reinforcement should be provided to prevent shrinkage
cracking and to tie together the main bars. Negative"
tensile reinforcement should be placed in the top face
over (and adjacent to) supports to prevent cracking of
the top face of the slab.
Table 1.9 Floor Permanent Loads and Imposed Loads in Self-contained Houses (Extract From AS/NZS 1170.1)
p
Permanent load unfactored Permanent load factored (1.2 x unfactored)
Floor construction Uniform (kPa) Uniform (kPa)
Concrete slab of thickness:

100 mm 2.5 3.0
125mm 3.1 3.8
I
150 mm 3.8 4.5
175 mm 4.4 5.3
200 mm 5.0 6.0
Timber- including bearers,

joists, flooring, blocking
ceiling battens and sheeting 1.0 1.3
Imposed load unfactored load factored (1.5 x unfactored)
Location Uniform (kPa) Concentrated (kN) IImposed

Uniform (kPa) Concentrated (kN)
General
Balconies less than

one metre above ground
1.5
1.5
1.8 on 350 mm2
1.5 per metre-run

2.25
2.25
2.7 on 350 mm2
2.25 per metre-run

4
along edge and along edge and
1.8 on 350 mm2 2.7 on 350 mm2
balconies 2.0 1.5 per metre-run 3.0 2.25 per metre-run

along edge and - alongedge and
1.8 on 350 mm2 -- 2.7on350mm2
Stairs and landings 2,0 2.7 3.0 4.05 on 350 mm2
Parking, driveways and ramps 2.5 13 3.75
L 19.5
Important Note: These tables must not be used as a substitute for proper calculations in accordance with Australian Standards
and rhe Building Code of Australia.
FNFOR HORIZONTAL LOADS
Table 1.10 Wind Pressures on Wa/Is of Houses
Wind, earthquake and fire loads will be exerted on the (Extract from AS 4055)
masonry walls as out-of-plane horizontal pressures,
transmitted from any unreinforced masonry to any Ultimate Net pressure Horizontal wall
reinforced sections within the walls and then to the Wind wind speed coefficient pressure
supporting structure, footings and foundations. The category V (m/s) C
masonry walls may also contribute to the shear Ni W28N 34 1.00 0.7
resistance of the structure. N2 W33 N 40 1.00 1.0
N3 W 41 N 50 1.00 1.5
1.6.1 WIND LOAD N4 W 50 N 61 1.00 2.2
AS/NZS 1170.2 gives a method of calculating the N5 W 60 N 74 1.00 3.3
ultimate horizontal wind pressure acting on masonry N6 W 70 N 86 1.00 4.4
walls. This ultimate pressure may be used to calculate Cl W 41 C 50 1.35 2.0
the ultimate moments and shear loads and compared C2 W 50 C 61 1.35 3.0
directly with the ultimate capacities given in Part B: C3 W 60 C 74 1.35 4.4
Chapter 6 of this manual. C4 W 70 C 86 1.35 6.0
A simplified system of calculating wind pressures on
the walls of houses is set out in AS 4055 and
reproduced in Table 1.10
S
1.6.2 EARTHQUAKE LOAD Table 1.11 Horizontal Seismic Force on Unrein forced
AS 1170.4 Clause 52(Note 1) gives a method of Masonry Gable Ends, Chimneys, Parapets etc, for
calculating the ultimate horizontal seismic force acting Domestic Structures
on architectural components such as masonry walls.
Forces on walls due to self-weight plus plasterboard to
The following formula and tables derive the force in kPa
one face, F (kPa)
exerted by a i-m2 section of masonry wall in typical
applications. These ultimate pressures may be used to Acceleration, a
Site
calculate the ultimate moments and shear loads and
factor, S 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.11
compared directly with the ultimate capacities given in
Part B:Chapter 6 of this manual 190-mm hollow concrete blockwork 55% solid. G5 = 2.31 kN/m2
Horizontal earthquake force (per unit area) 0.67 0.17 0.20 0.23 0.25 0.28 0.31
1.00 0.25 0.29 0.34 0.038 0.42 0.46
= aS ac a Cci I G < O.SGc
1.25 0.31 0.37 0.42 0.47 0.52 0.58
where:
a = acceleration coefficient 1.50 0.38 0.44 0.50 0.56 0.63 0.68
S = site factor 2.00 0.50 0.59 0.67 0.75 0.84 0.92
ac = attachment amplification factor
140-mm hollow concrete blockwork 75% solid, G = 2.32 kN/m2
ax height amplification factor
Cci = earthquake coefficient for 0.67 0.17 0.40 0.23 0.25 0.28 0.31
architectural components 1.00 0.25 0.30 0.34 0.38 0.42 0.46
I = importance factor 1.25 0.32 .037 0.42 0.47 0.53 0.58

= unit weight of component.
1.50 0.38 0.44 0.50 0.57 0.63 0.69
Domestic Structures
2.00 0.50 0.59 0.67 0.76 0.84 0.92
For domestic structures, the horizontal out-of-plane unit
forces for non-ductile components such as unreinforced
110-mm hollow concrete blockwork90% solid. G = 2.20 kN/m2
masonry, gable ends, chimneys, parapets are given by:
F = 1.8 aS G 0.67 0.16 0.18 0.21 0.24 0.27 0.29
For cases other than those listed below, refer to 1.00 0.24 0.28 0.32 0.36 0.40 0.44
AS 1170.4. 1.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55
For earthquake forces on masonry walls due to self- 1.50 0.36 0.42 0.48 0.54 0.60 0.65
weight plus plasterboard to one face and a masonry 2.00 0.48 0.56 0.63 0.71 0.79 0.87
density 2180 kg/rn3, see Table 1.11
General Structures go-mm hollow concrete blockwork 80% soLid, G = 1.62 kN/m2
For general structures, the horizontal out-of-plane unit 0.67 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20 0.22
forces are given by: 1.00 0.18 0.21 0.24 0.26 0.29 0.32
= aS ac ax Cci I Gc <
1.25 0.22 0.26 0.29 0.33 0.37 0.40
For cases other than those listed below, refer to
1.50 0.26 0.31 0.35 0.40 0.44 0.48
AS 1170.4.
2.00 0.35 0.41 0.53 0.59 0.64
For earthquake forces on masonry walls due to self-
weight plus plasterboard to one face and unreinforced,
Fp = 1.8 aS G
see Table 1.12. For close-spaced reinforced masonry,
Masonry density = 2180 kg/rn3
see Table 1.13 and wide-spaced reinforced masonry,
see Table 1.14,
Notes:
1 At the time of publication, AS 1170.4 was being revised by
Standards Australia.
I IQ
Table 1.12 Horizontal Seismic Force on Unrein forced Table 1.13 Horizontal Seismic Force on Close-Spaced
MasonFy Exterior Walls or Parapets, Walls Adjacent to or Reinforced Masonry Exterior Ductile Walls, or Enclosing
Enclosing Stairs etc for General Structures (Ccl = 1.8) Vertical Shafts, or Full-height Partitions Required to Have a
FRL for General Structures (Cci = 0.9)
Forces on walls due to self-weight plus plasterboard to
one face, F (kPa) Forces on walls due to self-weight plus plasterboard to
Acceleration, a one face, F (kPa)
Site
factor, S 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.11 Acceleration, a
Site
I 190-mm hollow concrete blockwork 55% solid. G = 2.31 kN/m2 factor, S 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.11
0.67 0.33 0.39 0.45 0.50 0.56 0.61 190-mm hollow concrete blockwork 100% solid. G= 4.18 kN/mJ
1.00 0.50 0.58 0.67 0.75 0.83 0.92 0.67 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55
1.25 0.62 0.73 0.83 0.94 1.04 1.15 1.00 0.45 0.53 0.60 0.68 0.75 0.83
1.50 0.75 0.87 1.00 1.12 1.25 1.37 1.25 0.56 0.66 0.75 0.85 0.94 1.03
2.00 1.00 1.17 1.33 1.50 1.67 1.83 1.50 0.68 0.79 0.90 1.02 1.13 1.24
2.00 0.90 1.05 1.20 1.35 1.50 1.66
140-mm hollow concrete blockwork 75% solid. = 2.32 kN/m2
0.67 0.34 0.39 0.45 0.50 0.56 0.62 140-mm hollow concrete blockwork 100% solid. G = 3.10 kN/m2
1.00 0.50 0.59 0.67 0.75 0.84 0.92 0.67 0.22 0.26 0.30 0.34 0.37 0.41
1.25 0.63 0.73 0.84 0.94 1.05 1.15 1.00 0.33 0.39 0.45 0.50 0.56 0.61
1.50 0.75 0.88 1.13 1.25 1.38 1.25 0.42 0.49 0.56 0.63 0.70 0.77
2.00 1.00 1.17 I1.00
1.34 1.51 1.67 1.84 1.50 0.50 0.59 0.67 0.75 0.84 0.92
2.00 0.67 0.78 0.89 1.00 1.12 1.23
110-mm hollow concrete blockwork 90% solid, G0 2.20 kN/m2
0.67 0.32 0.37 0.42 0,48 0.53 0.58 0.9.
1.00 0.47 0.55 0.63 0.71 0.79 0.87 Near the top of the building, therefore h/h0 = 1.0 and a = 2.0.
1.25 0.59 0.69 0.79 0.89 0.99 1.09 Directly fixed to the structure, therefore ac 1.0.
Type I or Type II building, therefore I 1.00.
1.50 0.71 0.83 0.95 1.07 1.19 1.30
Masonry density = 2200 kg/rn3.
2.00 0.95 1.11 1.26 1.42 1.58 1.74
ci)
Table 1.14 Horizontal Seismic Force on Wide-Spaced >

90-mm hollow concrete blockwork 80% solid. G = 1.62 kN/m2
0)
0>
Reinforced Masonry Exterior Ductile Walls for General
0.67 0.23 0.27 0.31 0.35 0.39 0.43
Structures (C1 = 1.4)
1.00 0.35 0.41 0.47 0.52 0.58 0.64
1.25 0.44 0.51 0.58 0.66 0.73 0.80 Forces on walls due to self-weight plus plasterboard to
1.50 0.52 0.61 0.70 0.79 0.87 0.96 one face, F (kPa)
2.00 0.70 0.82 0.93 1.05 1.17 1.28 Acceleration, a
Site
factor, S 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.11
= 1.8. 190-mm hollow concrete blockwork 60% solid. G = 2.54 kN/m2

Near the top of the building, therefore h/h = 1.0 and a 2.0. 0.67 0.29 0.33 0.38 0.43 0.48 0.52
Directly fixed to the structure, therefore ac 1.0. 1.00 0.43 0.50 0.57 0.64 0.71 0.78
Type I or Type II building, therefore I = 1.00.
1.25 0.53 0.62 0.71 0.80 0.89 0.98
1.50 0.64 0.75 0.85 0.96 1.07 1.17
2.00 0.85 1.00 1.14 1.28 1.42 1.56
140-mm hollow concrete blockwork 85% solid, G = 2.65 kN/m2

0.67 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55
1.00 0.44 0.52 0.59 0.67 0.74 0.82
1.25 0.56 0.65 0.74 0.83 0.93 1.02
1.50 0.67 0.78 0.89 1.00 1.11 1.22
2.00 0.89 1.04 1.19 1.33 1.43 1.63
= 1.4.
Near the top of the building, therefore h/h0 = 1.0 and a 2.0.
Directly fixed to the structure, therefore ac = 1.0.
Type I or Type II building, therefore I = 1.00.
1.6.3 FIRE S
The horizontal forces on masonry walls due to fire are Diagonal bracing
difficult to quantify. AS 3700 requires that reinforced
Bond beams
masonry walls be designed for a pressure of 0.5 kPa.
Refer to Part B:Chapter 4 of this manual.
Portal
frames
1.6.4 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Typical load paths for large wall panels using mixed
construction are shown in Figure 1.14. The first step is
to design any unreinforced masonry for out-of-plane
horizontal loading. The next is to design any reinforced
cores or bond beams for out-of-plane horizontal loading
including those exerted from the unreinforced masonry.
Finally the combination of reinforced and unreinforced
UNREINFORCED MASONRY PANELS
masonry should be checked for in-plane shear capacity.
SUPPORTED BY BOND BEAMS AND
(If the reinforced cores and bond beams are sized and PORTAL FRAMES
spaced such that the wall qualifies as wide-spaced
reinforced masonry as defined in AS 3700 Clauses 8.5
and 8.6, it will be unnecessary to check the unreinforced

Diagonal bracing
components separately.)
Reinforced cores
Once the masonry elements have been determined, any
Bond beam
supporting structures that are needed to transmit
Portal
horizontal loads to the ground can be designed. Portal
frames
frames, beams and columns should have adequate
tH
strength to support the masonry for the loads given in I -
AS/NZS 1170.0, AS/NZS 1170.1, AS/NZS 1170.2 and
AS 1170.4. Additional horizontal loads on supports are
given in AS 3700 Clause 2.6.3 (ie the greater of 0.4 kPa
or sum of the calculated reactions plus 2.5% of vertical
load). Supporting members should also have sufficient Lr
stiffness to prevent excessive deflection which could
cause uncontrolled cracking in unreinforced elements.
Ties, anchors and other connections between the
masonry and the supporting structures must be sized - REINFORCED MASONRY WITH
and sufficiently embedded in the masonry such as to -. VERTiCALLY-REINFORCED CORES
ensure that they do not pull out under load. AS 3700 AND PORTAL FRAMES
Clause 2.6.4 requires that connections be designed for

1.25 times the calculated load. This is to ensure that the
connection is unlikely to be the weakest component in
'hear wait
S
the load path. Many commercially available head ties r
and column ties do not have much shear capacity and, Reinforced cores
for large wall panels, the selection of the appropriate tie
and spacing should be done carefully. It is good Bond beam
practice to embed connections in reinforced and grouted
cores or bond beams where possible.
The masonry walls of high-rise and medium-rise
buildings should be designed for horizontal loads as
described above, except that for loadbearing masonry
walls, the compression applied from above significantly
increased the wall's resistance to bending failure.
Wind loads are exerted on masonry walls as REINFORCED MASONRY WITH
out-of-plane horizontal pressures and in-plane shears. DIAPHRAGM ROOF AND
In northern Australia, these pressures are commonly of SHEAR WALLS
such a magnitude that reinforced hollow concrete
blockwork superstructures are most economical.
Figure 1.14 Typical Load Paths for Large Wa/I Panels
Using Mixed Construction
I )fl
DESIGN FOR MOVEMENT
steel in top face

Unreinforced concrete masonry is a brittle material,
prone to cracking due to shrinkage, thermal movement, INegative
s . =1
foundation and other structural movements. Movement
joints should be provided in large unreinforced masonry
panels to ensure that indiscriminate cracking does not ve steel in Slip material
occur. It is suggested that movement joints be placed bottom face
at points of weakness such as door or window openings

and at a maximum of 8.0-metre centres.
Reinforced masonry does not suffer the same cracking
I.
SLAB CON11NUOUS OVER A WAIl
problems as unreinforced masonry and it is generally not
necessary to place movement joints in reinforced
masonry or in the reinforced part of mixed construction. Negative steel at point of support,
bent down into hollow block
Although it is not normal to break the continuity of
which is filled with concrete
reinforced members, consideration should be given to
relieving the effects of possible excessive foundation
movement. A limiting maximum of 16.0 metres length is
suggested for reinforced masonry.
Main tensile steel Cores blanked off
When walls intersect, it is most often a requirement to in bottom face to retain concrete
S provide lateral support, thus rendering it difficult to of slab

provide for movement at the same location. Supporting pier
As buildings move under the action of material

BALCONY SLAB
shrinkage or expansion, soil shrinkage or heave, wind
load or earthquake load, there may be a tendency for
any suspended concrete slabs to move relative to their Figure 1.15 Typical Concrete Suspended Floor Slabs
masonry supports. The slabs may be structurally Showing a Structurally-Separated and a Structurally-
connected to the masonry walls so that they move as Connected Detail, Respectively
one or, alternatively, structurally separated from the
walls so that slab movement does not induce
cracking in the masonry walls, Figure 1.15.
Movement Joints in the external unreinforced or mixed
construction walls of low-rise commercial and industrial
buildings should be provided at the locations of the
supporting frames, ie at 6- to 8-metre centres. Horizontal
reinforced bond beams do not need to be broken at
these centres and may be continuous over a greater
distance (perhaps up to 16 metres), which would enable
S them to span over two panels. For internal walls,
the general recommendations noted shove should be
observed.
Movement loints should be placed at points of
weakness in unreinforced masonry such as door or
window openings and at a maximum of 6.0-metre
centres.
For houses and similar small buildings, it is suggested
that movement joints be placed at points of weakness
in unreinlorced masonry such as door or window
openings and at a maximum of 6.0-metre centres,
Since reinforced masonry houses and small buildings do
not suffer the same cracking problems as those of
unreinforced masonry, it is generally not necessary to
place movement joints in the reinforced masonry or in
the bond beams which form part of it.
1.21
DESIGN FOR DURABILITY
The durability requirements of AS 3700 Table 5.1 should

be checked and the appropriate salt attack resistance
grade of the masonry units, the correct mortar type,
the corrosion resistance of built-in components and the
required cover to reinforcement specified.
Because many of these buildings are located in
industrial areas, they may be subject to chemical
pollutants that aie particularly corrosive, cover to
reinforcement will require particular attention.
High- and medium-rise buildings located close to the
sea will require particular attention.
Masonry houses near the sea and unpainted will require
care in specifying the units, mortar and built-in
components such as ties and lintels. Most reinforced

single-leaf houses should be sealed and painted, thus
eliminating the potential corrosion of the reinforcement
and other durability problems.
C)
>
C)
>
0
1 99
DESIGN FOR
THERMAL PERFORMANCE
Concrete masonry has good thermal insulating

properties and thermal mass. If required, the
contribution of the masonry walls to the thermal
performance of the building envelope should be
checked. Considerable cost benefits may accrue through
the thermal mass of dense concrete masoniy and the
enhanced insulation of lightweight concrete masonry.
Although there are no specific requirements for thermal
performance of low-rise commercial or industrial
buildings, consideration should be given to the cost
benefits noted above.
Although there are no specific requirements for thermal
performance of high rise commercial or residential
buildings, consideration should be given to the cost
1)
benefits noted
In 2003, the ABCB (Australian Building Codes Board)
published amendments to the BCA to reduce energy use
and greenhouse gas emissions.
Housing Amendment 12 has been adopted in
Tasmania (subject to some additions), South Australia
and Northern Territory;
Western Australia and Queensland adopted the
recommendations of Amendment 13, with some
modifications of the BCA model;
New South Wales will not adopt the Amendment, but
will instead implement the BASIX online approval
system based on NatHERS and limited Deemed-to-
Satisfy values;
Victoria did not adopt the amendment, opting
instead for 5-Star Rating;
ACT did not adopt the amendment, opting instead
for 4-Star Rating.
The acceptable forms of construction to achieve the
statutory requirements are set out in Part B:Chapter 9
of this manual (Note 2)
Notes:
I At the time of publication, the ABCB was in the process
of draftmg amendments to the building regulations (BCA
Volume 1) covering the thermal performance of high-rise
and medium-rise residential buildings.
2 At the time of publication, the ABCB was in the process
of drafting amendments to the building regulations (BCA
Volume 2) covering the thermal performance of Class 1
residential buildings.
1.23
SWDESIGN OF FOOTINGS
r
r- Protection
When houses and other small buildings are constructed .j.. zone
on clay or similar soils, moisture movements in the soils
will lead to expansion or contraction of the soil causing
the building to either cantilever beyond a shrinkmg soil
mound or sag between an expanded soil rim. Reinforced
masonry panels in the ground floor of a building may Protection
be designed to act compositely with concrete footings zone Protection zone
to which they are connected by starter bars. This form MONOLFTHC SLABS
of construction can lead to significant savings in footing
costs. - Protection
zone
The piers and footings of large low-rise buildings are
beyond the scope of this manual. However, slabs and
footings for relatively small low-rise buildings are within Protection
zones
the scope of AS 2870 and this manual. Considerable
Protection
cost savings are achievable when reinforced masonry zones
walls are structurally connected to footings of reduced
cross section as described below. NON-MONOUTHIC SLABS

Residential Buildings Figure 1.16 Termite Protection Zones Requiring
Piers and footings of high-rise buildings are beyond the Supplementary Protection by One of the Methods
scope of this manual. Listed in AS 3660
The most common form of construction for new housing
in Australia is unreinforced brick walls (either cavity or
brick veneer) supported by reinforced concrete strip
footings or stiffened raft slabs. As the supporting soil
contracts or expands, the cantilevering or spanning
concrete footings or rafts are forced by the mass of the
supported building to deflect. Any unreinforced
brickwork may crack, moving sympathetically with the
deflected concrete supporting structures. The design
solutions adopted in AS 2870 Figure 3.1 cater for this
scenario by ensuring that the internal and external
concrete beams or footings have sufficient depth to
minimise the possible deflection, and articulating the
masonry wall at points of weakness ensuring that
indiscriminate cracking is minimised. For relatively
stable soils, these systems will provide effective and
economical solutions.
However, there is another practical approach to house
and small-building design that is common throughout
northern Australia. Walls may consist of strong panels of
reinforced hollow concrete blockwork tied monolithically
to the concrete footings or slabs. The strong, stiff
combination of wall and slab or footing span discrete
distances over expanding or shrinking foundations,
without cracking or showing other signs of distress.
Integrated footing/wall deep-beam systems in which
the reinforced concrete slab or footing and the concrete
masonry wall are structurally connected may be
considered to act compositely to resist the loads when
soil movement occurs. The concrete ground beams or
footings may be poured integrally with reinforced
concrete floor slabs, or they may be separate from the
floor.
The design must also make provision for the control of
termite attack. AS 3660 provides deemed-to-comply slab,
footing and masonry details that are resistant to
termites (Figure 1.16)
GLOSSARY
Bond beam
An element of reinforced masonry consisting of main
Set out below is a general glossary of concrete masonry
reinforcement grouted horizontally into hollow
terms. Where appropriate, the definitions have been
blockwork. Due to cover limitations in thin blocks, the
expanded to give more information
most common hollow concrete blocks used in bond
Additional terms associated with a specific subject are
beams are 140-mm, 190-mm or 290-mm wide. The
given in the Chapter covering that subject.
blockwork may consist of lintel blocks (U-shaped),
Hollow concrete block H blocks, Double-U blocks, hollow blocks with knock-out
Concrete masonry unit complying with AS 4455 that webs or hollow blocks with rebated webs.
consists of concrete face shells and webs between cores.
Mixed construction
Face shells Masonry walls consisting of a combination of
The two vertical faces of a hollow concrete block that unreinforced masonry and reinforced masonry (reinforced
are visible in a completed wall. Typically the minimum cores and/or bond beams) where the spacing of the
face-shell thickness of 140-mm wide blocks is 25 mm reinforced elements is greater than the spacing
and for 190-mm or 290-mm-wide blocks is 30 mm. In permitted for reinforced masonry (ie spacing greater
all cases the face shells are tapered to facilitate easy than 2.0 metres for out-of-plane bending and a
removal of the blocks from the moulds during horizontal spacing greater than 2.0 metres for vertically-
manufacture although, in some blocks intended for reinforced cores, or a vertical spacing greater than
reinforced use, the taper is kept to a minimum. 3.0 metres for horizontal bond beams for in-plane shear.)
Webs Reinforced masonry
The transverse parts of a hollow concrete block that Masonry walls into which specified quantities of main
join the face shells. Webs may be full height (the same reinforcement are incorporated at centres not exceeding
height as the face shells), rebated (shorter than the face specified limits as follows:
shells by up to 50 mm to allow horizontal steel to pass
For out-of-plane bending, if either horizontal or
through) or knock out (with planes of weakness which
vertical main reinforcement is incorporated at centres
enable them to be partially removed during
not exceeding 2.0 metres, the masonry is considered to
construction). Some blocks, such as lintel blocks, are
be "wide-spaced reinforced masonry". The reinforcement
U-shaped without vertical webs.
requirements specified in AS 3700 Clause 8.5 are:
Water thickener The main reinforcement in the direction of bending
A methyl cellulose additive for mortar to hold the shall -
moisture in suspension thus permitting the proper be spaced at centres not exceeding 2000 mm
hydration of the cement and reducing the tendency to include an area of at least 100 mm2 within
dry out. A water thickener may also include an agent 300 mm of the edges of the member; and
which assists workability of the mortar. (C) be such that A5t 0.0013 b d
Bed-joint reinforcement For in-plane shear, if horizontal main reinforcement is
Small-diameter steel reinforcement placed in the mortar incorporated at centres not exceeding 3.0 metres
joints of masonry walls, Bed-]oint reinforcement together with vertical main reinforcement at centres not
consisting of two 3-mm-diameter galvanized wires held exceeding 2.0 metres, the masonry is considered to be
in position by smaller cross wires will assist in the "wide-spaced reinforced masonry". The reinforcement
S control of cracking of finished masonry.

Main reinforcement
requirements specified in AS 3700 Clause 8.6 are:
The reinforcement shall comply with the following -
The steel reinforcement grouted into the masonry to (i) The reinforcement shall be located symmetrically
resist the principal loads resulting from wind, in the cross section.
earthquake, gravity or soil movement. (il) The reinforcement shall be spaced at centres not
exceeding 0 75 H and in any case not greater than
Secondary reinforcement 2000 mm horizontally Horizontal reinforcement
The reinforcement used to distribute concentrated loads shall be spaced at centres not exceeding 0.75 L
and resist shrinkage or thermal movement. Secondary and in any case, not greater than 3000 mm
reinforcement may consist of steel bars grouted into the vertically
masonry, or may be bed-joint reinforcement. The vertical reinforcement shall be such that
Unreinforced masonry A5 0.0013 Ad and the horizontal reinforcement is
Elements of masonry that do not contain main such that A5 > 0,0007 Ad. if the reinforcement
reinforcement. Unreinforced masonry may incorporate does not meet these requirements then the wall
steel bed-joint reinforcement if required. shall be designed in accordance with Clause 76.3.
Vertically-reinforced core Reinforcement with an area of at least 100 mm2
A masonry element consisting of main reinforcement shall be included within 300 mm of the edges
grouted vertically into the cores of hollow blockwork. parallel to the main reinforcement. It shall be
Due to cover limitations in thin blocks, the most permissible to omit the reinforcement at an edge
common hollow concrete blocks used with vertical of the wall, provided the member is anchored to
reinforcement are 140-mm, 190-mm or 290-mm wide. an abutting reinforced concrete member.
Note: Qualification as reinforced masonry rather than
mixed construction affects robustness limits and the
design loads for earthquake.
1 7!
Close-spaced reinforced masonry
A system of reinforced masonry that is fully-grouted and
contains reinforcement at a maximum spacing of
800 mm both horizontally and vertically. The minimum
area of horizontal and vertical reinforcement shall be
0.0013 Ad.
Wide-spaced reinforced masonry
A system of reinforced masonry, satisfying the criteria
for reinforced masonry for the particular action being
considered, but not satisfying the requirements for
close-spaced reinforced masonry.
I ')
STANDARD
DESIGN CHARTS
Most chapters of this manual include design charts for

common loadings and applications. The general
procedure for their use is as follows:
Select the required wall thickness (and, if
appropriate, the reinforcement arrangement)
Select the appropriate support conditions, eg
supported on four sides.
u Project the length of the wall between vertical
supports and the height of wall between horizontal
supports to determine the design point.
In the case of reinforced masonry, a reinforced core
or bond beam is considered to be a support.
Treat control joints as unsupported free ends.
Select a curve that is above or to the right of the
design point. Read off the load capacity
corresponding to the selected curve. If necessary,
interpolate between the curves.
Check that the masonry wall is adequate for other

loadings, design requirements and construction
requirements.
The design charts may be used for the rapid checking
of masonry walls shown on drawings by the following
procedure:
Photocopy the appropriate design chart onto a
transparency.
Move the transparency over 1:100 scale elevations of
the walls to be checked ensuring that they fall
within the envelope described by the axes and the
curve representing the design load. >
0>
OR
Draw a horizontal line on the transparency at the
required height of the walls, from the vertical axis to
the curve representing the design load. The length
of this line is the permissible length of wall between
supports. The plan view at 1:100 scale of each wall
may be rapidly checked using the transparency.
S
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Anon.
A Guide to Selecting Concrete Masonry Walls for Noise
1.13.1 STANDARDS Reduction
National Concrete Masonry Association, USA, 1970
Structural Standards
AS 3700 Masonry structures Anon.
AS 3600 Concrete structures Noise Control with Concrete Masonry in Multi-Family
AS 1684 National Timber Framing Code Housing
AS 2870 Residential slabs and footings - TEK 18, National Concrete Masonry Association, USA,
Construction 1972
Materials Standards Anon.

AS/NZS 4455 Masonry units and segmental payers Noise Control with Concrete Masonry
AS/NZS 4456 Masonry units and segmental payers - TEK 39, National Concrete Masonry Association, USA,
Methods of test 1972
AS/NZS 4671 Steel reinforcing materials Anon.
AS 3972 Portland and blended cements Apartments - Design for Economy, Noise Control and
AS 1672.1 Umes for building Fire Safety
AS 2758.1 Concrete aggregates TEK 51, National Concrete Masonry Association, USA,
AS 2699 Wall ties for masonry construction 1973
AS 2975 Accessories for masonry construction
Anon.
Damp proof courses and flashings
AS 2904
Concrete Masonry Blocks Out Noise in Apartments, Twin
AS 2627.1 Thermal insulation of roof/ceilings and
Houses, and Multiplex Building
walls in dwellings
CM226, National Concrete Masonry Association, USA
Loading Standards
Anon.
AS/NZS 1170.0 Structural design actions - General
Reports on Various Sponsored Tests
principles
Concrete Masonry Association of Australia and its
AS/NZS 1170.1 Structural design actions - Permanent,
Member Companies
imposed and other actions
AS/NZS 1170.2 Structural design actions - Wind actions Beranek, LL (Ed)
AS/NZS 1170.3 Structural design actions - Snow and Noise Reduction
ice actions McGraw Hill Book Company mc, USA, 1960
AS 1170.4 Minimum design loads on structures - Copeland, RE
Earthquake loads Controlling Sound with Concrete Masonry Concrete
AS 4055 Wind loads for housing Products
AS 1530.4 Fire resistance tests of elements of USA, July 1965
building construction
Harris, CM (Ed)
1.13.2 ACOUSTICS Handbook of Noise Control
McGraw Hill Book Company mc, USA. 1957
BCA 2004 Building Code of Australia, Class 2 to
Precast Concrete Handbook, Chapter 9, Clause 9.2
Class 9 Buildings, Volume One, Australian Building
Codes Board, 2004
Acoustic Properties
National Precast Concrete Association Australia and
BCA 2004 Building Code of Australia, Class I and Class Concrete Institute of Australia, 2002
10 Buildings, Housing Provisions, Volume Two, Australian
Building Codes Board, 2004
Parkin, PH and Humphreys, HR
Acoustics, Noise and Building
AS 1191-2002 Acoustics - Methods for laboratory Faber and Faber, UK, 1969
measurement of airborne sound insulation of building
elements Stanley, RC
Light and Sound for Engineers
AS/NZS 1276.1.1-1999 Acoustics - Rating of sound Hart Publishing Company, UK, 1968
insulation in buildings and building elements Part I
- Airborne sound insulation Weston, ET, Burgess, MA and Whitlock, JA
Airborne sound transmission through elements of
ISO 140.6E-1998 Acoustics - Measurement of sound buildings
insulation in buildings and of building elements Part 6 Experimental Building Station - Department of Housing
- Laboratory measurements of impact sound insulation and Construction, EBS Technical Study 48. 1973
of floors
ISO 717.1-1996 Acoustics - Rating of sound insulation
in buildings and of building elements Part I - Airborne
sound insulation
Anon.
Sound Reduction Properties of Concrete Masonry Walls
Technical Report No.55, National Concrete Masonry
Association, USA, 1955
I ')Q
S 1.13.3 FIRE Effects of Workmanship, Mortar Strength and Bond
Pattern
Gnanakrishnan, N, Lawrence, SJ and Lawther, R
Cement and Concrete Association, London, 1977
Behaviour of Cavity Brick Walls Exposed to Fire
Proceedings of the 8th International Brick/Block Shrive, NG
Masonry Conference Dublin September 1988, Compressive Strength and Strength Testing of Masonry
pp. 981-988 Proceedings of 7th International Masonry Conference
Melbourne, February 1985, pp. 699-710
Lawrence, SJ and Gnanakrishnan, N
The Fire Resistance of Masonry Walls - An Overview Sinha, BP and Hendry, AW
Proceedings of the 1st National Structural Engineering Compressive Strength of Axially Loaded Brick Walls
Conference I.E. Aust., August. 1987, pp. 431-437 Stiffened Along Their Vertical Edges
Proceedings of Fifth International Brick Masonry
Lawrence, SJ and Gnanakrishnan, N
Conference Washington, 1979.
The Fire ResLstance of Masonry Walls - A Summary
of Australian Research and its Relevance to Codes and Sinah, BP and Pedreschi, R
Building Regulations Compressive Strength and Some Elastic Properties of
Technical Record 531, National Building Technology Brickwork
Centre, North Ryde, NSW:-April-1988 The International Journal Of Masonry Construction,
Vol 3, No 1, 1983
1.13.4 VERTICAL LOADS
1.13.5 HORIZONTAL LOADS
Atkinson, RH, Noland, JL and Abrams, DP
A Deformation Failure Theory for Stack-Bond Brick Baker, LR

Masonry Pnsms in Compression The Failure Criterion of Brickwork in Vertical Flexure
Proceedings, Seventh International Brick Masonry Proceedings, Sixth International Symposium on Load
Conference, Melbourne, February 1985 Bearing Brickwork December 1977, London
Francis, AJ, Horman, CB arid Jerrems, LE Baker, LR
The Effect of Joint Thickness and Other Factors on the Measurement of the Flexural Bond Strength of Masonry
Compressive Strength of Brickwork Proceedings, Fifth International Brick Masonry
Proceedings of 2nd International Brick Masonry Conference, Washington DC, October 1979
Conference, Stoke-on-Trent, April 1970, pp. 31-37 Curtin, WG, Shaw, G, Beck, JK and Bray WA
NSW PWD/ACSE Joint Committee Structural Masonry Designers' Manual
Australian Masonry Manual Granada, 1982
NSW Public Works Department and Association of Edgell, GJ
Consulting Structural Engineers Of NSW, 1984 Commentry During Discussion
Page, AW Seminar on Reinforced and Prestressed Masonry, London,
A Study of the Influence of Brick Size on the 1982
Compressive Strength of Calcium Silicate Masonry Haseltine, BA
University of Newcastle, Department of Civil Engineering Codification of Reinforced and Prestressed Masonry
and Surveying, 1984. Civil Engineering Bulletin CE13 Design and Construction
Page, AW and Marshall, R Seminar on Reinforced and Prestressed Masonry, London,
The Influence Of Brick And Brickwork Pnsm Aspect 1982
Ratio On The Evaluation Of Compressive Strength Johnston, RK
Proceedings of 7th International Brick Masonry Partially Reinforced Industrial Masonry Wall Systems
Conference, Melbourne, 1985, pp 653-664 Proceedings, Conference of Concrete Institute of
Page, AW and Shrive, NG Australia, Sydney, June 1983
A Critical Assessment of Compression Tests for Hollow Johnston, RK
Block Masonry Partially Reinforced Concrete Masonry Walls in Flexure
Masonry International September 1988, vol. 2, no. 2, Thesis (Masters). University of Sydney, 1985
pp. 64-70
Johnston, RK
Phipps, ME Concrete Masonry to Mortar Bond Strength
The Design of Slender Masonry Walls and Columns of Technical Report, Sydney, 1983.
Geometric Cross-Section to Carry Vertical Loads
The Structural Engineer December 1987, vol. 65A, no. 12, Lawrence, SJ
pp. 443-44. Behaviour of Masonry Walls Under Lateral Loading
Thesis (PhD), University of New South Wales, 1983
Page, AW and Brooks, DS
The Design of Masonry Members for Vertical Loading. Lawrence, SJ and Marshall, B
A Review of the Provisions of the SAA Masonry Code Virtual Work Method of Designing Unrein forced Masonry
Civil Engineering Transactions The Institution of for Lateral Load
Engineers, Australia, December 1988, pp. 265-277 Mackintosh, A and Dickey, WL
Read, JB and Clements, SW Results of Variation of 'b" or Effeftive Width in Flexure in
The Strength of Concrete Blockwork Walls. Phase LU: Con crete Block Panels
Los Angeles, March 1964 (Reprinted 1971)
Mayes, RL and Clough, RW Sinah, BP
Cyclic Shear Tests on Fixed-ended Masonry Piers An Ultimate Load Analysis of Reinforced Brickwork
American Society of Civil Engineers, National Structural Flexural Work
Engineering Convention New Orleans, April 1975 The International Journal Of Masonry Construction,
Meli, R No 4, pp 151-155
Behaviour of Masonry Walls Under Lateral Loads Williams, D
Proceedings, Fifth World Conference of Earthquake Seismic Behaviour of Reinforced Masonry Shear Walls
Engineering, Rome, 1972 Thesis (PhD), University of Canterbury, New Zealand,
1971
Padhye, PY and Baker, LR
Partially Reinforced Concrete Masonry Walls Subject to Yokel, FY and Dikkers, RD
Lateral Loads Strength of Load Bearing Masonry Walls
Proceedings, Seventh International Brick Masonry Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE vol. 97, ST5,
Conference, Melbourne, February 1985 May 1971
Page, AW and Griffith, MC
A Preliminary Study of the Seismic Behaviour of Slip 1.13.6 MOVEMENT
Joints and Joints Containing Membranes in Masonry Anon.
Structures Movement Control Joints in Masonry Walls
Research Report No 160.02.1988 University of Newcastle National Building Technology Centre, 1971, NSB 57.
and University of Adelaide
NSW PWD/ACSE Joint Committee
Roberts, JJ, Tovey, AK, Cranston, WB and Australian Masonry Manual

Beebt, AW NSW Public Works Department and Association Of
Concrete Masonry Designeris' Handbook Consulting Structural Engineers of NSW, 1984
Viewpoint Publications, London, 1983
Priestley, MJN and Bridgeman, DO 1.13.7 THERMAL PERFORMANCE
Seismic Resistance of Brick Masonry Walls Anon.
Bulletin of the New Zealand Society for Earthquake The GMI Design and Construction Manual
Engineering 1974, vol. 7, no. 4 GMI Council of Australia, 1984, Section-lU
Schneider, RR Anon.
Investigation of Reinforced Brick Masonry Under Lateral Energy Conservation: Thermal Insulation of Brick
Loads Buildings
State of California, Division of Architecture, Sacramento, Brick Development Association (UK), 1980. Design Guide
1956 007
Schneider, RR Anon.
Lateral Load Tests on Reinforced Grouted Masonry Shear ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals
Walls America Society of Heating, Refrigeration and
State of California, Division of Architecture, Sacramento, Air-Conditioning Engineers, New York
1959
Anon.
Schneider, RR IHVE Guide
Shear in Concrete Masonry Piers Institution of Heating and Ventilating Engineers,
Masonry Research of Los Angeles London.
Scriviner, JC Anon.
Shear Tests on Reinforced Brick Masonry Walls How to Calculate Heat Transmission Coefficients and
British Ceramic Research Association, Technical Note Vapour Condensation Temperatures of Concrete Masonry
No. 342, October 1982 Walls
Scriviner, JC Concrete Information No. CP68, Second Edition, 1949,
Static Racking Tests on Masonry Walls Portland Cement Association, USA
Proceedings of the International Conference on Masonry Anon.
Structural Systems, Austin, 1967 The Concrete Approach to Energy Conservation
Scrivener, JC and Williams, D Portland Cement Association, USA, 1974
Behaviour of Reinforced Masonry Shear Walls Under Anon.
Cyclic Loading Estimating U-Factors for Concrete Masonry Construction
Bulletin of the New Zealand Society for Earthquake TEK 12, 1969, National Concrete Masonry Association,
Engineering,-1971 USA.
Shrive, NG Anon.
The Failure Mechanism of Face Shell Bedded (Ungrouted Thermal Comfort in Housing with Concrete Masonry
And Unreinforcedj Masonry Units
International Journal of Masonry Construction 1982, TEK 26, 1971, National Concrete Masonry Association,
vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 115-128 USA
I QCi
Anon.
Thermal Insulation of Concrete Masonry Walls
TEK 38, 1972, National Concrete Masonry Association,
USA
Anon.
Concrete Masonry Cavity Walls
USA
Anon.
Tables of 'U' Values for Concrete Masonry Walls
TEK, 67, 1975, National Concrete Masonry Association,
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Anon.
New Findings on Energy Conservation with Concrete
Masonry
USA
Delsante, AE
A Comparison of the Thermal Performance of Three
Types of Domestic Masonry Construction

Proceedings, Seventh International Brick Masonry
Conference, Melbourne, 1985
Lenchuk, P and Ramseur, R
New Insights into Energy Use and Conservation in
Structures
CM 227, 1975, National Concrete Masonry Association,
USA
Walsh, PJ, Gurr, TA and Ballantyne, ER
A Comparison of the Thermal Performance of
Heavyweight and Lightweight Construction in Australian
Dwellings
CSIRO Division of Building Research, 1982. Technical
Paper (second series) No.-44
1.13.8 FOOTINGS
Anon.
Articulated Walling (TN61)
Cement and Concrete Association of Australia, 1998
Johnston, RK
Slabs for Reinforced Single Leaf Masonry Housing
Standards Australia Seminars on AS 2870, July 1996
Mitchell, PW
The Structural Analysis of Footings on Expansive Soils
Research Report No 1, 1981 - W Smith, Consulting
Engineers, Newton, South Australia
Symons, MG, Amey, DJ and Johnston, RK
In -plane Bending of Single-Leaf Block Walls
Pacific Concrete Conference, New Zealand, November,
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Symons, MG
Strength of Masonry Wall Panels
University of South Australia Business Development
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Walsh, PF
Concrete Slabs for Houses
Technical Paper No 48 (Second Series), 1984 - CSIRO
Australia, Division of Building Research
1.31
U).
0
4-J
0
0
Chaster 2
Acoustics Contents
This chapter describes the acoustic performance of 2.1 BASIS OF DESIGN
concrete masonry used in buildings to:
Reduce reflected noise within a building, and 2.2 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
Resist the passage of airborne and impact sounds

2.3 STANDARD DESIGNS
through walls, as required by the Building Code of
Australia.
2.4 WORKED EXAMPLE
2.5 GLOSSARY
BASIS OF DESIGN
thiough the wall material, the total sound detected on
the quiet side may include radiated transmission caused
2.1.1 BACKGROUND by the vibration of the wall or wall lining.
Noise travels from its source through the air, passing Designers should consider both:
through walls, floors, ceilings, open windows or doors the control of reflected noise generated within a
and into living or office spaces. It may be controlled by room, and
isolating the noise at its source by enclosing it within
walls that will absorb and dissipate it, or by preventing the reduction noise transmitted into a room from
the noise from reaching the living or office spaces by outside via the roof, ceilings, walls, floors and
erecting sound-resistant walls in its path. openings.
When sound impinges on a wall it divides into The Building Code of Australia considers only the latter
reflected and absorbed sound. Absorbed sound is (reduction of noise transmitted from outside a room).
partly dissipated within the wall and partly transmitted Control of noise that is transmitted mechanically
through the wall. In addition to the sound transmitted through the building structure and noise originating
from equipment or machinery are beyond the scope of
Subjective Reaction dB Otigin of Sound this Manual. The most effective treatments will include
dampening and isolating the source from the structure.
200 ocket launch at lOOm
2.1.2 CONTROLLING REFLECTED NOISE
190
The sound absorption characteristics of a material

180 depend on the size, shape and configuration of its
surface texture and on the frequency spectrum of the
170 incident sound. Materials with rough and open surface
textures are generally more absorbent than those with
160 smooth textures. Such features may be incorporated into
walls, floors, ceilings or furniture.
150 Noise reduction coefficients as high as 0.6 are attainable
with some concrete masonry units of very open texture
Threshold of pain 140 and even higher values are possible with specially-
designed acoustic blocks. Such surfaces allow the
0
(I)
130 - Loudairraidsiren
Artilleryfire
incident noise to enter the interior of the wall. Part
U) of the absorbed sound is dissipated in the pores of
= Threshold ofcomfort 120 - Loud thunder the concrete, while the balance passes through the
00 Elevated train air spaces in the wall to the other side. Since sound
Extremely loud 110 Woodworking shop
absorption is a surface effect, it is not influenced by the
Rock band/loud motorcyc$e
thickness of the wall. Therefore, in a wall of constant
100 Loud car horn at 6 m
thickness, it may be necessary to strike a compromise
I
Power lawnmower
between sound absorption and sound resistance.
Very loud 90 Printing plant
Alternatively, wall systems may be custom-designed
Very loud radio
incorporating an inner leaf of sound absorbing masonry
80 Noisy factory
and an external masonry leaf of high sound resistance.
Shouting
Loud - 70 Busy street
Noisy photocopying room
60 - Average radio/air terminal
Absorbed sound
Stadium
Noisy 50 - Average conversation Dissipated sound
Restaurant/store
Normal - 40 Corridor
Private office/study room LThrough
30 Soft radio/library ansm ission
Quiet Quiet conversation/TV studio Reflected
sound
20 Recording studio
Very faint 10
Whisper at 1 m
'Sound-proof' room - tRadiatedl
transmission
Quiet human breathing
I
Threshold of hearing 0 Acoustical test room
1000-4000 Hz
Figure 2.1 Intensity Levels of Some FamiliarSounds Figure 2.2 Sound Transmission, Absorption and
Reflection
Sound absorption is maximized with units consisting
of lightweight aggregates or units with unpainted open
texture and high internal porosity, such as no-fines
concrete. Unrendered and unpainted concrete masonry Untreated OIJIOYIJOIIIL lUII pa.,..
absorbs more sound than surface-treated walls. A light surface 1 coat 2 coats 1 coat 2 coats
0.7
spray painting reduces sound absorption only marginally,
although paint that is brushed on tends to seal the 0.6
0
outer pores, reducing sound entry and dissipation. 0.5
Not all reflected sound is objectionable. It would be
0
most undesirable to have a room in which all sound C-)
generated from within was absorbed. Such a room

5 0.3
would be described as acoustically dead and could have . 0.2
unpleasant psychological effects on occupants. Sound- 0.1
absorbing materials are commonly used to quieten noisy 0
0
rooms such as airport lounges or hotel bars. Excessive UGH1WEIGHT AGGREGATE UNITS
echoing within a building can interfere with hearing.
Soundabsorbing materials may be used to adjust the Spray paint Brush paint
Untreated
reverberation time (echo time) of auditoriums, theatres surface 1 coat 2 coats 1 coat 2 coats
or concert halls to achieve a satisfactory clarity and 5 0.5
0
volume of sound for the particular type of performance
0.4
to be given.
A Noise Reduction Coefficient is a measure of the
ability of a wall to absorb sound. Figure 2.3 shows
the estimated Noise Reduction Coefficients for concrete
masonry walls with various combinations of surface
texture and finish. Although these figures provide DENSEWEIGHT AGGREGATE UNITS
a useful guide, in critical situations tests should be
carried out on the actual materials intended for use.
Figure 2.3 Estimated Noise Reduction Coefficients for
See various references from Portland Cement Association Concrete Masonry Walls
(USA) and National Concrete Masonry Association (USA)
in Part B:Chapter 1 Clause 1.13.
2.1.3 CONTROLLING TRANSMITFED NOISE

There are three distinct modes of sound transmission
through walls.
At frequencies below the resonant frequency of
the wall, the stiffness of the wall is of greatest
importance, and the mass and damping have little
effect. As the frequency increases, the mass of the
wall becomes more important and the wall may start
Stiffness Mass Coincidence to resonate.
controfled controlled controlled At frequencies beyond those which cause resonance,
the mass of the wall provides a damping effect. It is
in this region that concrete masonry (being a "high
mass" system) provides a significant advantage over
lightweight alternatives. Although the mechanism
is not well understood, the resistance to sound
.uency
transmission increases by approximately 6 dB for
'incidence dip
each doubling of the frequency or for each doubling
of the mass.
ass Law predicts At frequencies above the critical frequency, the
roctave
coincidence of the sound waves control the
behaviour. For masonry, the critical frequency is
relatively low when compared to other lighter
materials. A coincidence dip immediately above the
Frequency (Hz) critical frequency indicates a loss in airborne sound
resistance.
Figure 2.4 Characteristic Sound-Transmission-Loss Curve
[After EBS Technical Study 48]
In addition to providing walls with a high resistance Cladding such as plasterboard or fibrous cement
to sound transmission, the following factors should be Cladding can be applied in the following forms.
considered. Directly fixed to the masonry surface
Doors and wrndows of lower acoustic performance Mounted on furring channel directly to the wall
than the walls will reduce the resistance to sound
Mounted on furring channel with resilient clips to
transmission, as will leaving them open, however
the wall
slightly. Even very fine cracks or badly fitting doors
or windows will allow the passage of considerable Mounted free standing on studs adjacent to the wall.
noise. Plaster cladding directly fixed to the wall using glue,
Ducts and plenums provide paths for noise screws or furring channels can improve the high
transmission unless correctly treated. In critical frequency sound transmission loss performance of the
cases, air conditioning ducts may need to be baffled wall but may reduce its performance at low frequencies.
or lined internally with sound-absorbing material to Generally, the addition of mass to the wall will improve
the sound transmission resistance. However, performance
prevent sound from travelling along them from one
at low frequencies is generally degraded by resonance
space to another. of the cladding material (acting as a sprung mass) with
Suspended ceilings of sound absorbing material are the air in the gap between the cladding material and
very effective when properly used Although they can the wall acting as a spring. If the resonant frequency
absorb a great deal of sound originating within a also coincides with the natural resonant frequency
room, they are often responsible for the transmission of the wall (called the "coincidence frequency"), then
of this noise through the ceiling spaces into adjacent acoustic energy is transferred effectively through the
rooms. This can be prevented by extending the walls wall and may reduce its sound transmission resistance
performance by up to 8 dB. The resonance can be
acting as sound barriers up to the roof or underside
damped by the inclusion of acoustically-insulating
of the floor above, or by providing some sound
material within the cavity. The "cross-over frequency"
resistance layer above the absorbing panels. F which is defined as the frequency above which the
Environmental noise from outside the building can be sound transmission loss performance of the masonry
controlled by providing external walls of high sound wall plus cladding is better than that of the bare wall
resistance. As in the case of internal walls, special alone but below which the sound transmission loss is
attention must be paid to doors, windows, gaps and degraded, is:
cracks. = 108/(M.d)1/2 for empty cavities or
= 60/(M.d)V2 for cavities filled with fibrous
2.1.4 AIRBORNE SOUND RESISTANCE sound aborbing material
I
To achieve high sound transmission resistance, the Where:
opposite properties from those required for good sound M = surface mass of the drywall (kg/m2)
absorption are required. The following factors affect the
airborne sound resistance. d = depth of cavity (m)
Porosity Acoustic Insulation in Cavity

Bare porous masonry will have a lower sound Absorptive materials, such as polyester insulation, may
transmission resistance than non-porous masonry. The be used in the cavity between the masonry wall and
sound transmission resistance of a masonry wall can cladding. The polyester insulation provides damping
typically drop by 5 to 10 dB with small increases in and absorbs the resonant energy, improving the sound
porosity Greater increases in porosity will result in transmission resistance performance by up to 4 dB.
sound transmission resistance reductions of 20 dB Absorptive materials are also valuable in mitigating
or more. The sound transmission resistance of both the effects of sound leakage through small cracks or
porous and non-porous masonry can be improved by penetrations in the wall. The deterioration in the sound
surface treatments such as the application of render or transmission resistance of a wall is generally not as
claddings. To maintain an adequate sound transmission great when absorption is present in the cavity behind
resistance of a common wall it is important to apply the cladding
surface treatments across the whole wall, including that Resilient Impact Clips
part of the wall above the ceiling. Resilient impact clips are masonry anchors with
Render embedded rubber isolation treatment incorporated into
The use of render has a two-fold effect. It increases the the fixing bolt. The interposed rubber reduces the
mass of a mascnry wall and it can fill any residual gaps vibration transmitted from the cladding to the wall.
which may be present in the wall surface, thus reducing The use of resilient impact clips generally improves
its porosity. Render can increase the sound transmission the sound transmission resistance by 3 to 7 dB. Where
resistance of the wall by typically 2 to 5 dB. However space permits, the application of cladding to free-
the application of render can reduce the impact rating standing stud work, not fixed to the masonry wall,
of a masonry wall by typically 2 to 4 dB. This is can provide even greater sound transmission resistance
because the hard render finish provides less cushioning improvements.
to impacts than the softer masonry surface.
2.1.5 IMPACT SOUND RESISTANCE Typical penetrations in walls include mechanical
services ducts, refrigerant pipes, hydraulic reticulation
When bedrooms or other quiet areas are positioned
lines, waste pipes and fire sprinklers and electrical
adjacent to bathrooms, kitchens and the like, it is
cables. To maintain the sound transmission resistance of
important to reduce the sound transmitted through the
masonry walls it is essential to provide an acoustically-
wall as a result of a blow to the other side of the wall
rated seal around the penetration.
or attached furniture.
Chases in walls can introduce acoustic weaknesses.
The impact sound resistance of a wall is measured by
The two main effects are the removal of excessive
generating noise with a machine having multiple steel
amounts of material from the masonry units themselves,
hammers, which impact on a steel plate placed in
contact with the wall. The sound passing through the potentially exposing the inner core, and the disturbance
wall may be measured in a manner similar to that used of the mortar in the joints between masonry units. Both
of these effects can reduce the sound transmission
for airborne sound resistance.
resistance of the wall and care must be taken to
Resistance to impact sound requires properties different ensure that chasing of pipes not diminish the wall
from those for resistance to airborne sound. A dense ratings. Wherever possible chases should not extend
stiff material will vibrate when it is struck, while a deeper than 25mm into the wall. All chases should be
soft material will simply absorb the blow without rendered over after the pipes or cables are installed.
transmitting it. For example, hard dense plaster or
render has a lower impact sound resistance than the
softer commercially available plasterboards. Soft or
S
resilient connections between the external skin and the

body of the wall will also reduce the amount of impact
that is transmitted.
The impact sound resistance of a wall can generally
be improved, over a bare wall, by the use of cladding
fixed directly to steel furring channels. The use of
resilient impact clips can improve the impact insulation
performance over a bare wall by typically 3 dB The use
of free-standing cladding without any attachment to the
masonry will provide better results.
2.1.6 PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR

MASONRY WALL CONSTRUCTIONS
Where surface treatments such as cladding and render
are applied to masonry walls to achieve a target sound
transmission resistance, the treatment should be applied
full-height, from floor slab to soffit to ensure that no
degradation in wall performance occurs.
Gaps between masonry units, which may result from
poor laying techniques or when mortar shrinks during
the drying process, reduce the sound transmission
resistance of the wall. Masonry walls have higher sound
transmission resistance when full-mortar joints are
used throughout the wall. Walls tested in laboratories
generally have full joints and this must necessarily
be replicated in the field to ensure the same sound
transmission resistance.
Gaps around the vertical edges of a wall, and at the
soff it junction can greatly diminish the sound resistance
of a wall. For example a gap which is 0.1% of wall
area (corresponding to a 3 mm gap along the length
of a 3 m high wall) can reduce the sound transmission
resistance by typically 10-20 dB. Gaps around the
periphery of walls should be sealed using a high-density
acoustically-rated mastic or similar sealant. These
sealants should have a typical density of 1600 kg/m3.
Sealants should be applied to both faces of the wall
and should be applied to a depth equal to the width of
the gap.
IGN REQUIREMENTS
+ Ctr (airborne) not less than 50, and
Impact sound resistance.
2,2.1 BUILDING CODE OF AUSTRALIA - Walls requiring impact sound resistance shall consist
VOLUME I REQUIREMENTS of two leaves separated by a gap of at least 20 mm
These requirements apply to: and where required for structural purposes,
connected by resilient ties.
Class 2 Buildings, containing two or more sole-
occupancy units, each being a separate dwelling, Any walls that separate a sole occupancy unit in a
other than a Class I Building. Class 2 Building would Class 2 or 3 building from a stairway, public corridor,
include most blocks of home units public lobby or the like:
. Class 3 Buildings, residential buildings other than R (airborne) not less than 50
Class 1 and Class 2, being the common living place Any walls that separate a sole occupancy unit in a
for a number of unrelated people. They include Class 2 or 3 building from a plant room or lift shaft:
boarding houses, guest houses, hostels or lodging R (airborne) not less than 50
houses, the residential parts of hotels and motels,
A door assembly incorporated in a wall that
the residential parts of schools, accommodation
separates a sole occupancy Unit in a Class 2 or 3
for the aged, disabled or children and the staff
building from stairway, public corridor, public lobby
accommodation areas of health care buildings
or the like:
b Class 9c Buildings, aged-care buildings.
R (airborne) not less than 30

The sound transmission and insulation requirements are
Walls required to have a sound insulation shall be
set out in BCA Vol 1 Part F5, and the principal points
are summarised below. It should be noted that some constructed to the underside of:
states have varied these requirements and the means of a floor above, or
satisfying them. a ceiling with the same acoustic rating, or
The objective set out in BOA Vol 1 Clause F05 is to: a roof above.
safeguard occupants from illness or loss of amenity Class 9c Aged-care Buildings

as a result of undue sound being transmitted - Any walls that separate sole occupancy units in a
between adjoining sole-occupancy units; and Class Bc building:
from common spaces to sole-occupancy units; and R (airborne) not less than 45
(C) from parts of different classifications to sole Any walls that separate a sole occupancy unit in a
occupancy.' Class 9c building from a kitchen or laundry:
This objective is further expanded for walls in BCA Vol 1 R (airborne) not less than 45, and
Clause FF5.1 BCA Vol 1 Clauses FF5.2 and FF5.5, which Impact sound resistance.
spell out the particular applications where there are Walls requiring impact sound resistance shall consist
requirements to provide both airborne sound resistance of two leaves separated by a gap of at least 20 mm
and impact sound resistance. BCA Vol 1 Clauses FF5.3 and where required for structural purposes,
and FF5.6 further state that the sound insulation must connected by resilient ties.
not be compromised by doors or pipes. It is worth
noting that the BCA Vol 1 does not aim to reduce the Any walls that separate a sole occupancy unit
noise entering a room from outside the building, only in a Class 9c building from a bathioom, sanitry
to restrict sound passing from room to room or room to compartment (not en-suite) plantroom or utilities
public space within the building. room:
Insitu Verification of Walls R (airborne) not less than 45

BOA Vol 1 Clause FV5.2 provides for verification of walls Walls required to have a sound insulation shall be
constructed in a building based on insitu tests to constructed to the underside of:
AS/NZS 1276,1 or ISO 717.1
a floor above, or
Deemed-to-Satisfy Provisions a ceiling with the same acoustic rating, or
BOA Vol 1 Clauses F5.0 to F5.1 provide the means of a roof above.
satisfying the performance requirements and may be
summarised as follows:
Class 2 and 3 Buildings
Any walls that separate sole occupancy units in a
Class 2 or 3 building:
R + Ctr (airborne) not less than 50,
Any walls that separate a habitable room of a sole
occupancy unit in a Class 2 or 3 building from a
bathroom, sanitary compartment, laundry or kitchen
of another unit:
2.2.2 BUILDING CODE OF AUSTRALIA - Walls required to be detailed in accordance with
VOLUME 2 REQUIREMENTS BOA Vol 2 Clause 3.8.6.3, which make provision for
These requirements apply to Class 1 Buildings, single the sealing of sound insulated walls at junctions
dwelling houses, terrace houses, town houses, row with perimeter wall and roof cladding This clause
houses and villa houses, boarding houses, hostels, also requires that masonry joints be filled and
group houses and dual occupancy houses in which not provides for sound insulated articulation joints.
more than twelve persons would normally reside and BOA Vol 2 Clause 3,8.6.4 makes provision for services
residential buildings of not more than three storeys and in uninsulated walls.
containing not more than two sole-occupancy units,
located one above the other and each with separate
means of egress to the road or open space.
The sound transmission and insulation requirements
are summarised below. It should be noted that some
states have varied these requirements and the means of
satisfying them.
The objective set out in BCA Vol 2 Clause P2.4.6 is to:
provide insulation against the transmission of
airborne ... and impact generated sound sufficient to
prevent illness or loss of amenity to the occupants".
The extent of the requirement is varied in some states.

The objective is further amplified, "The required sound
insulation of walls must not be compromised by the
incorporation or penetration of a pipe or other service
element.'
Insitu Verification of Walls
BCA Vol 1 Clause 875.2 provides for verification of
walls constructed in a building based on insitu tests to
AS/NZS 1276.1 or ISO 717.1 (Not applicable in Northern
Territory, Queensland or Western Australia.)
Acceptable Construction Practice
BOA Vol 2 Clauses 3.8.6.1 to 3.8.6.4 provide the means
of satisfying the performance requirements and may be
summaiised as follows:
Walls that separate a room (other than a bathroom,
sanitary compartment, laundry or kitchen) of one
Class I building from a habitable room in an
adjoining Class 1 building (dwelling):
+ Ctr (airborne) not less than 50
Note: Northern Territory, Queeensland and Western
Australia have varied this requirement to,
R (airborne) not less than 45. Western Australia
regulations are exected to be further varied.
Walls that separate a bathroom, sanitary
compartment, laundry or kitchen of one Class I
building from a habitable room (other than a kitchen)
in an adjoimng Class 1 building (dwelling):
+ Ctr (airborne) not less than 50, and
Discontinuous construction
(i.e. for masonry, a minimum of 20 mm cavity
between two separate leaves, which if required for
structural purposes, may be connected with resilient
ties)
Note: Northern Territory, Queeensland and Western
Australia have varied this requirement to,
R (airborne) not less than 50, and Impact sound
resistance. Western Australia regulations are exected
to be further varied.
STANDARD DESIGNS
All design and detauing shall comply with the

requirements of AS 3700 and the BOA
All control joints, chases and openings shall be
insulated such that the acoustic attenuation of the wall
is maintained.
Mortar joints shall be as follows.
All bed joints and perpendicular ]oints for solid or
cored masonry shall be completely filled with
Type M3 or Type M4 mortar.
All bed joints and perpendicular joints for hollow
masonry shall include ironed M3 or M4 mortar to
at least the full thickness of the face shell at their
widest point.
All masonry units shall comply with the General
Specification set out in this manual (Part C:Chapter 2).
Deemed-To-Satisfy Construction
The Building Code of Australia Volumes 1 and 2 provide

a limited number of construction types that are deemed
to satisfy the performance requirements for airborne
sound attenuation and impact sound attenuation.
Sound Attenuation Tests
Masonry manufacturers also have a significant body
of test data on the acoustic performance of various
masonry wall systems (some incorporating various
combinations of other components such as render,
plasterboard, resilient ties, furring channels and
insulation). It is recommended that designers contact
(I) the masonry manufacturers to obtain this data and
0
4-J specific recommendations. Some typical test results
(1)
for sound transmission resistance of masonry walls are
00 demonstrate in the following Charts.
S
STC TEST RESULTS - Masonry Walls with and without Various Claddings
90 140 190
I
I
(a) Bare Wall Bare Wall (h) Bare Wall
i...
13
90 140
16
190
13-mm P asterboard e 10-mm Plasterboard C) 16-mm Plasterboard

Glued to Both Sides Glued to Both Sides Screwed to Both Sides
13 3813 16 13
90 140 190
13-mm Plasterboard 1) 10-mm Plasterboard andl3-mm j) 16-mm Plasterboa d andl3-mm

Glued to One Side, Resilient Channels. Both Sides Resilient Channels, Both Sides
13-mm Plasterboard on
28-mm Furring Channels 1313 16 13
140 190
with 10-mm Resilient
Mounts and Polyester
Insulation on Other Side
(iniIation
1 side only)
(insulation
both sides)
(g) 13-mm Plasterboard,13-mm (k) 16-mm Plasterboard,13-mm

Resilient Channels and 13-mm Resilient Channels and
Polyester Insulation, Both Sides 19-mm Fibreglass Insulation
90-mm BASALT CONCRETE 140-mm CALCIUM SILICATE 190-mm HOLLOW CONCRETE

BRICK WALL CKWALL
A BLOCK WALL (Small Cores)
Note: These test results yield Sound Transmission Class (STC) which is similar to, but not identical to, Weighted Sound Index (R)
STC TEST RESULTS - Bare Masonry Walls
S
60
59
58
57
56
-
-- IW
1W
55 RI
lit-
54
53
52 2271' -
WI
It I
51
RI
50
49 7.30U
48 29u 13.
47
46
45
44 28 12. 21
43 16 6,23. 24 25
42 ."20,4 118
41
40
39
38 8,19w
37 15
36
. 35
4-
34
32
14
iii_
-a.-
30
100 4' 200
Wall Surface Density (kg/rn2)
I
DATA DETAILS
10) Surface Unit

Data density thickness
4-J
U) number SIC (kg/rn2) (mm) Unit material Notes Test reference
0
0 1 42 174 90 Basalt brick E8S1044
2 52 260 140 Dense hollow EBS1O51
3 50 253 140 Dense hollow EBS1192
4 42 151 110 Clinker bnck E8S238
5 45 195 110 Dense brick E8S257
6 43 170 150 Dense hollow EBS287
7 49 214 200 Dense hollow EBS4O7
8 38 110 110 Lightweight concrete EBS449
9 42 208 110 Dense hollow LCA 529-83
10 41 190 110 Scotia LCA 1122-88

11 16 156 110 BasalVscoria LCA 1287-90
12 44 170 150 Densehollow LCA2192-1-75
13 48 230 200 Scotia LCA2192-3-75
14 31 130 90 Scotia RTAT621-01F103
15 37 150 90 Scotia RTAT621-01F120
16 43 140 90 Scotia/basalt RTAT621F168
17 42 120 110 Scotia lightweight RTAT621F171
18 42 174 90 Dense brick CMAA Internal Report
19 38 110 110 Conctete EBS No.48 ref no. 7011-1
20 42 150 110 Concrete EBS No.48 ref no. 6068-1

21 44 175 110 Concrete LBS No.48 ref no. 6078-1
22 45 195 110 Concrete EBS No.48 ref no. 6078-3
23 43 170 140 Clay Bagged EBS No.48 ref no. 6017-1
24 43 171 140 Dense hollow Bagged CMAA Internal Report
25 43 210 140 Dense concrete CMAA Internal Report
26 50 253 140 Dense hollow CMAA Internal Report
27 52 260 140 Dense hollow CMAA Internal Report
28 44 156 190 Lightweight concrete CMAA Internal Report
29
30
31
48
49
56
156
215
435
190
190
190
Lightweight concrete
Dense concrete
Lightweight concrete
Paint one side
Paint one side

CMAA Internal Report
S
Note: These test results yield Sound Transmission Class (SIC) which is similar to, but not identical to, Weighted Sound Index (R)
STC TEST RESULTS - Rendered Masonry Walls
60 1.
59
58
57
56 -w
55 rn
54 JR 23U
53 lIE
52
II 5,19
51 3.
50 22U
49 1,15 18
48 4,17k
47 2,14U 6,20,21
46 16
45 9. 8. .13
44 lOU
43 12 -A.
i_I
C.)
,-
42
41
ii 11 U
w
40
39
5 38
37
.
36
35
34
4- itS a-
32
31
0
Cl, 30
100 200 300
WaD Surface Density (kg/rn2)
DATA DETAILS
Surface Unit
Data density thickness
number STC (kg/rn2) (mm) Unit matenal Render Test reference
1 49 224.0 90 Basalt brick 13-mm, 2 faces EBS1O44

2 47 199.0 90 Basalt brick 13-mm, iface EBS1O44
3 51 258.0 110 Dense hollow 13-mm, 2 faces EBS1469
4 48 205.0 110 Clinker brick 13-mm, 2 faces EBS238
5 52 249.0 110 Dense brick 13-mm, 2 faces EBS257
6 47 215.0 150 Dense hollow 13-mm, 2 faces EBS287
7 50 192.4 110 Basalt/scoria 13-mm. 2 faces LCA 12 93-90
8 45 198.0 114 Boral concrete 13-mm, 2 faces LCA 2884-1-77
9 45 139.0 90 Scoria 13-mm. 2 faces RTAT621F126
10 44 209.0 190 Scoria 13-mm, 2 faces RTAT621F138

11 42 190.0 90 Scoria lightweight 13-mm, 2 faces RTAT621F167
12 43 145.0 90 Scoria lightweight 13-mm. 2 faces R1AT621F179
13 45 208.0 90 Dense hollow 13-mm. 2 faces CMM Internal Report
14 47 199.0 90 Dense brick 13-mm, 1 face CMAA Internal Report
15 49 224.0 90 Dense brick 13-mm, 2 faces CMAA Internal Report
16 46 160.0 110 Concrete brick 13-mm, 2 faces EBS No.48 ref no. 7011-2
17 48 205.0 110 Concrete brick 13-mm. 2 faces EBS No.48 ref no. 6068-2
18 49 230.0 110 Concrete brick 13-mm, 2 faces EBSN0. 4.8 ref no. 7112-01
19 52 250.0 110 Concrete brick 13-mm, 2 faces EBS No. 48 ref no, 6078-4
20 47 215.0 140 Dense concrete hollow 13-mm. 2 faces CMAA Internal Report
21 47 215.0 140 Dense concrete hollow 13-mm, 2 faces EBS No. 48 ref no. 6017-2
22 50 295.0 150 Woodwaste & cement, hollow 13-mm, 2 faces EBSN0. 48 ref no. 7063
23 54 265.0 190 Dense concrete 13-mm, 2 faces EBS No. 48 ref no. 6079
Note: These test results yield Sound Transmission Class (STC) which is similarto, but not identical to, Weighted Sound Index (R)
STC TEST RESULTS - Masonry Walls with Plaster Cladding
60 ,&I
59 -w W
58 10u
.i. . .ài.
56
IL .." W IS
-
£
,
- '' ,-:
13
- i:
.i: ,
i-a-.
-- ,
O
49
48
47 - 14U 5 2.R5...
'I
45 15. - -
j
:i
30
i
S U
100 200 300 400 500

Wall Surface Density(kg/m2)
DATA DETAILS
Plaster-
Surface Unit board
Data density thickness thickness
number SIC (kg/rn2) (mm) Unit material (mm) Notes Test reference
1 41 171.4 110 BasalVscoria 10 Plasterboard glued LCA 1295-90

2 47 206.0 110 Scoria brick 10 Plasterboard glued LCA 1127-88
3 50 273.0 140 Dense hollow 10 Plasterboard glued LCA 1267-90
4 36 164.0 110 Basalt/scoria 10 1 face only LCA 1291-90
5 48 190.0 110 Dense hollow 10 1 face only LCA 1639-92
6 45 198.0 110 Scotia brick 10 1 face only LCA 1123-88
7 50 263.0 140 Dense hollow 10 1 face only LCA 1268-90
8 59 171.0 190 Lightweight concrete 13 Metal furring, insulation CMAA Internal Report
9 57 186.0 190 Lightweight concrete 13 Timber & metal furring, insul. CMAA Internal Report
10 58 190.0 190 Lightweight concrete 13 Timber & metal furring, insul. CMAA Internal Report'
11 57 240.0 190 Lightweight concrete 13 Resilienttimber studs, insul. CMAA Internal Report
12 47 220.0 140 Dense concrete 13 1 face, resilient studs CMAA Internal Report . -
13 53 225.0 190 Dense concrete 13 1 face, resilient studs. insul. EBS No.48 ref no. 6029-1
14 48 140.0 110 Scotia lightweight 13 Plasterboard glued RTAT621F172
15 45 117.0 90 Scoria lightweight 13 Plasterboard glued RTAT621F175
16 46 168.0 90 Scotia brick 13 28-mm furringchannel RTAT62-01F121
Note: These test results yield Sound Transmission Class (STC) which is similar to, but not identical to, Weighted Sound Index (R)
S WORKED EXAMPLE
Purpose of the Worked Example

The purpose of the following worked example is to
demonstrate the steps that should be followed when
performing calculations for compliance with the BCA.
DESIGN BRIEF Applicable regulation

Design the internal walls of a home unit for the Home unit is a Class 2 Building.
sound transmission requirements of the BCA. Therefore the BCA Vol 1 applies.
Sole occupancy unit any room to

sole occupancy unit any room [walls 'A']
Requires: R + Ctr (airborne) not less than 50

BCA Vol 1 F5.5(a)(i)
ur 13 UN IT 4
Level 3 Living Bed Bed Design: Use manufacturer's test results
Sole occupancy unit bathroom, laundry,

Level 2 kitchen to sole occupancy unit habitable room
[walls 'B']
Requires: R + Ctr (airborne) not less than 50,

Level 1 and discontinuous construction
(impact sound resistance)
SECTION A-A
BCA Vol 1
F5.5(a)(ii). F5.5(a)(iii), F5.3(b)
Bed Bed
Design: Use cavity masonry wall with
resilient ties and R based on
manufacturer's test results
Kitchen I Bath' Sole occupancy unit any room to

stairway, public corridor or the like [walls 'C'l
Requires: R (airborne) not less than 50

BCA Vol 1 F5.3(b)
Design: Use manufacturer's test results
PLAN LEVEL THREE
2.13
GLOSSARY
Sound Level Meter
A sound level meter in its simplest form is a
This glossary of technical terms relevant to Acoustics
microphone and amplifier capable of measuring the
is in addition to the general Glossary given in Part B:
intensity of a complete sound, either as a whole or
Chapter 1. Where appropriate, the definitions have been
at each of a number of frequency bands or ranges in
expanded to give more information.
the audible frequency spectrum, or its intensity in a
Sound "weighted" scale. The meter is fitted with electronic
Sound is created by vibrating bodies. It is carried filters to permit the exclusion of frequency ranges other
from the source to the receiver, usually the ear, by a than that being measured and a calibrated measuring
compression and decompression wave. The ear is an device. Other filter networks are built into the electronic
extremely sensitive frequency and pressure measuring circuits to enable weighted sound level measurements
device, capable of responding to minute variations in to be made over the full audible frequency range as an
both phenomena. It perceives sound as a combination alternative to measurements at each frequency band.
of frequency spectra as a series of pressure variations.
Airborne Sound
Sound audible to humans is generally in the frequency
Airborne sound results from a source which is remote
range from 125 Hz (low pitch) to 5 kHz (high pitch).
from the receiver and which is transmitted to the
Noise receiver through the air as pressure waves.
Noise may be defined as unwanted sound or sound
Impact Sound
pollution. With ever-increasing sources of noise and a
Impact sound in a structure such as a wall results from
trend towards higher population densities, noise control
a body striking the structure and causing sound to be
has become an important environmental issue.

transmitted as vibrations directly through the structure.
Decibel
The decibel scale is a scale of sound intensity ratios. Its
Noise Reduction Coefficient
The sound absorbing properties of materials are
unit, the decibel (dB), approximates the smallest change
compared by measuring absorption coefficients at
of sound detectable by the human ear. A change of
frequencies of 250, 500, 1000 and 2000 Hz. The averaged
10 dB (1 bel), at any base sound intensity, corresponds
value over the spectrum, as a proportion of the notional
to a ten-fold change in sound intensity, 20 dB to a
absorption of an open window (which is assumed to be
one-hundred-fold change, 30 dB to a one-thousand-fold
1.0 i.e. 100% absorption) is termed the Noise Reduction
change and so on. It is a relative, not an absolute scale.
Coefficient (NRC) for the material. Such coefficients
To define an absolute scale of sound intensity level, the range from 0.02 (2% absorption) for hard plaster
average threshold of hearing was adopted as the zero to around 0.8 (80% absorption) for special acoustic
point. This corresponds to an intensity of materials.
10-12 W/m2 and an RMS pressure of 2 x iO-5 Pa.
Weighted Sound Index, 1
The human ear can tolerate a maximum intensity of
There is considerable advantage in expressing a wall's
approximately 120 dB based on this scale, corresponding
ability to resist the transmission of airborne sound as
to I W/m2 and an RMS pressure of 20 Pa.
a single number. The sound transmission loss equals
Figure 2.1 shows the sound intensity levels of some
the incident sound at each audible frequency less the
familiar sounds and the subjective reaction of the
transmitted sound at the same frequency. The mean of
human ear to such sounds
the sound transmission losses over the audible range of
Weighted Sound Level frequencies gives a good indication of sound attenuation
For convenience in defining a measured or design sound for concrete masonry and similar massive walls,
level by a single figure without having to define it in although it is not reliable for many lightweight materials
terms of a sound spectrum over a number of frequency at critical speech-privacy frequencies. Therefore, it is
bands, and to permit single-figure measurements to be more useful to calculate a "weighted mean", rather than
made with sound-level meters, 'weighted" sound level a "mean", of the sound transmission loss.
measurements are often used. Three weighting networks,
The Weighted Sound Index (R) for laboratory
referred to as "A", "B" and "C", are used for comparison
measurements is defined in AS/NZS 1276.1 (based on
purposes.
ISO 717-1) and ISO 140.3. In summary, R is determined
The "A" weighting network is designed to simulate by comparing the set of laboratory test sample
as far as possible the response of the human ear transmission losses against a set of reference data
to complex sounds of different frequencies. Sound obtained from ISO 717-1 for the sixteen one-third octave
measurements using the "A" network are expressed as bands between 100 Hz and 3150 Hz. The reference
dBA. data is amplitude shifted in steps of 1 dB by the
The "B" weighting network provides an intermediate same amount until the sum of unfavourable readings
degree of low frequency sound attenuation, Sound determined at each frequency is as large as possible,
measurements using the "B" network are expressed as but not more than 32 Hz. R is equal to the 500 Hz
dBB. value of the reference data less the number of decibels
that the reference data was shifted.
The 'C" weighting network provides the closest
practical approach to equal response to sounds of all
audible frequencies within the meter's range. Sound
measurements using the "C" network are expressed as
dBC.
Previously in Australia, Sound Transmission Class (STC),
based on an ASTM test procedure, has been used to
define a wall's ability to resist the transmission of
airborne sound. However, the Building Code of Australia
now defines its performance requirements in terms of
the ISO based Weighted Sound Index (R). In practical
terms, there is little difference between the two for
concrete masonry, and the test results included in this
manual are expressed as STC values, rather than R.
AS/NZS 1276.1 Appendix ZA provides a comparison of
STC and R.
Spectrum Adaptation Terms, C and Ctr
Notwithstanding the fact that a weighted index
(eg R) can provide an improved indication of acoustic
attenuation of audible frequencies, there are some
sources of sound, such as urban traffic noise, that are
not well accommodated. The Spectrum Adaptation
Term (0tr) has been introduced to further describe the
performance of a wall when subjected to sound likely to
originate from A-weighted urban traffic noise. A similar
S
Spectrum Adaptation Term (C) may also be used to

describe the response to A-weighted "pink" noise. The
Spectrum Adaptation Terms (C and Ct1) are defined in
AS/NZS 1276.1 (based on ISO 717-1).
Both C and Cu have negative values, such that when
they are added to the R, they diminish the combined
value. Therefore relatively small values for C and Cu
indicate good overall performance whilst large values
indication a deterioration of performance at low
frequencies. Typically, concrete masonry will have a
values in the following ranges;
C -lto-2
Ctr 3 to -10.
Weighted Standardised Level Difference, DflTw
The Weighted Standardised Level Difference (DflTW), for
field measurements is defined in AS/NZS 1276.1 (based
on ISO 717-1) and ISO 140-4 in a manner similar to that
used for Weighted Sound Index (R).
Previously in Australia, Field Sound Transmission Class
(FSTC), based on an ASTM test procedure, has been
used to define a wall's ability to resist the transmission
of airborne sound in the constructed building. However,
the Building Code of Australia now defines its
performance requirements in terms of the ISO based
Weighted Standardised Level Difference (DHTW).
Weighted Standardised Impact Sound Pressure
Level, LflTW
The Weighted Standardised Impact Sound Pressure Level
(LflTW) for measurements of impact resistance is defined
in AS/NZS 717-1. The Building Code of Australia also
makes provision for the determination of comparative
resistance of walls to impact Sound using AS 1191 and
ISO 140/6.
S
Chaster 3
Robustness Contents
This chapter provides the robustness requirements 3.1 BASIS OF DESIGN
to ensure that masonry has a basic degree of
strength and stiffness in addition to that 3.2 GLOSSARY
determined by calculation considering
applied loads. 3.3 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
3.5 WORKED EXAMPLE

OF D ES IG N GLOSSARY
Designers are required to design masonry walls to This glossary of technical terms relevant to Robustness
withstand the loads set Out in the Australian Standards is in addition to the general Glossary given in Part B:
called up in the Building Code of Australia (BCA). The Chapter 1. Where appropriate, the definitions have been
principal loads (called actions in AS/NZS 1170) are expanded to give more information.
permanent and imposed actions specified in AS/NZS Isolated pier
1170.1, wind actions specified in AS/NZS 1170.2 or AS
An isolated pier is a masonry member where neither the
4055, snow and ice actions from AS/NZS 1170.3 and
thickness nor the length exceeds one fifth of its height.
earthquake loads given by AS 1170.4. Designers are also For example, a member which is 2.4 metres high will be
required to consider earth pressures and fluid pressures. considered as an isolated pier if its length is less than
Notwithstanding this requirement to consider the loads 480 mm. If it is greater than 480 mm, it is considered to
in the Australian Standards, it is possible for the lateral be a wall.
loads on some walls to be neglected. For example,
Length, L
consider the internal loadbeanng masonry walls in the The length used for robustness calculations measured
basement of a threEstorey regular building in between vertical supports, or, if an opening is
earthquake design category A. These walls may be incorporated, from a vertical support to the edge of the
considered remote from wind loads for design purposes, opening.
but may still be prone to some wind pressure when the
doors are open. They may not be required to have a fire
resistance level although could be subjected to
unforeseen fire loads. The earthquake code does not

require static or dynamic analysis even though
earthquakes could still occur. Such walls could also be
subject to vehicle impact, although there is no guidance
given in Australian Standards. It is therefore possible
for a designer to design very large walls of this type
without any consideration of lateral loads.
The robustness provisions are a practical means of
providing an upper limit on the size of walls and
isolated piers, thus ensuring that unreasonably large
spans are not specified. The robustness limits are not a
substitute for rational analysis or design for calculated
loads, but rather a global limit beyond which even the
most lightly loaded walls and piers should not be built.
The robustness provisions of AS 3700 have been derived
by giving consideration to the current forms of
construction in use (for example, the increasing use
of 90-mm masonry units in partition walls and cavity
walls), lateral pressures in the range 0.3 to 0.5 kPa and
the engineering judgment of the code writers. The
formulae should not be used to justify structures that
engineering judgment would otherwise indicate as
inappropriate. Careful consideration should also be given
to the likelihood of chasing and its effect in reducing
support.
Walls that support concrete slabs have enhanced
resistance to lateral loads (compared to those walls that
do not support slabs), and therefore have more
liberal robustness limits. In cavity construction, both
leaves contribute to lateral resistance and are therefore
considered for robustness purposes.
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
S The vertical robustness limit for horizontally reinforced
bond beams (ie mixed construction with no vertical
AS 3700 Clause 4.6 sets out the required robustness
reinforcement) of "No limit" will apply, provided
limits and has been interpreted as follows in the
preparation of design charts. Lr/tr Ch (Where Ch is the value for horizontally
reinforced masonry, Ch = 48). The unreinforced masonry
For isolated piers that is contiguous with the reinforced masonry must
also be checked for robustness.
Equation 4.6.2(1)
In the design charts, there is no contribution to vertical
Note: The transition from an isolated pier to a wall stiffness from engaged piers. If such piers do exist,
occurs at a height-to-length ratio of 5: 1 as defined in Table 7.2 may be used to determine values for k,
Clause 1.5.2.27. for the vertical robustness of walls that incorporate
monolithically engaged piers.
For walls spanning vertically
H
Equation 4.6.2(2)
For walls with at least one edge

vertically-supported and Lr /tr Ch
= No limit Equation 4.6.2(3)
For walls with at least one edge

vertically-supported and Lr 'tr > Ch
+ 0h Equation 4.6.2(4)
tr
V
Ct
For a wall that incorporates an opening, the length used
for robustness calculations Lr is measured from any
vertical support to the edge of the opening. This is
the same length as the one used to calculate the
slenderness for vertical load capacity.
Reinforced Masonry and Mixed Construction
The following interpretations have been used to derive
the design charts for reinforced masonry and mixed
construction.
For reinforced masonry walls that have both horizontal
and vertical reinforcement at centres less than 2.0 m in
each direction, the robustness limits from Table 4.2 for
both horizontally and vertically reinforced masonry can
be used and applied to Equation 4.6.2.(4).
For vertically reinforced masonry (vertically reinforced
cores at centres less than 2.0 m horizontally and without
effective horizontal reinforcement), the robustness limit
from Table 4.2 for vertically reinforced masonry can be
used and applied to Equation 4.6.2(2).
For mixed construction with vertical reinforcement
(vertically reinforced cores at centres greater than 2 0 m
horizontally and without effective horizontal
reinforcement), the robustness limit from Table 4.2 for
vertically reinforced isolated piers, C, 30, has been
used and applied to Equation 4.6.2.(2) except in the case
where the wall supports a concrete slab. In this case,
C = 36 has been used to be consistent with the case
of an unreinforced wall supporting a concrete slab. The
unreinforced masonry that is contiguous with the
reinforced masonry should also be checked for
robustness.
STANDARD DESIGNS
3.4.2 STANDARD DESIGN CHARTS
How to Read
34.1 GENERAL The general procedure with most charts is as follows;
Design and detailing Select the required wall thickness (and, if
All design and detailing shall comply with the appropriate, the reinforcement arrangement).
requirements of AS 3700. It is the designers
responsibility to allow for the effects of control joints, Select the appropriate support conditions
chases, openings, strength and stiffness of ties and (eg, supported on four sides).
connectors, and strength and stiffness of supports, in Project the length of the wall between vertical
addition to normal considerations of loads and masonry supports and the height of wall between horizontal
properties. Control joints and openings must be treated supports to determine the design point.
as free ends as specified by AS 3700.
Select a curve which is above or to the right
Masonry Properties of the design point. Read off the load capacity
The standard designs in this chapter are based on corresponding to the selected curve. If necessary,
minimum masonry properties complying with the
interpolate between curves.
General Specification set out in Chapter 1 of this
manual, modified as noted on the standard design Check that the masonry wall is adequate for other
chart and as noted below. loadings, design requirements and construction
Hollow concrete blocks requirements.
Width 90 mm, 110 mm, 140 mm and 190 mm List of Charts

Height 190 mm DESCRIPTION PAGE
Length 390 mm Unieinforced Masonry

Cavity Walls;
Face shell bedded
90 + 90-mm leaf 3.5
Minimum face shell thickness, 90 + 110-mm leaf 3.6
t = 25 mm for 90-mm, 110-mm and 140-mm units 110 + 110-mm leaf 3.7
t = 30 mm for 190-mm units 90 + 140-mm leaf 3.8
Minimum characteristic compressive strength, 110 + 140-mm leaf 3.9
1'uc =15 MPa Single-leaf Walls;
90-mm leaf 3.10
Minimum characteristic lateral modulus of rupture, 110-mm leaf 3.11
= 0.8 MPa 140-mm leaf 3.12
Solid or cored concrete bricks 190-mm leaf 3.13
Width 110 mm Reinforced Masonry
Height 76 mm Horizontal and Vertical Reinforcement
140-mm leaf 3.14
Length 230 mm
190-mm leaf 3.15
Fully bedded Vertical Reinforcement Only
Minimum characteristic compressive strength,
'uc =10 MPa
140-mm leaf
190-mm leaf
3.16
3,17
S
Minimum characteristic lateral modulus of rupture, Reinforced and Mixed Construction
= 0.8 MPa Horizontal Reinforcement Only
140-mm leaf 3.18
Mortar Joints
190-mm leaf 3.19
Mortar type M3 (or M4)
Mixed Construction
Joint thickness 10 mm
Vertically-reinforced Cores
Concrete grout 140-mm leaf 3.20
Minimum characteristic compressive strength, 190-mm leaf 3.21
= 20 MPa
Minimum cement content 300 kg/rn3
Steel reinforcement
N12, N16 or N20 as required for structural purposes and
determined in other chapters of this manual to comply
with AS 3700, Clause 8.5.
S
UNREINFORCED MASONRY
9.0
(a) WALLS WITH VERTICAL SUPPORTS
8.0 C,,=36, Ch=36
7.0
/////'//U'/
Laterally-supported Line
bothendsandtop
and supportinga / No 1
concrete slab
6.0
Length
5.0
E
C,,=27, Ch=36
t
U,
C
4.0
C.
C. both ends and top
3.0 No 2
and not supporting a
C
concrete slab
2.0
Length )
1.0
C5=6, Ch=36
:2
0 fgD both ends, No.3
0 10 20 30 40 5.0 60 70 80 90 =a,
top free
Length of Wall Between Supports (m) ,- /,
Length )
WALLS WITHOUT VERTICAL SUPPORTS C,, = 36, Ch = 12

C,, = 36 27
C,,
/A/,U'//4
one end and top
Laterally-supported Laterally-supported 0 No. 4
-c top and bottom -c
00 top and bottom = and supporting a
0 a, concrete slab
= and supporting a = and not supporting a
concrete slab concrete slab
Lenl
Maximum height = 4.320 (m) Maximum height = 3.240 (m)
Line No. 7 Line No. 8
C,,=27, Ch=l2
7 4'////A////,'////t//,
(c) ISOLATED PIERS (d) FREE-STANDING WALL one end and top
No. 5
= and notsupportinga
C,, = 13.5 C,, = 6.0 concrete slab
Height to length Length

=00 1
Laterally-supported Laterally-supported
=0 top and bottom bottom only C,,6, Ch=l2
=
' 2 Laterally-supported Line
one end, No. 6
Maximum height = 0.720 (m) topfree
Length Line No. 10
Maximum height = 1.620 (m)
Line No. 9 Length
NOTE: It is the designer's responsibility to allow for the effects of control joints, chases, openings, strength and stiffness of ties
and connectors, and strength and stiffness of supports, in addition to normal considerations of loads and masonry properties
9.0
8,0 C0=36, Ch=36
7.0 Laterally-supported Line

bothendsandtop No 1
a) and supportinga
4 concrete slab 4
6.0 - 1 -,-
Length )
5.0 4
2
E
C0=27, Ch=36
t
0
4.0
5
LJWUP CIIUa allu top
3.0
DO
a)
No 2
= 4 concrete slab
a)
a)
2.0 3
Length )
1.0 6
C0=6, Ch=36
.
/ Laterally-supported Line
0 10 2.0 30 40 50 6.0 70 80 90
.P / both ends,
top free
No.3
Length of Wall Between Supports (m)
/ /////////////////////t
I enøth
(b) WALLS WITHOUT VERTICAL SUPPORTS C0=36, Ch=l2

C = 36 C0 = 27
/ /,/,//,U/A
//,*'////A'///,*////,4'//, one end and top
ci
Laterally-supported Laterally-supported DO
a)
No. 4
and supporting a
top and bottom Os top and bottom
a) concrete slab
and supporting a and not supporting a
Length
C0=27, Ch=12
I I I
(C) ISOLATED PIERS (d) FREE-STANDING WALL ) oneendandtop No. 5
and notsupportinga
C = 13.5 C = 6.0 1 concrete slab
Length
Height to length 5:1
a) Do
top and bottom a) bottom only C0=6, Ch=l2
one end, No. 6
Maximum height 0.800 (m) top free
Length Line No.10
Maximum height 1.800 (m)
Line No. 9 Length
C=36, Ch=36
both ends and top
No. 1
and supporting a
concrete slab
Length
C,,=27, Ch=36
Laterally-supported
Line
both ends and top
No 2
and notsupportinga
concrete slab
Length >
C,,=6, Ch=36
DO
/ Laterally-supported
/ Line
0
both ends,
0 10 2.0 30 40
50 60 70 80 90 = / topfree / No. 3
Length
(b) WALLS WITHOUT VERTICAL SUPPORTS C, = 36, Ch = 12

C,,=36 C,,=27
//,'$'////A/////////,$'//, -C
DC one end and top
Laterally-supported Laterally-supported No. 4
top and bottom DO top and bottom =
00
and supporting a
0 concrete slab
and supporting a = and not supporting a
Length
C,,=27, Ch=l2
''
I I
i Laterally-supported Line
(C) ISOLATED PIERS (d) FREE-STANDING WALL DO 'A oneendandtop No. 5
0 and notsupportinga
C,, = 13.5 C,, = 6.0 concrete slab
Heighttolength5: 1 Length
DO Laterally-supported Laterally-supported
0)
= top and bottom bottom only C,, 6, Ch = 12
one end. No. 6
Maximum height = 0.880 (m) top free
Length Line No. 10 .-. ////7///////////////////
Line No. 9 Length
9.0
8.0 C=36, Ch=36
1
/2/
7.0 ,, Laterally-supported Line
// both endsand top
No. 1
= , and supporting a
concrete slab
6.0
4 //////////////////////
2
k Length )
E
5 C=27, Ch=36
,4Q
0
0. both ends and top
3.0 No. 2
and notsupportinga
=
0 concrete slab
2.0
Length )
6
C=6, Ch=36
=0 0
Laterally-supported
both ends,
Line
No.3
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Length of Wall Between Supports (m) I top free
lnath

C=36 C=27
Laterally-supported
//4'////A////AV///,4'/// one end and top
Line
and supporting a
top and bottom Sc top and bottom
0 concrete slab
=2) and supporting a and not supportulga
Length
C5 = 27, Ch = 12
I I I I
one end and top
(c) ISOLATED PIERS (d) FREE-STANDING WALL No.5
and notsupportinga
C = 13.5 C = 6.0 concrete slab
////// ///////////////////////
Height to length 1
Length
Sc Laterally-supported Laterally-supported
-C
=0 top and bottom
Sc
0 bottom only C = 6, Ch = 12
one end, No. 6
Length Line No. 10 I
Line No. 9 lonøth
9.0
8.0 1 C,, = 36, Ch36
7.0
D
// Laterally-supported
both endsandtop
Line
No. 1
and supportinga
6.0 ., ////////////////////////
concrete slab
0
5.0 -
I 5
C,,=27, Ch=36
Length
Laterally-supported
0. Line
bothendsandtop No.2
3.0
= concrete slab
2.0
U 6
C=6, Ch=36
Li
)
/ Line
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 7.0 80 90 =
w // both ends,
topfree / No. 3

,
Length
(b) WALLS WITHOUT VERTICAL SUPPORTS C,, = 36, Ch = 12

C=36 C=27 A4 /. A A
//,''////A/////*////A'/// one end and top
-C and supporting a
top and bottom top and bottom
0 concrete slab
and supporting a and not supporting a

C,, = 27, Ch = 12
I I I
(C) ISOLATED PIERS (d) FREE-STANDING WALL . oneendandtop No. 5
j and not supporting a
C, = 13.5 C,, = 6.0 concrete slab
/
1
Length
Height to length 5: 1
0 Laterally-supported Laterally-supported
= top and bottom 0 bottom only C = 6, Ch = 12
-
one end, No.6
Length Line No. 10 .-.- /
Line No. 9 ten
NOTE: It is the designers responsibility to allow for the effects of control joints, chases, openings, strength and stiffness of ties
9.0
8.0 C0 = 36, Ch = 36
7.0 .-.
-
00
both ends and top
Line
a,
No. 1
= andsupportinga
concrete slab
6.0
Length
5.0
E
C0=27, Ch=36
t
0
1
I I I I
.' / andbothendsandtop
4 Laterally-supported Line
0.
3.0 2 No.2
notsupportinga
=
0)
0)
5=._. / ///////////////////// concrete slab
2.0
Length )
3
1.0
6 C0=6, Ch=36
0) Laterally-supported Line
m 0 I both ends, No. 3
0 1.0 20 30 4.0 50 60 70 80 90
//7//////////////////y
top free
( Length
(b) WALLS WITHOUT VERTICAL SUPPORTS C0 = 36, Ch = 12

C0=36 C0=27
//,4'////A////AY///,4'//7 -C
0,0 one end and top
Laterally-supported Laterally-supported 0 No. 4
-c -C and supporting a
0,0 top and bottom 0,0 top and bottom
concrete slab
a,
and supporting a =a, and not supportinga
Le

C0=27, Ch=l2
I I
(d) FREE-STANDING WALL one end and top
(c) ISOLATED PIERS No. 5
C0= 13.5 C = 6.0 concrete ab
Length
Heightto length 5: 1
00 Laterally-supported -c Laterally-supported
00
top and bottom 0 bottom only C = 6, Ch = 12
-'S 7
C / Laterally-supported Line
Maximum height = 0.540 (m) .

00
/ one end,
top free
No. 6
Length Line No. 10 .5-.- /

Maximum height= 1.215 (m)
Line No. 9 Length
Q
9.0 4
8.0 C,,=36, Ch=36
7.0 Laterally-supported Line

both ends and top
a, No. 1
= and supporting a
concrete slab
6.0
Length
5.0
C,,=27, Ch=36
S Laterally-supported
Line
both endsandtop
=
3.0
andnotsupportinga / No 2
a, concrete slab
////////////////////////
2.0
kLength
1.0
a) Laterally-supported Line
0
both ends. No.3
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
top free
/
Length
(b) WALLS WITHOUT VERTICAL SUPPORTS C,, = 36, Ch = 12

C = 36 C= 27
i/4'////,////,////A'//, Laterally-supported
one end and top
Line
Laterally-supported Laterally-supported a, No. 4
top and bottom top and bottom = and supporting a
a, a, concrete slab
Len

C,,=27, Ch=l2
(c) ISOLATED PIERS (d) FREE-STANDING WALL oneendandtop No. 5
and notsupportinga
= 13.5 C,, 6.0 1 concrete slab
Heightto length 5:1 Length

-C
a,
Laterally-supported -C Laterally-supported
= top and bottom a, bottom only C,,=6, Ch=l2
=
one end, No. 6
C,
Length Line No. 10
Line No. 9 Length
and connectors, and strength and stiffness of supports, in addition to normal considerations Of loads and masonry properties
9.0
8.0 C5=36, Ch=36
7.0 - '/ Laterally-supported Line
1
: both ends andtop
and supportinga
No. 1
concrete slab
6.0
4 k Length
5.0 2
E
C5=27, Ch=36
5 I I
0
0. Laterally-supported Line
No. 2
ci
3.0 and notsupportinga
0 concrete slab I0
a)
3
2.0
Length >
6
C5=6, Ch=36
il,001 Laterally-supported
both ends,
Line
No.3
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 top free
Length

C5 = 36 C5= 27
Laterally-supported
//,+'////A'///+////A-'//, oneendandtop
Line
'A No. 4
-c .0 and supporting a
top and bottom Os top and bottom
a, 0 concrete slab
and supporting a and not supportinga
Length
Maximum height 5.040 (m) Maximum height = 3.780 (m)
C5=27, Ch=l2
(C) ISOLATED PIERS (d) FREE-STANDING WALL fa , oneendandtop No. 5
0 and not supporting a
C= 13.5 C = 6.0 1 concrete slab
/////,
Length
Height to length 5:1
-c
as Laterally-supported .0 Laterally-supported
0 Os
top and bottom 0 bottom only C5=6, Ch=l2
1/7/7, '//////////////////////, f.a
one end, No. 6
Maximum height 0.840 (m) =0 top free
Length Line No. 10
Line No. 9 Length
NOTE: It is the designers responsibility to allow for the effects øf control joints, chases, openings, strength and stiffness of ties
S
9.0

2
8.0 C=36, Ch=36
7.0 ..-- Laterally-supported Line

both ends andtop
No. 1
/ andsupportinga
concrete slab
6.0
/////////////////////
5
Length
5.0
E 3 C=27, Ch=36
t
0
4.0
Laterally-supported
Line
3.0 No 2
= concrete slab
a)
2.0
Length )
6
0 1.0 C5=6, Ch=36
±0 .=
.
both ends,
Line
No.3
0 10 20 30 40
50 60 70 80 90
- // /////////////////////t/
top free
Length
(b) WALLS WITHOUT VERTICAL SUPPORTS C0 = 36, Ch = 12

C5=36 C=27
.6 .6
Laterally-supported
//A'////A'////$////,3'/// one end and top
Line
Laterally-supported Laterally-supported a) No. 4
and supporting a
concrete slab
=a) and supporting a =a) and not supporting a
Length
C0=27, Ch=l2
I I
J Laterally-supported Line
(C) ISOLATED PIERS (d) FREE-STANDING WALL 0,, , oneendandtop No. 5
a, and notsupportinga
1 concrete slab
Heightto length 5:1 Length

=
top and bottom bottom only = 6, Ch = 12
=a,
Length

Line No. 10
00
=
J
a)
one end,
top free
No. 6
Line No. 9 Length
REINFORCED MASONRY -
horizontal and vertical reinforcement1 U
C=48, Ch=48
both ends and top No. 1
and supporting a (off
concrete slab ' cha
Length
C=36, Ch=48
I I I
bothendsandtop
a)
No 2
concrete slab
Length
Cv6t, Ch=48
-= / -2 Laterally-supported Line
/
a)
0 both ends,
.o No. 3
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 topfree
Length
Both horizontal and vertical reinforcement, I Values based
complying with AS 3700 Cl. 8.5, must be included on reinforcement
at spacings not more than 2 metres in either direction terminating at supports C=48, Ch16t
one end and top
a
No. 4
= and supporting a
concrete slab
Length
C = 36, Ch
I I
// ,4////,t'///A-'///,k/z
= one end and top
No. 5
=a) and notsupportinga
concrete slab
Length
C=6t, Ch=16
a, // oneend,
topfree
No.6
( Length
horizontal and vertical reinforcementt
9.0 -
8.0 C5=48, Ch=48

5
7.0 Laterally-supported ,, Line
both endsandtop No. 1
and supportinga (off
concrete slab chart)
6.0
Length
5.0
E C0=36, Ch=48
t
0
I I
Laterally-supported
I
,, Line
0.
0. both ends and top No.2
a, and notsupportinga (off
////////////////////////
2.0
6 k Length >
Cv6t, Ch=48
Line
Laterally-supported
both ends,
No.3
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 top free (off
Length of Wall Between Supports (m) I ' chart)
Length
Both horizontal and vertical reinforcement, Values based
complying with AS 3700 CI. 8.5, must be included on reinforcement
at spacings not more than 2 metres in either direction terminating at supports C,, = 48, Ch = l6t
-C
00 one end and top No. 4
a' and supporting a (off
Length
C,,=36, Ch=16
-C
00 , oneendandtop No. 5
a, and not supporting a
concrete slab
Length
C,,6t, Ch=16t
oneend, No.6
top free
/
( Length
vertical reinforcement onlyt
9,0 -
8.0 - C=48
7.0 Laterally-supported
1&4 bothendsandtop
and supporting a
concrete slab
6.0 ////////////////////////
2&5 2,5&8 Maximum height = 6.720 (m)
5.0 - Line No. 1
E
C = 36
0
0. .-..
0.
= both endsandtop
2.0
-. 10
/
and notsupportinga
concrete slab
Maximum height
I
5.040 (m)
1.0 Line No. 2
-C
0
C,, = 48
C))
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
(I) Length of Wall Between Supports (m)
ci)
Laterally-supported
oneendandtop
C/) and supportinga
concrete slab
0 (b) WALLS WITHOUT VERTICAL SUPPORTS
C=48 C=36 Maximum height = 6.720 (m)

Line No. 4
and supporting a and not supporting a C,,=36
'/////////////////////// I I I
Laterally-supported
Maximum height = 6.720 (m) Maximum height = 5.040 (m) one end and top
Line No. 7 Line No. 8 and notsupportinga
concrete slab
///////////////////////;
(c) ISOLATED PIERS (d) FREE-STANDING WALL
Line No. 5
C= 30 C = 12
Laterally-supported
bottom only
l4eightto length 5: 1 Vertical reinforcement

Laterally-supported Continuous past or
top and bottom into support

Length
Line No. 10
Vertical reinforcement,
Maximum height = 4.200 (m) complying with AS 3700 Cl. 8.5.
Line No. 9 at spacings not more than 2 metres
21
vertical reinforcement only1
9.0
7
8.0 C, = 48
7.0 2&5 Z5&8 Laterally-supported

bothendsandtop
and supportinga
concrete slab
6.0
7,8 &
5.0 - Line No. 1
E
4,0 C,, 36
0
0.
0.
= both endsandtop
a)
S 10 =0) and notsupportinga
2.0 , concrete slab

0
10 Line No. 2
.0
a)
0
C,, = 48
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 8.0 90
Laterally-supported
one end and top
0) and supporting a
concrete slab
(b) WALLS WITHOUT VERTICAL SUPPORTS
C=48 C=36 Maximum height = 9.120 (m)

Line No. 4
-C top and bottom top and bottom
a)
= and supporting a =a) and not supporting a C,, = 36
concrete slab concrete slab I I
Laterally-supported
Maximum height = 9.120 (m) Maximum height = 6.840 (m) oneendandtop
Line No. 7 Line No. 8 a) and not supporting a
concrete slab

(C) ISOLATED PIERS (d) FREE-STANDING WALL
Line No. 5
C 30 C, 12
Laterally-supported
bottom only
Height to length 5:1 Vertical reinforcement

Laterally-supported continuous past or
top and bottom into support
//////////////////////7,
Length
Line No. 10
Maximum height = 5.700 (m) complying with AS 3700 Cl. 8.5,
Line No. 9 at spacings not more than 2 metres
17
REINFORCED AND MIXED CONSTRUCTION -
horizontal reinforcement only1
9.0 -
8.0 Ch = 48
7.0 -- Laterally-supported
both ends andtop
and supportinga
concrete slab
6.0
1,2 &3 Length

5.0
I Maximum length = 6.720 (m)
Line No. 1
E
4.0
0 Ch = 48
0.
0.
3.0
Laterally-supported
a both endsandtop
and notsupportinga
2.0
concrete slab
Length
Maximum length = 6.720 (m)

Line No. 2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Length of Wall Between Supports (m) Ch = 48
Laterally-supported
both ends,
topfree
/////////////////////
Length )
Line No. 3
Horizontal reinforcement
complying with AS 3700 Cl. 8.5
Spacings not necessarily limited
2 15
9.0
8.0
horizontal reinforcement only1
Ch = 48
I
bothendsandtop
and supportinga
concrete slab
6.0 ////////////////////////
1,2 & 3 Length )
5.0
I Maximum length = 9.120 (m)
Line No. 1
E I
0 Ch 48
0
3.0
= Laterally-supported
1)
w bothendsandtop
and notsupportinga
5) 2.0
concrete slab
CS
/ ////////////////////
0
1.0 Length )
± 0
Line No. 2
0 1.0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Length of Wall Between Supports (m) Ch = 48
Laterally-supported
both ends,
topfree
Length >

Line No. 3
Horizontal reinforcement
complying with AS 3700 Cl. 8.5
Spacings not necessarily limited
and connectors, and strength and stiffness of supports, in addition to normal considerations 0f loads and masonry properties
ig
MIXED CONSTRUCTION -
vertically-reinforced cores1
9.0
(a) WALLS WITH VERTICAL SI PPORTS
8.0 C = 36
- both ends and top
and supportinga
,. t concrete slab
6.0 ///////////////////////
Maximum height = 5.0 40 (m)
5.0
14&7
- Line No. 1
E 2,5&8
t
(0
0
4.0 = 30
0.
0.
= both ends andtop
a)
and notsupportinga
2.0 concrete slab
10
Maximum height = 4.21 0 (m)
1.0
Line No. 2
f' _.)
0 10 20 30 40
50 60 70 80 9.0
/
////
Laterally-supported
//; one end and top
and supporting a
concrete slab
C=36 C0=30 Maximum height 5.040 (m)

Line No. 4
////////////////,
top and bottom an top and bottom
0 C = 30
Laterally-supported
concrete slab

Line No. 5
(d) FREE-STANDING WALL
C = 12
Laterally-supported
bottom only
Vertical reinforcement
an continuous pastor
0
= into support
Maximum height = 1.680 (m) complying with AS 3700 Cl. 8.5,
Line No. 10 at spacings greater than 2 metres
2 ')Ci
MIXED CONSTRUCTION -
vertically-reinforced corest
9.0 -
8.0 C, = 36
1,4& 7
=
// both endsandtop
and supportinga
concrete slab
6.0
-I 2, 5 & 8
//////////////////////
5.0 Line No.1
E
30
S 0
0.
= both endsandtop
4,
0) 10 and notsupportinga
2.0 concrete slab

Line No. 2
4,
0
C0 = 36
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Length of Wall Between Supports (m) /N////,/,4/,
Laterally-supported
a,
'A
.. one end andtop
and supportinga
concrete slab
C0=36 C5=30 Maximum height = 6.840 (m)

I I I Line No. 4
0 a, C = 30
Laterally-supported
concrete slab

Line No. 5
(d) FREE-STANDING WALL
C, = 12
Laterally-supported
bottom only
-c
continuous past or
a,
= into support
///////////////////////,
Maximum height = 2.280 (m) complying with AS 3700 CI. 8.5,
Line No. 10 at spacings greater than 2 metres
321
WORKED EXAMPLE
Mortar joints
3.5.3 MASONRY PROPERTIES
demonstrate the steps to be followed when performing Concrete grout
manual calculations or when preparing computer Minimum characteristic compressive strength,
software for the analysis and design of masonry. = 20 MPa
The worked example also serves the purpose of Minimum cement content 300 kg/m3
demonstrating the origin of the Standard Designs which
are based on similar masonry capacity considerations. Steel reinforcement
Although comprehensive in its treatment of AS 3700, the N12, N16 or N20 as required for structural purposes and
worked example is not intended to analyze or design determined in other chapters of this manual.
all parts of the particular structure. It deals only with
enough to demonstrate the design method.
All design and detailing shall comply with the
requirements of AS 3700. It is the designer's
responsibility to allow for the effects of control joints,
chases, openings, strength and stiffness of ties and
connectors, and strength and stiffness of supports, in
addition to normal considerations of loads and masonry

properties. Control joints and openings must be treated
The worked examples in this chapter are based on
masonry properties complying with the General
Specification set out in Part C:Chapter 2, modified as
noted in the calculations and as noted below.
Hollow concrete blocks
Width 90 mm, 110 mm, 140 mm and 190 mm
Height 190 mm
Length 390 mm
Face-shell bedded
Minimum face-shell thickness,
= 25 mm for 90-mm, 110-mm and 140-ram units
= 30 mm for 190-mm units
'uc =15 MPa
Minimum characteristic lateral modulus of rupture,
'ut = 0.8 MPa
Solid or cored concrete bricks
Width 110 mm
Height 76 mm
Length 230 mm
Fully bedded
'uc =10 MPa
= 0.8 MPa
2 'Y)
DESIGN BRIEF ROBUSTN ESS
Design for robustness, the wall indicated in the Wall is unreinforced masonry.
following drawings. Laterally-supported at the top.
Top supporting a concrete slab.
Has one vertical support. other end free.
1050
C = 36 Table 4.2
Ch = 12 Table 4.2
2700
Length of wall
175
L = 3.70 m
H
2700
>-
S 175
2.7
5
2700 Wall to be = 0.54 m Not isolated pier
designed
600 Robustness length of wall

Lr = L 4.6.2
2100 = 3.7m
100
Effective thickness
SECTION A-A
tr=2(1l0+90) 4.6.2
= 133 mm
= 0.133m
I
Robustness limit
4.500
S tr 0.133
4500
800
3700
II-
-fi = 33.8
> Ch = 12
Wall to be designed Height

H = 2.700 m
1- Ch
110 + 90 )J tr 4.6.2(d)
cavity walls (50 cavity) <Lcv+ Lr - Chtr
PART PLAN AT LEVEL 1 12
= r36+( )1 0.133
L 3.700-[12x0.l33]J
= 5.546m OK
<kt tr C, 4.6.2(b)
= 1.0 x 0.133 x 36
=4.788m OK
NOTE: Walls of top floor do not support a
slab and must therefore be checked separately
3.23
e
Fire Contents
This chapter provides the design requirements for 4.1 BASIS OF DESIGN
masonry subject to fire as specified in the BCA
(Building Code of Australia). 4.2 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
4.4 WORKED EXAMPLES
4.5 GLOSSARY
BASIS OF DESIGN -
For many years, concrete masonry has proven to be one

of our most cost-effective fire-rated building materials.
The BCA and AS 3700 now ensure that both reinforced
and unreinforced concrete masonry systems can be
designed to provide the required fire resistance of walls.
A severe fire adjacent to a masonry wall will cause the
exposed face of the wall to expand while the
unexposed face remains near to its original dimensions.
This differential expansion causes the wall to bow
towards the fire, perhaps cracking and allowing flame or
hot gasses to pass through, and possibly causing
collapse if the wall is unreinforced. In addition, heat
may be transmitted through the wall causing flammable
materials touching the unexposed face to ignite.
The BCA specifies that walls must achieve certain FRL5
(Fire Resistance Levels) for structural adequacy (stability
against collapse), integrity (resistance to excessive
cracking and passage of hot gasses and flames) and
S
insulation (resistance to the passage of heat).

The FRL for structural adequacy of a particular wall
is a measure of its ability to remain stable and depends
on the thermal expansion of the material used in the
manufacture of the masonry units, reinforcement of the
wall and the wall slenderness. Slenderness depends on
wall thickness and spacing of vertical and horizontal
supports.
The FRL for the integrity of a particular wall is a
measure of its ability to resist the passage of flames
or hot gasses through cracks and fissures. The factors
affecting integrity are not well understood but could
include the materials used in the manufacture of the
masonry units and the thickness of the masonry units.
The FRL for insulation of a particular wall is a measure
of its ability to resist the passage of heat through the
wall. It depends on the density and composition of the
masonry units; the material thickness of the masonry
units, any renders or other finishes applied to the walls
and any grout within the wall.
Fire performance of masonry materials can be
determined either by a standard test on a 3.0-metre-
square panel as set out in AS 1530.4 or by using the
deemed-to-comply tables of AS 3700. Once the material
behaviour is known, the designer must then provide
adequate thicknesses, supports, reinforcement and
details to enable the structure to achieve the
required FRLs.
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
AS 1530.4 sets out the standard method of testing and
the failure criteria for building materials (including
4.2.1 BUILDING CODE OF AUSTRALIA concrete masonry). Thus AS 1530.4 and the standard
test provide the basic fire performance data that can
The BCA Part C requires designers to check three
be used by designers in the design of real structures.
separate fire performance limit states:
Masonry panels (3 metres square) are built into one
structural adequacy (resistance to collapse), side of a gas-fired furnace. Five thermocouples are
integrity (resistance to cracking), and located on the external face of the wall to measure
the temperature rise. A vertical load may be applied by
insulation (resistance to the passage of heat). jacks in the top of the furnace to simulate a floor slab
In particular, structural adequacy under fire load must loading. The panels may be supported at the top and
be checked by reference to design rules in AS 3700. bottom and subjected to an applied 'oad. This is known
No longer can an architect simply match a particular as a "loadbearing test". Alternatively, the panels may be
masonry unit to an insulation value. Now, in addition to supported on four sides and not subjected to any
this insulation requirement, a structural engineer must externally applied load. This is known as a
calculate or check, for each wall in the building, its "non-loadbearing test". This choice in terminology is
slenderness, fixity, panel action and robustness. perhaps a little misleading, since experience has shown
that collapse of a wall (structural adequacy failure) is
4.2.2 AS 3700 MASONRY STRUCTURES more influenced by the number of sides supported and
the corresponding wall slenderness than by the
S AS 3700 gives two options to the designer of masonry
magnitude of this applied vertical load. A more
walls subject to fire:

informative description would be "test with supports at
Design the masonry for structural adequacy, integrity top and bottom" and "test with supports on four sides".
and insulation using tabulated (deemed-to-comply) AS 1530.4 uses the three failure criteria of structural
limits On: adequacy, integrity and insulation.
slenderness (Table 6.1) As heat is applied to the exposed face of the masonry,
cover to reinforcement (Table 6.2) it expands. The unexposed face remains relatively close
material thickness (Table 6.3) to ambient temperature, and therefore does not expand
or significantly. Thus the wall is induced to bow into the
furnace towards the tire. If the wall is supported top
Design the masonry for structural adequacy, integrity and bottom only, the deflection will be considerably
and insulation using data from tests. This may be greater than for four-sided support. When the deflection
further subdivided as data from a single test or data approaches the thickness of the wall, the wall will no
from at least two tests. longer remain stable. Thus collapse occurs (structural
adequacy is exceeded). The more slender the panel, the
4.2.3 DEEMED-TO-COMPLY sooner collapse, Figure 4..1, If the panel is supported
FIRE RESISTANCE LEVELS on four sides, the deflection will be smaller. The use of
basalt or similar aggregates with low siliceous content
During the writing of AS 3700, the masonry unit
generally leads to a reduction in differential expansion
manufacturers gave Standards Australia the results of
when exposed to fire, and thus enhanced stability or
a number of fire tests on various masonry units. These
structural adequacy.
tests formed the basis of the deemed-to-comply tables.
The tables have been subdivided into different unit
types and make provision for units with:
U Over 45% basalt aggregate (improved structural
adequacy)
Density under 1800 kg/rn3 (improved insulation).
The deemed-to-comply tables of AS 3700 represent limits
which cater for any type of masonry likely to be
produced in Australia, including those which have poor
structural adequacy or low insulation. The tables are
thus very conservative. More cost effective solutions can
be achieved by developing masonry products with mixes
designed specifically to give improved structural
adequacy or insulation and then testing these to
determine their performance
4.2.4 STANDARD FIRE TEST TO AS 1530.4

AS 3700 makes provision for the determination of Initial State Point of Collapse
material properties from fire tests in accordance with
AS 1540.4, and the use this data to predict wall Figure 4.1 Collapse Mechanism of Concrete Masonry Wall
behaviour. Subject to Fire
During the test, it is normal for cracks to appear in the
masonry. The cracks will commonly be vertical, first
appearing near the centre top of the wall and
propagating downwards, Figure 4.2. The mechanism of
cracking is not well understood, although the following Typical crack
factors are known to influence the behaviour. Initial development
cracking may result from shrinkage of the units as pattern
moisture is driven off. As the material expands on the

exposed face, it could close the cracks on the exposed
face but open them further at the unexposed face. The
criterion for measuring cracking (integrity failure) is not
defined in AS 1530.4 and the methods used to
determine failure during the test include placing a
thermocouple over the major cracks, placing a wad of Figure 4.2 Typical Rre Tesf Crack Pattern
cotton wool in front of the cracks to observe if ignition
takes place or visually observing the red glow of the
furnace through the cracks.
The temperature of the unexposed face is recorded by
the thermocouples and generally follows the type of
curve shown in Figure 4.3. As the temperature inside
r 1100
1000
the furnace increases, the temperature of the unexposed

face reaches a plateau at approximately 100°C for a 900
Furnace
lengthy period. During this time, the moisture in the temperature
masonry units is absorbing "latent heat" and is 800
evaporating from the surface, Moist patches can be seen 700
on the surface of the wall and water vapour can be
seen escaping. When all of the free water has 600
evaporated, the temperature of the unexposed face
continues to rise until it reaches the criteria defined in 500
AS 1530.4 as "insulation failure" (average temperature 400

rise of 140°C above ambient or a temperature rise of any
of the five thermocouples by 180°C above ambient). The P 300Temperature of
use of lightweight scoria aggregate has been shown to unexposed face
' 200 of masonry - maximum
give improved insulation. =
While it is reasonable to assume that the insulation
performance of a particular material in the standard test 110: -- average
will be the same as the insulation performance of the 0 60 120 180

same material in a real building, the structural Time (minutes)
adequacy of a masonry wall in a real building will be
influenced by many additional factors including the Figure 4.3 Plot of Typical Fire Test Results
position of cross walls, spacing of piers, fixity of the
wall to supporting elements, slenderness of the wall
and magnitude of the load supported.
The results derived from the standard test of AS 1530.4 Tested purpose-designed unreinforced masonry
must therefore be interpreted to give the structural Units with scoria and/or basalt aggregate can be used
adequacy of real masonry walls in real buildings. This to provide enhanced structural adequacy for large wall
method of interpretation is provided in AS 3700. panels or improved insulation and integrity.
Mixed construction consisting of reinforced bond
4.2.5 MASONRY SYSTEMS beams and unreinforced masonry between
Various concrete masonry wall systems are well suited If very large wall panels are required (such as in a
to particular applications as shown below: factory, warehouse, auditorium or shopping centre), a
common method of construction is unreinforced masonry
Deemed-to-comply unreinforced masonry
panels spanning vertically between horizontal reinforced
This will provide an economical solution where the
bond beams supported by portal frames, columns or
required fire resistance levels are low and the walls are
piers. AS 3700 places a slenderness limit of 36 on
relatively small and well supported. The permissible
reinforced masonry for structural adequacy, and this
slenderness limits for masonry with 45% or more basalt
effectively limits the frame spacing for 190-mm
content are greater than for those with less than 45%
blockwork to 6.84 metres and for 140-mm blockwork
basalt. The required material thicknesses for concrete
to 5.04 metres, Figure 4.4. These reinforced bond
with a density under 1800 kg/rn3 are less than for those
beams must be designed to withstand a lateral pressure
of denser materials.
of 0.5 kPa.
Reinforced masonry with vertical reinforcement
Maxrrnum spacing
5040 for 140-mm block. In some cases, the size of walls or the magnitude of the
6840 for 190-mm block loads requires the use of vertical reinforcement
complying with the definitions in AS 3700 Clause 8.5
Reinforced
bond beam and spaced at centres not more than 2000 mm.
In this case, the wall may be considered to be
reinforced masonry rather than mixed construction.
This has advantages when considering robustness.
4.2.6 HIGH PERFORMANCE MASONRY

Reinforced Some specially tested masonry systems developed in
bond beam
Australia have quite low expansion and can therefore
remain stable even when used in relatively slender
140- or 190-mm walls. This enables large wall panels to be built,
hollow block
although in some cases robustness and horizontal load
considerations may override.
Supportingframes
High performance masonry systems have not been
Horizontally-Reinforced Bond Beams included in the standard designs in this manual.
Manufacturers are able to provide supplementary design
S
charts and supporting calculations and test certificates

Note: Bond beam for their particular systems.
attop optional
4.2.7 CHASES
Masonry walls are usually cored or hollow Thus at any
140- or 190-rn 'T.
hollow bêock
one point in the wall, the cross-sectional area could be
wide-spaced different from the area at an adjacent section. Small
reinforcement local reductions in area do not diminish the capacity of
oras mixed the wall to insulate against heat transfer, the heat being
constnction
absorbed into the adjacent material. Therefore, from the
aspect of providing insulation, a small number of chases
up to 30 mm deep would have little effect.
Of more concern is the effect of chases on structural
Vertically-reinforced cores
adequacy. For vertically spanning walls, it is unlikely
Vertically-Reinforced Cores that a vertical chase would have significant effect, but a
long straight horizontal chase near the mid-height of the
Figure 4.4 Reinforced and Mixed Construction wall would significantly reduce the structural
Arrangements for Concrete Masonry Wa/Is adequacy. For walls intended to span horizontally in
two-way action (panel action), a vertical chase must be
treated as a free end.
Mixed construction consisting of vertical
reinforcement and unreinforced masonry AS 3700 Clause 6.7 provides rules for chases, which are
between summarised in Table 4.1
If the intended frame spacing exceeds 6.84 metres in
190-mm blockwork or 5.04 metres in 140-mm blockwork 4.2.8 RECESSES
(or if there are no supporting frames at all), very large Small local reductions in area of material do not
wall panels may be designed using unreinforced significantly diminish the capacity of the wall to
masonry that spans horizontally between vertical insulate against heat transfer, the heat being absorbed
reinforced cores. These reinforced cores must be into the adjacent material. AS 3700 Clause 6.6 requires
designed to withstand a lateral pressure 0.5 kPa. If the that the total face area of recesses on both sides of any
wall is subject to vertical load, it must be designed for 5-m2 section of the wall shall not exceed 10,000 mm2
a bending moment equal to the vertical load multiplied (eg 1 recess 100 x 100 mm, 2 recesses 50 x 100 mm, etc).
by an eccentricity of height divided by 36. Using this
system of mixed construction, 190-mm-thick walls up 4.2.9 DOORS AND WINDOWS
to 6.84 metres high can be constructed, Figure 4.4.
Similarly 140-mm mixed construction can be constructed If a door or window is incorporated into a fire-resistant
masonry wall, the masonry should be considered to have
up to 5.04 metres. For many years, it was difficult to
achieve 180-minute or 240-minute fire resistance levels a free edge at the interface with the door or
window, although it must be remembered that any
in reinforced construction, because the small cores of
the then available 140-mm and 190-mm blocks were
buckling of the door or window under the action of fire
not appropriate for reinforcement or grout. These levels could exert a lateral line load on the masonry wall The
magnitude of this line load and means of assessing it
can, however, now be achieved using purpose-designed
is not well understood by researchers and has not been
blocks with large cores that are quite satisfactory for
reinforcing and grouting. included in AS 3700.
Table 4.1 Design Requirements forChases. (Based on AS 3700 Clause 6.7)
Chase Chase Chase

Design requirements for:
.
Support details direction length depth (mm) Structural adequacy IIE;L, Insulation
////////////.////
Walls without
Vertica!(11 Any <30
>30
S
. .x .*
H vertical
supports Horizontal(2) t <30
>30
.. .* x
>4 t <30
>30
x
x
.* .*
t- thickness of wall
I I
before chasing
/ Walls with
Vertical11) H/2 <30
>30
.. .* S
*
.*
.
H
>H/2 <30 x S
>30 x *
Horizontal12) L/2 <30 .. .* I*
( L
>
>o
> L/2 <30 * .* .
NOTES:
I >30
LEGEND:
x 'C
I Although not a requirement of AS 3700, it is better Ignore - for Structural Adequacy, if chase < 30 mm
to run services through the cores of hollow block deep; for Integrity and Insulation, as well as chase
masonry rather than to chase it. <30 mm deep the following must also apply. Any
2 If horizontal chasing is unavoidable, it is best placed chase cross section shall not exceed 1000 mm2
close to the top or bottom of a wall. Although (eg 10 mm deep x 100 mm wide, 20 mm deep x
AS 3700 will permit quite long horizontal chases, 50 mm wide or 30 mm deep x 33 mm wide).
it is best to ensure that chases are kept short with The total face area of the chases on both sides of
unchased masonry at regular intervals. any 5-rn2 section of the wall shall not exceed
100,000 mm2 (eg two chases 2.5 m long x 20 mm
wide)
.
'C Consider - for purposes of Structural Adequacy,
Integrity and Insulation, the thickness of the wall
should be measured from the base of the chase to
the opposite face (ie the thinnest section).
In addition, for Structural Adequacy, the chase should
be considered as an unsupported free edge and the
wall panel should be considered to consist of a
number of smaller sub-panels.
4.2.10 REINFORCEMENT 4.2.11 JOINTS

Steel reinforcement con be incorporated vertically and/or All control joints and expansion joints in a fire resistant
horizontally (Figure 4.4) into hollow block walls to masonry wall should be such as to conform with the
provide lateral support. Such reinforcement must comply integrity requirements of AS 3700 and prevent the
with AS 3700 Section 5 and, if it is to be considered for passage of flames and hot gasses. This can be achieved
structural purposes, it must comply with the relevant by:
requirements of AS 3700 Section 8. AS 3700 Clause 6.3.5 omitting the mortar and inserting an intumescent
requires that the reinforcement in reinforced masonry
sealing material designed for the purpose, or
walls subject to fire loading be designed to withstand a
horizontal pressure of 0.5 kPa or vertical reinforcement H providing a full mortar joint. If the joint is required
to be weatherproofed, it may be raked and the
.
must be designed to withstand the bending moment
caused be any vertical loads applied at an eccentricity surface filled with a flexible Jointing compound.
of height/36. Such a detail will not be suitable for expansion.
The BCA makes provision for the placing of non-
combustible mineral fibre insulating material in the gaps
between the fire wall and abutting
ng structure or roof.
STANDARD DESIGNS
How to Read
4.3.1 GENERAL The general procedure with most charts is as follows:
requirements of AS 3700 and, where appropriate,
AS/NZS 1170.
Select the appropriate support conditions
(eg, supported on four sides).
It is the designers responsibility to allow for the effects
of control joints, chases, openings, strength and stiffness Project the length of the wall between vertical
of ties and connectors, and strength and stiffness of supports and the height of wall between horizontal
supports, in addition to normal considerations of loads supports to determine the design point.
and masonry properties. Control joints and openings Select a curve which is above or to the right
must be treated as free ends as specified by AS 3700. of the design point. Read off the load capacity
Masonry properties corresponding to the selected curve. If necessary,
The standard designs in this chapter are based on interpolate between curves.
masonry properties complying with the General Check that the masonry wall is adequate for other
Specification set out in Chapter 1 of this manual,
modified as noted on the standard design chart and as
noted below. Where units are required to have over 45% requirements. Some charts have superimposed the
robustness requirements for the same conditions.
basalt content, this is noted on the charts. Many

manufacturers have tested units which have List of Charts
performance superior to that indicated in the charts. DESCRIPTION PAGE
Hollow concrete blocks FRL for Insulation
Width 90 mm, 110 mm, 140 mm and 190 mm All units 4.9
Face-shell bedded FRL for Structural Adequacy,
Face-shell thickness as required to produce the material Unreinforced Masonry,
thicknesses given in Design Chart Fire Resistance Level < 45% basalt:
for Insulation. 90-mm leaf 4.10
Minimum characteristic lateral modulus of rupture, 110-mm leaf 4.12
0.8 MPa 140-mm leaf 4.14

rut =
190-mm leaf 4.16
Solid or cored concrete units 45% basalt:
Fully bedded 90-mm leaf 4.18
uc =10 MPa 140-mm leaf 4.22
190-mm leaf 4.24
= 0.8 MPa Reinforced and Mixed Construction,
horizontally-reinforced:
Mortar joints 140-mm leaf 4.27
190-mm leaf 4.28
Joint thickness 10 mm vertically-reinforced cores:
Concrete grout 140-mm leaf 4.30
= 20 MPa

Steel reinforcement
N12, N16 or N20 as noted
NOTES
S
FIRE RESISTANCE LEVEL FOR INSULATION
a- INSULA11ON FIRE RESISTANCE LEVEL

(minutes)
Material Density
Masonry llnitThickness (mm) and Type Material Thickness (mm) > 1800 kg/rn3 1800 kg/rn3
>'>
90 cored or solid 90 60 90
90 cored or solid
12 mm cement render each face 102 90 90
(1)
110 cored or solid 110 90 120
(1)
110 cored or solid
140 hollow >2>(Er3>80) 80 60 60

140 hollow (Er3>98) 140 120 180
140 hollow >2>fully grouted 140 120 180
140 hollow
(2)
(fl
88) +
(3)

(2) (3)
140 hollow (ET 110) +
190 hollow>2>(Er>3>90) 90 60 90
190 hollow2>(Er>3> 100) 100 90 90
I
190 hollowfullygrouted 190 240 240
190 hollow (2) (E3> 90) +

(2) (3)
190 hollow 100) +
(1)
90 cored or solid + 90 cored or solid
cavity wall 180 240 240
90 cored or solid + 110 cored or solid
cavitywall 200 240 240
110 cored or solid + 110 cored orsolid
cavity wall 220 240 240
NOTES:
1 Cores less than 30% of the unit volume
(For 90-mm and 110-mm units, material thickness will be 90 mm and 110mm respectively, irrespective of howthe units are bedded)
2 Coresgreaterthan3o% of the unitvolume
3 Equivalent thickness of the masonry unit (net volume divided by face area)
S
0-mm lea
<45% basalt
9.0
a = 0.75, ah 1.0
8.0
Laterally-supported
I
both ends
7.0 and top
6.0 Length
Fire-resistance level,
5.0 FRL(minutes), for
Structural Adequacy
Supporting a concrete slab

Robustness governs in shaded areas
Not supporting a concrete slab

3.0
=
a, ----60/2.16
jj90/2.04
20 - 120/1.92
180/1,86
240/1.80
1.0 FRL/Height, (m)
a
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
= 0.75, ah = 2.5
9.0 V
Laterally-supported
one end
a,
8.0 and top
7.0 Length
Structural Adequacy
5.0
E Robustness governs in shaded areas
t
Cd,
0
0.
4.0
0.
3.0 Not supporting a concrete slab
=
ci,
a, 60/2. 16
90/2.04
2.0
'1_120/ 1.92
180/ 1.86
FRL/Height, (m)
1.0
0
a,
0
0 1.0 20 3.0 40 5.0 6.0 70 8.0 90
NOTE: It is the designer s responsibility to allow for the effects of control joints, chases, openings, strength and stiffness of ties
Li ifl
90-mm leaf
45% basalt
9.0 -
a5f-2O, ah=l.O
8.0
- .-.. f/ Laterally-supported
both ends,
.0)
top free
7.0
.-
Length
6.0
Structural Adequacy
E
S 0
0.
0.
3.0
= Robustness governs
0)
in shaded area
2.0
FRL/Height, (m)
n- 60/0.8 1
jj- 90/0.77
120/0. 72
-180/0,70
0 10 2.0 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
a=2.O, ah=2.5
9.0
Laterally-supported
one end,
0)
top free
8.0
S 7.0 Length
Structural Adequacy
5.0
E
4.O
0
0.
0.
3.0
= Robustness governs
0) in shaded area
2.0
FRI/Height, (m)
1.0 60/0.8 1
90/0.77
L 120/0.72
0 1.0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
4.11
110-mm leaf
<45% basalt
9.0
a)=O.75, ah=l.O
8.0 'V /////////////////////
Laterally-supported
both ends
7.0 andtop
/
6.0 Length

5.0
E Not supporting a concrete slab
t0
U)
4.0
0.
3.0 60/2.64
r
= 1 90/2.49
a)
0) 120/2.35
2.0 180/2 .2 7
-240/2.20
FRL/Height, (m)
1.0
FRL (minutes), for
0 10 2.0 3.0 40 50 6.0 70 80 90 Structural Adequacy
a = 0.75, ah = 2.5
9.0
,/ ////////////////////,
Laterally-supported
one end
8.0 and top
7.0 Length
6.0
5.0 Robustness governs in shaded areas

E
t
(4
0
4.0 - Not supporting a concrete slab
3.0 p- 60/2.64
= 90/2.49
a)
0) 120/2.35
2.0 180/2.27
2 40/2.20
FRL/Height, (m)
1.0
0
FRL(minutes), for
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 50 60 70 8.0 90 Structural Adequacy
ii 1
9.0
a = 2.0, ah = 1.0
8.0
..''
-
o / Laterally-supported
both ends,
7.0
/ topfree
6.0
( Length
Structural Adequacy
E
t0
0,
4.0
Robustness governs
3.0 in shaded area
2.0
FRL/Height, (m)
60/0.99
_______________f-90!0.94
180/0.85
0)
0
0 10 2.0 30 40 50 60 70 8.0 90
a=2.0, at=2.5
9.0
-
,-...
one end.
8.0 oJ top free
Length
7.0
Structural Adequacy
5.0
t
0,
0
0.
4.0
S
0. Robustness governs
3.0 in shaded area
0)
2.0
FRL/Height, (m)
- 60/0.99
90/0.94
Th 120/0. 88
0)
0
0 1.0 2.0 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
41
9.0
a=O.75, ah=l.O
8.0 7 /////////////////////
Laterally-supported
both ends
and top
7.0 -
/
6.0 Length

5.0
E
t
'I, 4.0
0 60/3.36
_i 90/3.17
3.0 120/2.99
= 180/2.89
4,
4) 240/2.80
2.0 FRL/Height, (m)
0 10 Fire-resistance level,
FRL(minutes), for
Structural Adequacy
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
I
a=O.75, ah=2.5
9.0
Laterally-supported
04 one end
a'
=
8.0 // /////////////////////
and top
7.0 Length
6.0
5.0
t
C
C.
4.0
\\ -60/3.36
C- 90/3. 17
3,0 120/2.99
= 180/2. 89
4,
4, 240/2.80
2.0 FRL/Height, (m)
Co
1.0
0 Fire-resistance level,
on FRL (minutes), for
4,
0
Structural Adequacy
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
A IA
0-mm leaf
45% basalt
9.0
a5f2.O, a=l.O
8.0 -
.-.
// Laterafly-supported
a / both ends,
7.0 / top free

I
< Length
6.0 -
Structural Adequacy
E
0
0. - Robustness governs
0.
3.0 in shaded area
=
a)
2.0 FRL/Height, (m)

[-60/1.26
jj-90/1,19
1.0 120/1.12
180/1,09
0 10 20 30 4.0 50 60 70 80 90
ah=2.5
9.0
Laterally-supported
one end,
top free
8.0
Length
7.0
6.0 FRL (minutes), for
Structural Adequacy
5.0
E
4.0
0
0.
3.0 in shaded area
=
0)
2.0 FRL/Height, (m)

60/ 1.26
90/ 1. 19
1,0 120/ 1. 12
180/1.09
0 1.0 20 30 40 50 80 70 80 90
4.1
9.0
Robustness governs
in shaded area
8.0
70
FRL(minutes), for
6.0 Structural Adequacy
5.0 FRL/Height, (m)

60/4.56
90/ 4. 3 1
12 0/4.05
180/3. 93
240/3.80
3.0
=
a)
a) aVfO.75, ah= 1.0
2.0
//
a)
0
/
Laterally-supported
both ends //
andtop
/
a)
0
k Length
0 10 20 30 4.0 50 60 70 80 90
9.0
Structural Adequacy
5.0 -. FRL/Height, (m)

- 60/4.56
- 90/4.3 1
E
120/4. 05
t0
a.
180/3.93
-240/3.80
a.
3.0
=
a)
a) a= 0.75, ah=2.5
2.0
Laterally-supported
1.0 a)
// one end
and top
a)
0
- Length
0 1.0 2.0 30 40 50 6.0 70 80 90
/1 1
190-
<45% basalt
9.0
a=2.O, ah=l.O
8.0 - Laterally-supported
both ends,
ii)
7.0
=
I top free
6.0
( Length
- Robustness governs
5.0 in shaded area
E Fire-resistance level,
t
0
FRL (minutes), for
Structural Adequacy
a.
a.
3.0
= FRL/Height, (m)
ci)
ci,
60/ 1.7 1
2.0 90/1.62
_j
120/1.52
180/1.47
240/1.43
I": 0 10 20 3.0 4.0 50 60 70 80 90

af=2.O, ah=2.5
9.0
Laterally-supported
one end,
8.0 / top free
c Length
7.0
Structural Adequacy
5.0
Robustness governs
0
a. in shaded area
a.
FRL/Height, (m)
60/171
90/1.62
120/ 1. 52
Th180/147
240/1.43
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
4.17
-mm leaf
45% basalt
9.0 -
a=O.75, ah=l.O
8.0
-..- ,////////////////////////
both ends
7.0 z andtop
I
6.0 kLength
5.0

E
U,
0

0.
3.0 60/2. 70
= 90/2.52
a) 120/2.40
2.0
180/2. 16
240/2.04
FRL/Height, (m)
FRL (minutes), for
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 9.0 Structural Adequacy
a,= 0.75, ah=2.5

9.0
Laterally-supported
-C
one end
a)
= andtop
8.0
7.0 Length
6.0
5.0

3,0 60/2. 70
= 90/2. 52
a) 120/2.40
a)
2.0 ii 180/2. 16
240/2.04
FRL/Height, (m)
1.0
a)
0 FRL(minutes), for
0 1.0 20 30 4.0 50 60 70 8.0 90 Structural Adequacy
A IQ
90-mm Ie
45% basalt
9.0
a=2.O, ah=l.O
8.0 __% /
.-, / Laterally-supported
both ends,
7.0
= / top free
I
< Length
6.0
5.0 -
E
4.0
S 0
0.
0. - Robustness governs
in shaded area
2.0
FRI/Height, (m)
60/ 1.01
90/0.95
1.0 120/0. 90
180/0.8 1
240/0. 77
0 10 2.0 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
a=2.O, ah=2.5
9.0
Laterally-supported
one end,
=U,
top free
8.0
Length
7.0
6.0 FRI (minutes), for
Structural Adequacy
5.0
E
4.0
0
0
0 S Robustness governs
0.
in shaded area
=
U)
U,
2.0
FRI/Height, (m)
60/1.01
j- 90/0.95
120/0.90
180/0.8 1
240/0. 77
0 1.0 20 30 40 5.0 60 70 80 90
S NOTE: It is the designer's responsibility to allow for the effects of control joints, chases, openings, strength and stiffness of ties
0-mm leaf
5%basalt
9.0
a = 0.75, ah 1.0
8.0
Laterally-supported
both ends
7.0 andtop
6.0 Length >

E
t0 4.0
60/3.30
j-9O/3.°8
3.0 '-120/2.93
= 180/2. 64
a)
240/2.49
2.0 FRL/Height, (m)
1.0
0 Fire-resistance level,
FRL (minutes), for
a)
0
Structural Adequacy
0 10 20 3.0 40 50 60 70 80 90
a= 0.75, ah=2.S
9.0 -S /1 Laterally-supported
one end
andtop
8.0
La 7.0 Length
6.0

5.0
E
supporting a concrete slab
rNot
t
0
0
4.0
60/3.30
j-90/3.08
3.0 120/2.9 3
= '-180/2.64
a) --240/2.49
2.0 FRL/Height, (m)
1.0
FRL(minutes), for
'a) Structural Adequacy
0 1.0 20 30 40 50 60 70 8.0 90
.0- leaf
:5% basalt
9.0
a=2.O, ah=l.O
8.0
Laterally-supported
both ends,
top free
7.0 -
Length
6.0
Structural Adequacy
E
t
S 0
0.
3.0 -- in shaded area
=
2.0 FRL/Height, (m)

- 60/1.24
(0 I90/1.16
1.0
-120/1.10
0 i180/099
240/0.94
0 10 20 3.0 40 5.0 60 70 80 90
ah=2.5
9.0
.-
-..
. 00
one end,
a)
top free
8.0
Length
7.0 -
Structural Adequacy
5.0
E
4.0
0
0. S Robustness governs
0.
3.0 in shaded area
=
0)
0)
2.0 FRL/Height, (m)

60/ 1.24
r901-16
120/ 1. 10
L180'099
240/0.94
0 1.0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
4.21
9.0
FRL(minutes), for
8.0
Structural Adequacy
7.0

6.0
5.0
FRL/Height, (m)
60/4.20
90/3.92
120/3,73
71180/3.36
240/3. 17
at 0.75, ah 1.0
2.0
Laterally-supported
both ends
a)
1.0 and top
a,
0
Length
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
a= 0.75, ah=2.5
9.0 / ////////////////////,
Laterally-supported
one end
and top
8.0
7.0 Length
6.0
- Supporting a concrete slab
5.0
E 60/4.20
4.0 90/3.92
0 _______ - 120/3.73
180/3. 36
3.0
= FRL/Height, (m)
a)
2.0
FRL (minutes), for
1": Structural Adequacy
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
i-mm leaf
% basalt
2
9.0
af=2.O, ah-l.O
8.0
Laterafly-supported
both ends,
0,
=
7.0 - / top free
.1
Length
6.0
5.0 FRL (minutes), for
Structural Adequacy
Robustness governs
in shaded area
FRL/Height, (m)
2.0 -60/1.58
1-90/1.47
120/ 1. 40
-180/1.26
-240/1.19
0,
0
0 10 20 3.0 4.0 50 60 70 80 90
a5=2.O, a=2.5
9.0
Laterally-supported
n00 one end,
.0,
8.0 I top free
7.0 Length
Structural Adequacy
5.0
-- Robustness governs
in shaded area
FRL/Height, (m)
2.0 60/1.58
__j- 90/1.47
120/1.40
180/1.26
L24o/1, 19
I': 0 1.0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
4 9.'
190-mm leaf
45% basalt
i'.
9.0
Robustness governs
in shaded area
8.0
_I
7.0
6.0 FRL/Height, (m)

60/5. 70
90/5.3 2
5.0 120/5.0 7
180/4. 56
E
4.0 _______ _______________ L240/431
0,
0
a5fO.75, ah=l.O
7 //////////////////////
Laterally-supported
a, both ends
2.0 andtop
/
1.0 Length
0
a,
0 FRL (minutes), for
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Structural Adequacy
9.0 -
6.0 FRL/Height, (m)

60/5,70
90/5.32
5.0 12 0/5. 07
180/ 4. 56
E L240/431
t
a
a.
4.0
a = 0.75, ah = 2.5
a.
3.0
= Laterally-supported
a,
one end
2.0 and top
I' Length
± 0 FRL (minutes), for
0 10 2.0 30 4.0 50 60 70 80 90 Structural Adequacy
A ')A
190-mm leaf
45% basalt
9.0
a=2.0, ah=l.O
8.0
Laterally-supported
both ends,
topfree
7.0 /
Length
6.0
Robustness governs
5.0 in shaded area
FRL(minutes), for
Structural Adequacy
FRL/Height, (m)
I 90/2.00
120/ 1.90
180/ 1. 7 1
-240/1.62
0 10 20 3.0 4.0 50 60 7.0 80 90

a=2.0, a-2.5
9.0
Laterally-supported
one end,
a)
= I' top free
8.0
Length
7.0
Structural Adequacy
5.0
E Robustness governs
t
0
4.0 in shaded area
0.
3.0
FRL/Height, (m)
=
a) 60/2.14
a)
1-90/2.00
2.0 -120/1.90
L_240/162
1.
0
=0
a)
0 10 2.0 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
49
REINFORCED AND MIXED CONSTRUCTION
0-mm leaf
orizontally-reinforced
nd beams
a) Li
a- NOTE: Also .4
7fl
check Structural
Adequa;y of
HR Reinforced
bond beams
unreinfc rced
C masonry
C,
6.0
C
a)
E
a)
C-) ' Length 'I
C
Reinforcement* required to
a)
achieve a Fire Resistance Level
(FRL) for Structural Adequacy
Ca
Reinfocement = N12 N 16
= of up to 240 minutes
C
in shaded area
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 7.0 80 90
H
9.0
NOTE: Also check Reinforced

Structu alAdequ cy HI H bond beams
of unreiliforced sonry
6' -
B0 I' Length 'I

Reinforce ent = 12 N16
40

of up to 240 minutes
Robustness governs
in shaded area
*
Minimum reinforcement to resist
0.5 kPa lateral load in accordance
with AS 3700, Clause 6.3.5
0 10 20 30 40 5.0 60 7.0 80 90
1' --rneáf
H. tally-reinforced
:ond beams
HI H Reinforced
bond beams
NOTE: Iso check
Structu alAdequ.cy
of unrei forced masonry
I' Length 'I

C
4.0 Reinforcement* required to
16 N20 achieve a Fire Resistance Level
Ct (FRL) for Structural Adequacy

Ct
0 10 20 30 4.0 50 60 7.0 80 90
or Reinforced
bond beams
E
C
NOTE: so check
C Structu alAdequacy
ofunrei forced masonry
C
C
C-
C
.E 4 () -
a)
-
ReinforcEment 12 i N20
' Length
'I

CC.
=
C
NJ
30
C
C- -
C-:
C)
Ct
*Minim reinforcement to resist

Ci
C-,
a, with AS 3700, Clause 6.3.5
0 10 20 30 4.0 50 60 7.0 80 90
A ")Q
190-mm leaf
Horizontally-reinforced
bond beams
NOTE:
Struc
of unr
Reinforced
0 H H
bond beams
6.0
N20
cc
C
C
C
cc I' Length 'I
a achieve a Fire Resistance Level
C
0 -
C
C,
0 10 20 30 40 5.0 60 7.0 80 90
Reinfor ement N 12 N16 N20

l. Reinforced
Hi H bond beams
NOTE: Also che

Structural Adeq Liacy
of unreinforced nasonry
I' Length
*Minimum reinforcement to resist

with AS 3700, Clause 6.3.5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 7.0 80 90
4.99
where P (kN/m) <2.25 H (m) 140-mm leaf
Vertically-reinforced
cores
9.0
8.0
7.0
6.0

. Not supporting a concrete slab
E
0
0.
0.
3.0
Reinforced cores
a
0)
2.0
Reinforcement - N12
NOTE: Also check
Structural Adequ cy
of unremforced m asonry
1.0
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 7.0 80 30
Horizontal Spacing of Vertical Reinforcement for Wall of Unlimited Length (ml
These charts are valid where applied vertical load P (kN/m) is less than the value *Mii reinforcement to resist
given by 2.25 H (m). If this is not the case, the reinforced niasonry must be checked 0.5 kPa lateral load in accordance
using AS 3700, Clause 6.3.5 for a bending moment equal to PH736 with AS 3700, Clause 6.3.5
A Qfl
'I.
where P (kN/m) <2.25 H (m) 'mie.
ly-reinfo
9.0
ILl
IlL
8.0
6.0 .-
5,0
NN20 Reinforced cores
0
4,0
I N16 -
0.
0.
Reinfor ent = N12 Horizonta

coarirH
2.0
NOTE: .AJso check
Reinforcement required to
Structural Adequ.cy
ofunreinforcedm onry
1.0 (FRL) for Structural Adequacy
00
±0 These charts are valid where applied vertical
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 TO 80 00 load P (kN/m) is less than the value given by
Horizontal Spacing of Vertical Reinforcement for Wall of Unlimited Length (n 2,25 H (m). If this is notthe case, the reinforced
masonry must be checked using AS 3700,
Clause 6.3.5 for a bending moment equal to
i
PH136
9.0
8.0
S
6.0 S
1i.
Reinforced cores
5.0 N20
t0
0.
4.0
0.
3.0 einTottement N12
ci) Honzorital
fl n
2.0
NOTE: - so check Reinforcement* required to
Structural Adequ .cy achieve a Fire Resistance Level
ofunreinforcedm' .
ii)
*Miim reinforcement to resist 0.5 kPa lateral
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 0 load in accordance with AS 3700, Clause 6.3.5
Horizontal Spaci ig of Vertical Reinforcement for Wall of Unlimited Length
4.1
WORKED EXAMPLES
Concrete grout
4.4.1 GENERAL = 20 MPa
Purpose of the worked examples Minimum cement content 300 kg/rn3

The purpose of the following worked examples is to Steel reinforcement
demonstrate the steps to be followed when performing N12, N16 or N20 as noted
manual calculations or when preparing computer
software for the analysis and design of masonry.
The worked examples also serve the purpose of
are based on similar masonry capacity considerations.
Although comprehensive in its treatment of AS 3700, the
worked examples are not intended to analyze or design
all parts of the particular structure. They deal only with
Design and detailing
requirements of AS 3700.
of control joints, chases, openings, strength and stiffness

of ties and connectors, and strength and stiffness of
supports, in addition to normal considerations of loads
and masonry properties. Control joints and openings
must be treated as free ends as specified by AS 3700.
Masonry Properties
Specification set out in Chapter 1 of this manual,
modified as noted in the calculations and as noted
below.
Height 190 mm
Length 390 mm
Face-shell bedded
Face-shell thickness as required to produce the material
thicknesses.
'ut = 0.8 MPa
Where units are required to consist of over 45% basalt
content, this is noted.
Width 110 mm
Height 76 mm
Length 230 mm
f' =10 MPa
= 0.8 MPa
Mortar joints
EXAMPLE I FIRE RESISTANCE LEVELS
DESIGN BRIEF
4-storey building with single-occupancy units
Design for fire, the wall indicated in the Class 2
following drawings. Type A construction BCA Table Cl.]
Wall is over 3.0 m from boundary (fire source)
1050
Required FRL: 90/60/30

ie Structural adequacy 90 mins
2700
Integrity 60 mins
Insulation 30 mins
2700
2700 Wall to be
designed
Level 1
600
2100
SECTION A-A
IA
3700 Wall to be designed
110+90
cavity walls (50 cavity)
PART PLAN AT LEVEL 1

STRUCTURAL ADEQUACY INTEGRITY
110 90
For 60 minutes integrity, units must have a

Loadbearing leaf thickness material thickness of at least 80 mm for
t = 90 mm denseweight concrete (> 1800 kg/m3)
6.4.2 Table 6.3
Load on inner leaf> 1.1 load on outer leaf Actual material thickness
pi> i.1P0 tm 90 + 110
Sj' for inner leaf only 6.3.2.1 = 200 mm
>80mm OK
Clear height (for top supported)
H = 2.70 m Units must satisfy the slenderness limits for
Structural Adequacy FRL of 60 minutes.
Clear length (for one end supported) Tested units are OK for 90 minutes and will
L = 3.70 m therefore be OK for 60 minutes
Vertical coefficient (for top supported)

aVf=0.7S 6.3.2.2 INSULATION
Horizontal coefficient (for one end supported) Units must have a material thickness
a 2.5 6.3.2.2 of at least 55 mm for 30 minutes insulation
6.5.2 Table 6.3
Slenderness ratio Actual material thickness
fH tm =90+ 110
s= 6.3.2.2
= 200 mm
0.75 x 2700 >55mm OK
90
= 22.5
< -N'aVf H a L 6.3.2.2
= 2 J0.75 x 2700 x 2.5 x 3700

S
= 33.7 OK
For concrete units <45% basalt Table 6.1

Srf> 17.0 Problem
For concrete units > 45% basalt Table 6.1
Srf>2l.O Problem
Use tested concrete units with C 5.6
Permissible slenderness (for tested units)

720
Srf=Csln( )+13 6.3.3
tf
= 5.6 In (
720 + 13
90
= 24.6
> 22.5 OK
A 'fl
S
EXAMPLE 2
DESIGN BRIEF
For low-rise industrial building, design for fire resistance, Wall A' and Wall 'D' shown below.
Wall A: Vertically-reinforced masonry

Wall D: Bond beams and panels
GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF FACTORY BUILDING
P = 10 kN/m P= lOkN/m
400
Bond beam
Steel Steel
portal frame portal frame Steel portal Steel 2700
frame portal frame -
Bond beam
6500 -I-- 6500
S WaIIA
190-mm hollow concrete block
reinforced as shown in detail below
Door
Wall D
190-mm
400
3000
opening hollow
concrete block
10200 2850 900 3050 (400

400
7200
)
WALL 'A ARRANGEMENT
WALL '0' ARRANGEMENT

b = 2000
Connectors 190
190
to wall
2-N20 2-N20 2-Nm 2-N20 bars

(on web) 2091 or2048
Double-U or H block
2000 2000
100 100 2000 2012 lintel block
2-N20 bars
WALL 'A' REINFORCEMENT DETAILS (on plastic
supports)
WALL 'D' BOND BEAM DETAILS
4
FIRE RESISTANCE LEVELS Moment capacity of vertically-reinforced cores
Mcap = 13.2 kN.mlcore Part B:Chapter 6
I -storey building used as a warehouse this manual
Class 7 0.5 (kPa) b H2 6.3.5
Type C construction BCA Table CI.] 8
Wall less than 1.5 m from boundary (fire source) 0.5 x 2.0 x 6.42
8
Required FRL: 90/90/90 = 5.1 kN.m/core OK
ie Structural adequacy 90 mins
Integrity 90 mins PbH 6.3.5
Insulation 90 mins 36
10 x 2.0 x 6.4
36
STRUCTURAL ADEQUACY = 3.6 kN.mlcore OK
Wall A - Vertically-reinforced Masonry Cover to reinforcement (from outside block)

Loadbearing leaf thickness C 30 + 5 + 15
= 190mm =50 mm
>30mm OK Table 6.2
Clear height (where top support is
100 mm below roof)
H = 6.50 -0.10 Wall D - Horizontally-reinforced Bond Beam
= 6.4 m Masonry thickness
= 190mm
avf=O.75 6.3.2.2 Clear length between supports
ci)
L=6.80m
LL
Slenderness ratio (for no vertical supports)
aVfH 6.3.2.2
Slenderness ratio
Srf
A L
Srf= -
0.75 x6400
190 6800
= 25.2 190
<36 OK Table 6.1 = 35.8
36 OK Table 6.1
Shear capacity of vertically-reinforced cores
Vcap = 10.6 kN/core Chapter 6 Shear capacity of
this manual horizontally-reinforced bond beam
0.5 (kPa) b H 6.3.5 Vcap = 21.3 kN Chapter 6
2 this manual
0.5 x 2.0 x 6.4 0.5 (kPa) b L 6.3.5
2 2
= 3.2 kN/core OK 0.5 x (1.5 + 0.4 + 1.35) x 6.8
2
=5.5kN OK
A
Moment capacity of INTEGRITY
horizontally-reinforced bond beam For 90 minutes integrity, units must have a
Mcap = 22.6 kN.m Part B:Chapter 6 material thickness of at least 100 mm for
this manual denseweight concrete (>1800 kg/rn3) or
0.5 (kPa) b L2 6.3.5 at least 90 mm for lightweight concrete
8 (<1800 kg/rn3) Table 6.3
0.5 x (1.5 + 0.4 + 1.35) x 6.82
8 Use 190-mm hollow concrete units with
=9.4kN.m OK a material density less than 1800 kg/rn3
and material thickness greater than 90 mm
Cover to reinforcement
C = 30 + 5 + 15
= 50 mm INSULATION
>30mm OK Table 6.2 Similar requirements to integrity Table 6.3
Wall D - Unreinforced Masonry

Masonry thickness
t = 190mm
Clear height (for top supported)

H = 3.0 m
Clear length to opening (for one end supported)

L=3.05 m

= 0.75 6.3.2.2
Horizontal coefficient (for one end supported)

ah = 2.5 6.3.2.2
Slenderness ratio
s= avfH 6.3.2.2
0.75 x 3000
190
= 11.8
< --af H a L 6.3.2.2
)0.75 x 3000 x 2.5 x 3050

=1
= 15.2 OK
For denseweight concrete units 45% basalt

Srf<l7.O OK Table 6.1
This glossary of technical terms relevant to Fire is
in addition to the general Glossaiy given in Part B:
Chapter 1 Where appropriate, the definitions have been
expanded to give more information
Basalt
During many years of fire testing, the term basalt has
been loosely applied to various basic rocks including
Basalt, Dolerite, Gabbro and Trachyte that contain less
than 10% quartz. Masonry units containing them have
been shown to have enhanced structural adequacy.
From tests using basalt aggregates this enhancement
was analyzed and values for units with basalt aggregate
content at least 45% were evaluated on the basis of at
least 45% of the total aggregate (coarse and fine) being
basaltic.
Fire Resistance Level (FRL)
The grading periods for structural adequacy (stability
against collapse), integrity (resistance against excessive
cracking and the passage of flame and hot gasses) and

insulation (resistance to the passage of heat). FRLs are
expressed in minutes in the sequence of structural
adequacy, integrity and insulation, eg 90/60/30.
Material Thickness
Also commonly referred to as the Equivalent Thickness,
this is a measure of the amount of actual material in a
hollow unit. It is calculated by dividing the net volume
of the unit (gross volume less volume of cores) by the
face area of the unit. Even though hollow blockwork is
commonly laid on face-shell mortar bedding, the
material thickness of a wall is assumed to be the same
as that of the masonry units used in its construction.
If concrete grout or equivalent is placed in all cores
of a wall of hollow units, the material thickness will
be equal to the total thickness. If some cores are left
ungrouted, the material thickness of the wall will be
regarded as equal to the material thickness of
ungrouted units.
S
NOTES
S
S
Chaster 5
Vertical Loads Contents
masonry subject to vertical loads resulting from
superstructure weight and the vertical component 5.2 GLOSSARY
of overturning loads. It includes the load
capacities of unreinforced masonry walls, grouted 5.3 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
masonry walls and reinforced masonry lintels.
5.5 WORKED EXAMPLE

BASIS OF DESIGN GLOSSARY
When vertical loads aie applied to masonry walls, This glossary of technical terms relevant to Vertical
consideration must also be given to any bending Loads is in addition to the general Glossary given in
moments induced by eccentricity of the loads. Part B: Chapter 1. Where appropriate, the definitions
have been expanded to give more information.
The principal factors affecting the compressive capacity
of a wall or pier are its slenderness ratio, its Concentrated load
cross-sectional properties and compressive strength, A concrete slab bearing on the top of a wall will
the eccentricity of any load, rotational restraint and the usually distribute concentrated loads to the wall as a
buckling mode. relatively uniform load
For the design of a cavity wall subjected to vertical Loadbearing wall
loading, each leaf must be considered sepaiately, Any wall that supports loads in addition to its own
therefore assuming that no mutual support is being self-weight.
supplied by the individual leaves. Non-loadbearing wall
In multi-storey buildings, the maximum vertical load on Any wall that supports only its own self-weight.
each loadbearing wall would result from the application
of the maximum imposed load to all floors that
contribute load to the wall, Figure 5.1. However this
will probably not give the maximum eccentricity and
may not necessarily lead to the worst case for design.
It may be necessary to check several combinations of

load, eg "chequer board" loading pattern, Figure 5.2.
I IL IL
: :.± IL
A
IL
B
.,
PL IL
PL PL ft
1
Figure 5.1 Typical Analysis for Maximum Vertical Load on Figure 5.2 Typical Analysis for Maximum Eccentricity on a
a Wa/I in a Multi-storey Building Wall in a Multi-storey Building
S DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
For a wall that is supported along one or both of its
vertical edges, two-way action will stiffen the wall
53.1 WALLS SUBJECT TO VERTICAL provided there is sufficient shear capacity at the
COMPRESSION FROM UNIFORM LOADS connection of the panel to its lateral supports.
Behaviour of Walls in Compression Control joints are not capable of effectively transmitting
When relatively squat masonry units (eg 76-mm x shear across the joint and must be treated as free ends.
110-mm x 230-mm bricks) are crushed in a compression Vertical chases in masonry also diminish the
testing machine, the platens tend to hold the unit shear transfer to adjacent lateral supports.
together, inhibiting the formation of cracks giving an AS 3700 provides for two alternative approaches to the
apparent increase in strength. AS 4455 requires that this design for compression:
apparent confined strength be modified by a reduction Design by simple rules (Simphfied Design),
factor to yield an equivalent unconfined strength. This
or
does not apply to hollow concrete blocks, since the tall
thin face shells may be consdered to be unconfined. Design by refined calculation (Refined Design) This
(Initial failure is usually by splitting of the webs rather allows for further choice between the assumption of
than by face-shell crushing). eccentricities or their calculation by an equivalent-
When relatively squat masonry units (eg 76-mm-high frame approach.
bricks) are built with mortar into a wallette and Simplified Design Method
subjected to a vertical load, the mortar expands laterally The Simplified Design Method enables masonry
and tends to split the brick. For tall units (eg 190-mm loadbearing walls and piers to be designed using
concrete blocks) the widely spaced mortar joints have tabulated coefficients based on conservative values for
less effect. AS 3700 accounts for this phenomenon by the expected eccentricities and buckling mode of three
means of a factor, kh (obtained from Table 3.2) which is particular applications, viz:
used to modify the characteristic unconfined , A wall or pier supporting a concrete slab that bear
compressive strength of a masonry wallette. The
on the top
relationship between the characteristic unconfined
compressive strength of the masonry units and This is the most common case for the loadbearing
characteristic unconfined compressive strength of a walls in medium-rise residential and commercial
masonry wallette is given by AS 3700 Clause 3.3.2. buildings. Charts for this case are plotted in this
manual.
The basic compressive capacity, F0, of a stocky wall is
given by multipying the characteristic unconfined A wall or pier supporting other systems that bear
compressive strength of a masonry wallette by the on the top
bedded area and the capacity reduction factor. If the This case covers the situation where a steel or
cores are grout filled, further capacity can be included timber roof bears directly on the top of the wall.
The capacity of grouted masonry is substantially less Generally, the magnitude of the loads will be
than the sum of the strengths of the hollow masonry relatively low and vertical load capacity will not
and the grout core, due to the interaction of the core represent a problem. No charts are provided for this
and its surrounding shell. The mechanism of failure is
case.
influenced by the differing deformation characteristics
of the materials, and possible shrinkage effects between A wall or pier supporting a load applied at the face
the grout core and the tapered shells. of the masonry
This case often occurs in town-house construction
C where timber floors are fixed to the face of masonry
F0 = 0 'm Ab + k 73.2(2)
party walls. Charts are provided for the case of
1.3
140-mm blockwork.
This basic compressive capacity must be further The slenderness coefficient (a) allows for restraint at
modified to account for the eccentricity of any load, the top and bottom of the masonry. For a member
rotational restraint and the buckling mode. This is done laterally supported at both top and bottom, av = 1.0
by determining the appropriate value of the reduction and for a member laterally supported and rotationally
factor, k. restrained at only its bottom, av = 2.5. One of the
For a wall that incorportes engaged piers, the consequences of simplification has been that, despite
thickness may be increased by a factor, kt, from appearances to the contrary, these values for av do
Table 7.2. not relate to the values used for the Refined Design
Method. The value of av used in Equations 7.3.4.3(1),
Lateral supports must be designed for any horizontal 7.3.4.3(2) and 7.3.4.3(3) for Refined Design is not the
forces plus 2.5% of the vertical load, but not less than same as the value av = 1.0 used in Equations 7.3.3.3(1),
a pressure of 0.4 kPa as set out in Clause 2.6.3. If the 7.3.3.3(2) and 7.3.3.3(3) for Simplified Design.
thickness of an engaged pier exceeds 0.25 times its
height, it should be treated as a lateral support rather For a wall that is supported along one or both of its
than an engaged pier. Many commonly constructed vertical edges, allowance is made for the strengthening
returns will not have sufficient length to be effective as effect of two-way action in compression.
lateral supports
labs bearing on the walls below
Refined Design Method
The Refined Design Method permits the assessment of
compressive strength based on eccentricities and fixity
determined by either of two methods, ie the assumption
'1 of eccentricities or their calculation by an equivalent-

frame approach. The results are generally not as
conservative as the Simplified Design Method, but
involve more rigorous calculation.
The value of a used in Equations 7.3.4.3(1), 7.3.4.3(2)
Slenderness Coefficient, a = 0.75
and 7.3.4.3(3) for Refined Design (Figure 5.3) is not
the same as the value of a = 1.0 used in Equations
I
Wall fixed to slab Light floor or roof frame 7.3.3.3(1), 7.3.3.3(2) and 7.3.3.3(3) for Simplified Design.
but not supporting it bearing on wall
The Refined Design Method permits the assessment of
eccentricities and fixity by either of two methods, ie the
assumption of eccentricities (Figure 5.4) or their
calculation by an equivalent-frame approach
(Figure 5.5). Both methods are described in the worked
example.
The bending moments at the top and bottom of the
wall, ie the effective load eccentricities, are influenced

Slenderness Coefficient, a = 0.85 by a number of factors, These include the relative
rotation between the floor and the wall, local crushing
in the wall/beam joint, changing wall and slab stiffness
Top free with load level, non-linear and time-dependent material
(not connected to any structure)
characteristics, two-way slab action, and the
construction and loading sequence of the floor slab
and walls.
A rigid frame analysis can be carried out to calculate
the theoretical moment transferred from deflecting slabs
into the walls above and below if the connection was
rigid. In this analysis, the far ends of the members
Slenderness Coefficient, a = 2.5 (floors and walls) may conservatively be assumed to
be pinned. Depending on the relative stiffnesses of the
Figure 5.3 Values of a for Refined Design Method floors and walls and the amount of precompression in
the walls, a joint fixity factor may be determined
(Figure 5.6). Once the joint fixity is found, the wall
moment can be calculated by multiplying the rigid
frame moment by the joint fixity factor.
(From above)
W7 (From slab)
NOTE
In both cases
e' is measured
from the centreline tw tw
of the loaded leaf
6 6
W2! (W3- W2)!

e-
w1+ w2 w1+ w2+ w3
Figure 5.4 Assumed Eccentricities for Refined Design Method

In most cases, eccentricities on internal walls will be
small, and eccentricities on external walls will be larger
(see Part B: Page 5.20). In this case the wail will
usually be bent in doable curvature, and have a higher Imposed load
Permanent load
buckling resistance (Figures 5.5 and 5.7).
Where the wall compression is low, such as occurs at Slab deflects downward
the top of a building, excessive eccentricities will be
indicated by a rigid frame analysis. The eccentricity can
- Double-curvature Single-curvature -
be minimised by the use of flexible packing near the
loaded edge of the wall.
External leaf follows internal leaf
The reduction factor for slenderness and eccentricity (k),
is given by the following equation: 73.4. 5(2) L
k = 0.51 + -} [i - 2.083 - 0.025 - 0.037.-} Slab deflects downward
Upward
Slab
tilt of
deflects
If deflection of the lower slab slab
downward
(1.33 Sr - 8)1 + 0.5 { 1 - 0.6 }{1 - (1.18 - 0.03 Sr) is small, there will be no
significant eccentricity of reaction
atthe base of the wall and the wall
Values of k are also tabulated in Table 7.3. Crushing will approach single-curvature
failure, independent of member slenderness, is not
S
covered in Table 7.3

Figure 5.5 Typical Equivalent-Frame Approach for
In long-span heavily-loaded, one-way floor systems where Calculation of Eccentricities in the Refined Design Method
large floor deflections are expected, the
eccentricity of load can be controlled by the use of
compressible packing between the floor and its 1.0 -
supporting wall adjacent to the most
highly-stressed face. 0.9
0.8
5.3.2 WALLS SUBJECT TO VERTICAL
COMPRESSION FROM CONCENTRATED 0.7
LOADS 0.6
Concentrated loads are imposed by beams, lintels,
0.5
columns, anchorages, etc. An analysis for concentrated Compressive
loads must be carried out immediately under the load 0.4 stress on joint
and at a distance below of 0.5 times the height of the (MPa) 1.0
0.3
wall. The concentrated load is assumed to disperse at C
an angle of 45° from the area of load application.
The basic compressive strength capacity, F0, should be i0.1 0.25
calculated using the area which lies within the zone of =
dispersion at the cross-section under consideration. If 0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0
the load capacity immediately beneath a bearing plate
Slab Stiffness/Wall Stiffness
is being calculated, the bearing area should be used
rather than the full bedded area of the member
Figure 5.6 Joint Fixity Factor for use in Refined Design
The factor kb allows for the enhancement of strength Method
in the region beneath the load but is limited to solid,
cored or grouted hollow masonry. For ungrouted hollow
blockwork, no enhancement is permitted and kb is unity. / 4
\e2 e1 - - e1
e2 e2
e
0 e21
ei
Figure 5.7 Typical Wall Buckling Modes

5.3.3 REINFORCED MASONRY LINTELS R4 - For applications subject to saline wetting
SUBJECT TO VERTICAL BENDING and drying, in aggressive soils, in severe marine
environments.
Reinforced concrete masonry lintels can be used to span
over door, window or other openings and carry roof, Stainless steel lintels manufactured to AS 1449
floor or masonry loads. If several courses of masonry are Grade 316 or AS 1449 Grade 316L (UNS S31600 and
constructed above the lintel, the vertical load may be UNS S31603 respectively)
calculated assuming a triangular area of masonry acting Steel lintels with an inorganic zinc silicate coating,
vertically on the lintel and a substantial load transferred abrasive blast cleaned to a minimum of AS 1627.4
by arching action back to the supports.
Class 2.5, and a coating of 100 microns average and
This chapter includes values for the shear and bending not lesss than 75 microns of inorganic zinc silicate in
moment capacity of 140-mm and 190-mm reinforced compliance with AS/NZS 3750.15 Type 3 or
concrete masonry lintels. Part B: Chapter 6 of this Type 6, plus at least 125 microns of two-pack high-
manual includes a worked example showing the
build epoxy micaceous iron oxide to
derivation of the shear and moment capacities of
AS 3750.14
reinforced masonry.
Steel lintels with a mastic coating, abrasive blast
5.3.4 STEEL LINTELS AND ARCH BARS cleaned to a minimum of AS 1627.4 Class 2.5, and a
Loads on Lintels coating of at least 400 microns of two-part high-build
epoxy mastic to AS 3750.11
Masonry constructed in stretcher bond will arch over
S
an opening, provided there are sufficient number of Steel lintels with a duplex coating, hot-dip galvanised
masonry courses above and sufficient strength at the in accordance with AS/NZS 4680 with a coating
supports. AS 3700 Commentary suggests that the load mass of 600 p/rn2 and a coating of at least
exerted on the lintel can be assumed to be exerted by a 50 microns of two-pack non-inhibitive epoxy primer to
triangle of masonry above the opening. AS/NZS 3750.13 and at least 200 microns of two-pack
End Support high-build epoxy micaceous iron oxide to AS 3750.14.
AS 3700 Clause 4.12 requires that lintels be supported
R5 - For applications in saline or contaminated water
on the masonry abutments for a distance of at least
including tidal splash zones and within 1 km of an
100 mm.
industry producing chemical pollutants.
Corrosion Resistance
Detailing and Capacities
Steel lintels and arch bars must comply with the
Detailing information is given in PartC:Clause 3.2.2,
durability requirements of AS 3700 Table 5.1 for the
while permissible spans for certain applications, in
particular exposure classification. AS 3700 Clause 5.2.2
accordance with BCA-Volume 2, are given in Part B:
makes it clear that lintels or arch bars supporting
Page 5.9.
the external leaf of a cavity wall or veneer wall are
considered to be in an "exterior environment".
Corrosion protection requirements in AS/NZS 2699.3
are as follows:
RU, RI, R2, R3 - For all applications except as listed
for P4 and R5.
t Steel ]intels, hot dip galvanised in accordance with
AS/NZS 4680 or AS/NZS 4791, except that the
minimum coating mass shall be 300 g/m2 for RO, Ri
and P2 and be 600 p/rn2 for R3.
Steel lintels with an inorganic zinc silicate coating,
abrasive blast cleaned to a minimum of AS 1627.4
Class 2.5, and a coating of at least 75 microns of
inorganic zinc silicate in compliance with AS/NZS
3750,15 Type 3 or Type 4, except that for R3 the
average coating thickness shall be not less than 100
microns in compliance with AS/NZS 3750.15 Type 3.
Steel lintels with a duplex coating, hot-dip galvanised
in accordance with AS/NZS 4680 or AS/NZS 4791,
except that hot-dip galvanising to be at least
300 g/rn2 and a coating to be at least 50 microns of
two pack non-inhibitive epoxy primer to
AS/NZS 3750.13 and at least 125 microns of two-pack
high-build epoxy micaceous iron oxide to AS 3750.14.
STANDARD DESIGNS
How to Read
Design and Detailing Select the required wall thickness and material
All design and detailing shall comply with the details.
AS/NZS 1170. Select the appropriate support conditions
(eg, supported on four sides).
All charts in this chapter (except the Table on page 5.18)
are based on the Simplified Design approach set out in Project the length of the wall between vertical
AS 3700 Clause 7.3.3. supports and the height of wall between horizontal
supports to determine the design point.
The basic compressive capacity, F0, representing the
compressive strength of the masonry before Select a curve which is above or to the right
consideration of slenderness or eccentricity is noted of the design point. Read off the load capacity
with each chart. corresponding to the selected curve. If necessary,
It is the designer's responsibility to allow for the effects interpolate between curves.
of control joints, chases, openings, strength and stiffness Check that the masonry wall is adequate for other
of ties and connectors, and strength and stiffness of loadings, design requirements and construction
supports, in addition to normal considerations of loads requirements. Some charts have superimposed the
S and masonry properties. Control joints and openings robustness requirements for the same conditions.

List of Charts
Masonry Properties
The standard designs in this chapter are based on DESCRIPTION PAGE
minimum masonry properties complying with the Vertical Moment and Shear Capacities,
General Specification set out in Chapter 1 of this Reinforced Masonry Lintels:
manual, modified as noted on the standard design 140-mm and 190-mm leaves 5.8
chart and as noted below.
Permissible Spans,
Hollow Concrete blocks Steel Lintels and Arch Bars 5.9
Simplified Design Method, Compressive Capacity,
Height 190 mm Unreinforced Masonry,
Length 390 mm Supporting a Concrete Slab,
190-mm High, Face-Shell Bedded,
Face-shell bedded Ungrouted:
Minimum face-shell thickness, 90-mm leaf 5.10
t = 25 mm for 90 mm, 110 mm and 140 mm units 110-mm leaf 5.11
t = 40 mm for some 140 mm units 140-mm leaf 5.12
t = 30 mm for 190 mm units 190-mm leaf 5.13
Grouted:
140-mm leaf 5.14
1'uc = 15 MPa
190-mm leaf 5.15
Minimum characteristic lateral modulus of rupture, 76-mm high, 110-mm leaf, fully bedded 5.16
= 0.8 MPa 162-mm high, 110-mm leaf, face-shell bedded 5.17
Solid or cored concrete bricks Supporting a Load Applied at the Face:
Width 110 mm 140-mm leaf, 25-mm face-shell bedded 5.18
140-mm leaf, 40-mm face-shell bedded 519
Height 76 mm
Refined Design Method, Reduction Factors for
Length 230 mm Eccentricity and Slenderness Using
Fully bedded Calculated Eccentricities: 5.20
uc = 10 MPa
= 0.8 MPa
Mortar joints
Concrete grout
f = 20 MPa

REINFORCED MASONRY LINTELS - Vertical Moment and Shear Capacities
140-mm leaf
BARS V M BARS V M
N12 5.1 2.6 N12 12.5 11.4

N16 6.3 2.6 N16 13.7 19.4
300
70
70
S
190-mm leaf
BARS V M BARS V M
N12 6.4 3.4 N12 7.9 3.6

N16 7.6 3.6 N16 10.2 3.6
N20 9.1 3.6 N20 13.1 3.6
ioo.L.
129 (N12 bars)

127 (N16 bars)
95
125 (Y20 bars)
BARS V, M BARS V M
N12 16.4 11.7 N12 17.9 22.0

N16 17.6 20.2 N16 20.2 32.2
N20 19.0 29.4 N20 23.1 32.2
Li
NOTES
300 300
V Shear capacity (kN)
Moment capacity (kN.m)
Mortartype. M3
Block characteristic compressive strength,
= 15 MPa e 129 (N12 bars)
127 (N16 bars)
I
Grout compressive strength. f 20 MPa
95
125 (Y20 bars)
STEEL LINTELS AND ARCH BARS Permissible Spans
I
Maximum clear span (mm) for following loading cases:
TUes -- Roof* Me00f Tiles

Either leaf
Section Arrangement End support Bnck Veneer Cavity Bnck Single-leaf Wall Single-leaf Wall
75x8 flat 100 mm 490 250 NA NA
Llkg/m) 8lk
I
75
F75x 10 flat 100 mm 610 250 250 250
1(5.89
ik
75
90x90x6 100 mm for 3010 2050 2050 1570

equal angle spans < 1 in
(8.22 kg/rn)
11190 150 mm for
S spans> 1 m
k
90x90x8 loommfor 3010 2170 2170 1810

equal angle spans <1 m
(10.6 kg/rn)
190 150 mm for
spans>lm
k
90
lOOxlOOx6 l00mmfor 3130 2290 2290 1810

equal angle .-c spans < 1 m
(9.16kg/rn) 100
I
' 150 mrnfor
6T spans>lrn
k
100
bOx 100x8 100 mm for 3370 2410 2410 1930

equal angle spans < 1 m
(11.8kg/rn) 100
150 mm for
8k 100
spans> 1 m
150x90x8 150 mm 4210 3370 3370 2770

unequal angle
150
(14.3 kg/rn)
81 k90
150x lOOxlO 150 mm 4330 3490

unequal angle
150
(18.0 kg/rn)
100
* Maximum span 10 m, N3 wind

-mm leaf
Strength grade 15 MPa
Face-shell bedded, 25 mm face shell Height 190 mm, = 181 kN/m
Robustness governs
in shaded area
Simplified Design Method

10
20 a = 1.0, a, 1.0
30
40
50
60 _ Laterally-supported
70
80
a)) / bothendsandtop
and supportinga
90 concrete slab
100 = Fd
Length )
Design compressive force,
Fd (kN/m)
0 10 2.0 3.0 4.0 50 60 70 80 90
Face-shell bedded, 25 mm face shell

9.0
8.0
7.0
6.0
-- Robustness governs
5.0 in shaded area

10
20 a5=1.0, ah-2.5
30
40
50
N 60 Laterally-supported
70 oneendandtop
a)
80 = andsupportinga
90 concrete slab
100 = Fd
Length
an Design compressive force,

0 Fd (kN/m)
0 1.0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
In
af
Strength grade
Height 190 mm, -' 1 kN/m
9.0
8.0
7,0
.- Robustness governs
in shaded area
6.0
10
5.0 20
30 Simplified Design Method

E
t
0
0.
40
50
60
a5 = 1.0, a = 1.0
0. 70
80
C bothendsandtop
a) 90 00
a) 'a) andsupportinga
100 = Fd
2.0 concrete slab
1.0 Length

a>
= 0 Fd (kN/m)
0 10 2.0 3.0 4.0 50 60 70 80 90

9.0 -
8.0
t \\
7.0
Robustness governs
6.0 in shaded area
5.0 10
20
40
50
a5=1.0, ah=2.5
60
70
80
a) 90 one end and top
a>
and supporting a
2.0
100 = Fd
I concrete slab
a)
1.0
0
0
F.
1.0 2.0 3.0
40 50 60 70 80 90
( Length

Fd (kN/m)
NOTE: Ills the designers responsibility to allow for the effects of control joints, chases, openings, strength and stiffness of ties
5.11
S
ngth grade 15 MPa
-ight 190 mm, F0 = 181 kN/m
9.0
10
8.0 - 20
Robustness governs
in shaded area
7.0 30
6.0 40
5.0 - 50

E
4.0 70 a = 1.0, ah = 1.0
a 80
S
a. 90
3.0
H 100 = Fd
bothendsandtop
a, andsupportinga
a, 2.0 concrete slab
////////////////////////
Length >
10
0
Fd (kN/m)
0 10 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 60 70 80 90

9.0
8.0
,L
Robustness governs
7.0 - in shaded area
10
6.0 20
30
40
5.0
50
E
t
(0
0
a-
4.0
80
70
a=1.0, ah-2.5
a- 90 ////,U'/.1
= 100 Fd -C
a, 00 oneendandtop
a,
=ci) andsupportinga
2.0 concrete slab
1.0
( Length
00 Design compressive force,

a, Fd (kN/m)
0
0 1.0 2.0 30 4.0 50 60 70 80 90
g, 1'
190-mm leaf
Height 190 mm, F0 = 218 kN/m
Robustness governs
in shaded area
70
80
90
100 = Fd

a0=1.0, ah-l.O
Laterally-supported
bothendsandtop
/ and supporting a
concrete slab
Length

Fd (kN/m)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

9.0
Robustness governs
10 in shaded area
20
8.0
30
40
7.0
50
60
6.0 70
80
90
5.0
100 = Fd
E Simplified Design Method
t0
0.
4.0
a=1.0, ah=2.5
0.
3.0
Laterally-supported
ci, oneendandtop
ci)
andsupportinga
2.0 _, concrete slab
1.0 Length

=ci, 0 Fd (kN/m)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 7.0 80 90
40-mm leaf
Face-shell bedded (25 mm) and fully-grouted
0
Robustness governs
in shaded area
60
80
LWI 100
S'hi
120

160 = 1.0, ah 1.0
180
200
220 Laterally-supported
both ends and top
240=Fd °
and supporting a
concrete slab
Length )
(I, Fd (kN/m)
-o 0 10 2.0 3.0 4.0 50 60 70 80 90
0 Length of Walt Between Supports (m)
Ct,
0
ci) 9.0
8.0
Robustness governs
7.0 in shaded area
20
6.0 40
60
80
5.0 100
120
E 140 Simplified Design Method
0,
4.0 160 a0=1.0, ah-2.5
0 180 Fd
0.
0.
= oneendandtop
0)
a,
and supporting a
2.0 concrete slab
1.0 Length

Fd (kN/m)
0 10 2.0 3.0 4.0 50 60 70 80 90
9.0
Robustness governs
in shaded area
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
260
I E
280
4.0 a5=1.O, ah=l.O
300
0
0. 320
0.
340
=
3.0
360 / Laterally-supported
380 / bothendsandtop
and supporting a
2.0 concrete slab
400 = Fd
/ ////////////////////
1.0 Length )
a) Fd (kN/m)
0
0 1.0 2.0 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

9.0
Robustness governs
8.0 in shaded area
100
7.0 120
140
160
6.0
180
200
220
5.0
240
260
4.0 280
a5=1.O, ah=2.5
300 = Fd
0
0.
0. ////,UY/
=
a, one end and top
and supporting a
2.0
I concrete slab
( Length

a, Fd (kN/m)
0 10 2.0 3.0 4.0 50 60 70 80 90
Id-mm leaf
thgradelOMPa
Fully-bedded
t76mm, F0=219kN/m
Robustness governs
in shaded area
10
20
30
50 a=1.O, a=l.O
60
S
70
80
90
laterally-supported
100 -
110
' bothendsandtop
120 = and supporting a
130 Fd concrete slab
kLength >

Fd (kN/m)
0 10 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 60 70 80 90
Fully-bedded
9.0
8.0
7.0
Robustness governs
6.0 in shaded area
5.0 10
20
30
E 40 Simplified Design Method
t
U,
0
4.0 50
60
70
a= 10, ah=25
0.
0.
90
80 /,4//U
Laterally-supported
100 -C
one end and top
110 a,
and supporting a
2,0 concrete slab
1.0 Length

a, Fd (kN/m)
0 10 2.0 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
S
g 1L2
S UNREINFORCED MASONRY
ngth grader
Face-shell bedded. 25 mm face shell ightl62m ' - lkN/m
Robustness governs
in shaded area
10
20
40 a=1.O, ah=l.O
50
S / VzU/
60
80 both ends and top
90 and supporting a
100 = Fd concrete slab
I
' Length

Ed (kN/m)
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 40 50 60 70 80 90

9.0
8.0 1t
7.0 -
6,0 -
5.0 II_
I tlW1
10
20
30
40
Robustness governs
in shaded area

a=1.O, ah-2.5
I
50
60
3.0 70 Laterally-supported
=
a)
ci,
80
90 .
=
=Ø / oneendandtop
andsupportinga
2.0 100 = Ed concrete slab
1.0 IanOth

ci,
Fd (kN/m)
0 1.0 2.0 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
NOTE: It is the designer s responsibility to allow for the effects of control joints, chases, openings, strength and stiffness of ties
and connectors, and strength and stiffness 0f supports, in addition to normal considerations of loads and masonry properties
140-mm leaf
9.0
Robustness governs
in shaded area
8.0
Timber floor
7.0 loading face of wall
6.0
Concrete slab
5.0

a,=1.0, a=1.O
/'z/z/4
=
3.0
10 = F..a .=
bothendsandtop
and supporting a
2.0 timberfloor
.-,
Length )
Fd(kN/m)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

9.0
Robustness governs
in shaded area
8.0
S
Timber floor
7.0 loading face of wall
6.0
Concrete slab
5.0
t
U,
0
4.0 a = 1.0, at = 2.5
0.
0.
3.0
/,U//U
10=Fd Laterally-supported
= one end and top
2.0 -/ and supporting a

timber floor
1.0 Length

a, Fd (kN/m)
0
0 1.0 2.0 30 4.0 50 60 70 80 90
S
and connectors, and strength and stiffness of supports, in addition to normal considerations of oads and masonry properties
R IQ
140-mm leaf
Face-shell bedded. 40 mm face shefl
Robustness governs
In shaded area
a). Timber floor

, Ioadingface of wall
4
/
0
Concrete slab
10
a5 = 1.0, ah = 1.0
Laterally-supported
both en ds and to p
20 = Fd and supporting a
timber floor
1
I' Length )
Fd (kN/m)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Face-shell bedded. 40 mm face shell

9.0
Robustness governs
in shaded area
8.0
>-
0 ---
Timber floor
7.0
- ..Ioading face of wall
//
/,.
6.0
4
/
Concrete slab
5.0
10
t0
0.
4.0 a5 = 1.0, ah = 2.5
0.
=
a, one end and top
a) 20Fd and supporting a
2.0 timber floor
1.0 Length

a, Fd (kN/m)
0 1.0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
REFINED DESIGN METHOD - Reduction Factors for Eccentricity and
Slenderness Using Calculated Eccentricities
BASIS OFTABLE
The following table sets out some typical eccentricity to thickness The values have been reproduced here to give an
i. ratios and reduction factors for masonry walls in medium-rise indication of the accuracy of the assumed
buildings. They are based on calculations of moments and loads for: eccentricities and to assist designers in
the upper floors slabs rangingfrom 3.0 to 4.0 metres span; determining the appropriate analysis method to use.
slab span to thickness ratios of approximately 20:1; These values of eccentricity to thickness ratios and
reduction factors should not be used for design
imposed loads of3 kPa;
II. without confirmation by the analysis method
wall heights from 2.4 metres to 3.6 metres; described in this manual.
wall thicknesses of 90, 110, 140 and 190 mm;
joint fixity factorgiven in the Figure 5.6 (Page 5.5);
a 0.85 above the slab (forthe top storey);
a = 0.75 below the slab (forthe second-top storey).
I
REDUCTION FACTORS (K) USING CALCULATED ECCENTRICITiES
Wall details Slenderness ratios Eccentricity ratios Reduction factors

Height Thickness Above slab Below slab Above slab Below slab Above slab Below slab
Location H (mm) t (mm) ei/t e1/t K
I
Sr Sr K
Internal 2400 90 22.7 20.0 0.02-0.11 0.00-0.02 0.40-0.47 0.55-0.56

110 18.5 16.4 0.01-0.10 0.00-0.02 0.51-0.60 0.65-0.67
=
140 14.6 12.9 0.03-0.30 0.01-0.07 0.41-0.70 0.71-0.78
3000 140 18.2 16.1 0.02-0.17 0.01-0.06 0.46-0.60 0.64-0.68 U

190 13.4 11.8 0.04-0.40 0.02-0.13 0.33-0.72 0.67-0.80
3600 190 16.1 14.2 0.03-0.27 0.01-0.10 0.41-0.65 0.64-0.73
External 2400 90 22.7 20.0 0.16-0.27 0.03-0.07 0.26-0.35 0.50-0.53

110 18.5 16.4 * 0.08-0.16 * 0.52-0.60
140 14.6 12.9 * 0.21-0.30 * 0.45-0.55
3000 140 18.2 16.1 * 0.15-0.22 * 0.46-0.54

190 13.4 11.8 * 0.32-0.34 0.43-0.46
3600 190 16.1 14.2 * 0.25-0.27 * 0.45-0.47
* The calculated eccentricity ratios for external walls above the slab exceed 0.33. In these situations the actual support conditions must be
differentfrom the mechanism implicit in the moment distribution and joint-fixity factor used to calculate these values. Use of the assumed
values is considered reasonable in these cases
I
WORKED EXAMPLE
Mortar joints
Purpose of the worked example Mortar type M3 (or M4)
The purpose of the following worked example is to Joint thickness 10 mm
The worked example also serves the purpose of
demonstrating the origin of the Standard Designs which Minimum cement content 300 kg/rn3
worked example is not intended to analyze or design
all parts of the particular structure It deals only with
AS/NZS 1170
It is the designer's responsibility to allow for the effects

Masonry Properties
Height 190 mm
Length 390 mm
Face-shell bedded
t = 25 mm for 90 mm, 110 mm and 140 mm units
t = 30 mm for 190 mm units
'uc = 15 MPa
= 0.8 MPa
Width 110 mm
Height 76 mm
Length 230 mm
Fully bedded
.ic 10 MPa
= 0.8 MPa
5.21
DESIGN BRIEF VERTICAL LOADS
Design loadbearing wall indicated in the Length of wall under consideration

following drawings. L=3.70m
1050
Roof
Area of roof acting on wall
7.5 x 5.33
2700
AR=
2
Level 3 = 20.0 m2
175
Permanent load of roof structure

2700
= 1.2 kPa
Level2
175
Imposed load of roof
2700 Wall to be = 0.25 kPa

designed
Level 1
600 Factored roof loads
l.2gA+ l.5qA
2100
FdR=
L
Basement (1.2x l.2x20.0)+(1.5x0.25x20.0)
100
3.70
SECTION A-A = 9.8 kN/m
Floor 1 WaIls
Only the internal leaf is loadbearing
2000 Floor area = 8.0 m2 Height of wall

Roof area = 20.0 m2 Hw1 = 2.7 m
800 Contributory Length of loadbearing leaf

area
IA ____j Lw13.7m
4500 Walltobe
3700 designed
Use 90-mm denseweight hollow blockwork
1000 Density 2180 kg/rn3 80% solid
I face with plasterboard 10 mm thick
110 + 90
Surface density
PART PLAN AT LEVEL 1 (90 x 0.8 x 2180 x 9.81)
gw
- 1,000,000 +
(lx 10x800x9.81)
1,000,000
= 1.62 kN/m2
Cont...
Permanent load MASONRY PROPERTIES
Gwi
g1H1L1
- Lw1 Width of masonry unit
t = 90 mm
1.62 x 2.70 x 3.70
3.70
Face-shell thickness
= 4.37 kNIm tfs = 25 mm
Factored wall loads Bedded area

Fdwi= 1.2Gw1 Ab = 2 tfs I 4.5.4
= 1.2x4.37 = 2 x 25 x 1000
= 5.2kNIm = 50,000 mm2/m
Floor 2 Walls Block height

Fdw2 = 5.2 kN/m h = 190 mm
S (similar to Fdwi)
Floor 3 Walls Mortar joint thickness

Fdw3= 5.2kN/m (similar to Fdwi) tj = 10mm
Slab 1 Height ratio

Area h 190
(4.5 x 2.0) - (2.0 x 1.0) tj - 10
Aj = =19.0
2
= 8.0m2
Compressive strength factor
Slab thickness kh=1.3 Table3.2
t1= 175 mm
Masonry factor for face-shell bedded
Permanent load concrete units
gs1 = 25.0 x 0.175 4.38 kPa kml.6 Table 3.1
Imposed load Mortar type M3 (1:5 + water thickener)

qsi= 2.OkPa
Area of grout cross section
Factored slab loads A=0 Ungrouted walls
Asi
FDS1 = (1.2 gs + 1.5 qs1)
Characteristic unconfined unit strength
= 1.2 x 4.38) + (1.5 x 2.0)]
8.0 f=15MPa
3.70
= 17.9 kN/m Characteristic confined masonry strength
mb = km 3.3.2(a)(i)
Slab2 =l.615
Fds2 = 17.9 kN/m (similar to Fdsi) = 6.20 MPa
Total Factored Loads on Subject Leaf Characteristic unconfined masonry strength

Fd = FdR + Fdwi + Fdw2 + Fdw3 + Fdsi + Fds2 = kh mb 3.3.2(a)(i)
= 9.8 + 5.2 + 5.2 + 5.2 + 17.9 + 17.9 = 1.3 x 6.2
= 61.2 kN/m = 8.06 MPa Cont...
NOTE: This wall is not grouted. Where grout DESIGN BY SIMPLIFIED RULES
is used elsewhere, it is specified as:
Vertical coefficient (supports slab)
Characteristic grout cylinder strength = 1.0 7.3.3.3
20 MPa
>12MPa 10.7.3 Horizontal coefficient (one support)
ah = 2.5 7.3.3.3
Design characteristic grout strength
'cg = 1.3 fuc Clear height
= 1.3 x 15 H = 2.70 m
= 19.5 MPa
<2OMPa 3.5 Clear length
L= 3.70m
Capacity reduction factor
0=0.45 Table 4.1 Thickness coefficient (no engaged piers)
k = 1.0 Table 7.2

Density factor
k = 1.3 for density 2180 Slenderness ratio
> 2000 kg/rn3 7.3.2 aH 7.3.3.3(2)
rs
kt
Basic compressive capacity 7.3.2(2) 1.0 x 2700
1.0 x 90
Fo=OmAb+kc](f) A
= 30.0
=0.458.01OOO
6 x 50,000 <22 JaH ahL 7.3 .3 .3(3)
)+ 1.4
= 181 kN/m -92 /1.0x2700x2.5x3700
90 '
= 38.9
use 30.0
Slenderness and eccentricity factor

k = 0.67 - 0.02 (Srs - 14) 7.3.3.2
= 0.67 - 0.02 (30.0 - 14)
= 0.35
Design capacity
f0 = k F0 7.3.3.3
=0.35x 181
= 63.4 kN/m
>61.2kN/m OK
As this result is close, design by refined method
S
DESIGN BY REFINED CALCULATION Slenderness and eccentricity factor 7.3.4.5(2)
Vertical coefficient (supports slab)

k=0.5(1 +)[(l
e2
-2.083)-
L
= 0.75
(0.025 - 0.037)(1.33Sr 8)1 +
Horizontal coefficient (one support)
0.5 (1 -0.6 ) (1 (1.18 - O.O3Sr)
ah = 2.5 7.3.4.3 t e2
= 0.437
Slenderness ratio
aH
l- 7.3.4.5(4)
7.3.4.3
Srs kt <
tf
1- +2 tw e1
0.75 x 2700 tw
- l.0x90 = 0.872 OK
= 22.5
<cp.j a H ah L 7.3.4.5(5)
S (12!)
tfs ty
2
=
90
N/075x2700x2.5x3700
= 1.61 OK
= 33.7 OK
Design capacity
Option 1 - Assumed Eccentricity 7.3.4.4 Fcap = k F0 7.3 .4 .2(1)
= 0.437 x 181
Slab load = 79.1 kN/m
Fdsj = 18.3 kNIm > 61.2 kN/m OK
Eccentricity of slab load

Option 2 Modified Rigid Frame Analysis
esi =
90 Consider members at top of wall
6 Slab
=15 mm Thickness
t = 175 mm
Slab moment
Mab = FdsI esi Effective width (continuous)
18.3 x 15 b = 1000 mm
1000
= 0.275 kNm/m Stiffness factor
R=0.75
Total factored load at top of wall
FdA = 63.2 - 5.5 Elastic modulus
= 57.7 kN/m = 25,000 MPa
Effective eccentricity at top of wall Moment of inertia

MAB b, t3
elF 'S
12
0.275 x 1000 1000 x 175
- 57.7 -
S =4.8 =447x106mm4
12
Cont...
Length Moment of inertia
L = 3800 mm (approximate) b t3
12
Stiffness 700 x 90
R(EI) 0.75x25,000x447x106 - 12
L - 3800 = 42.5 x 106 mm4
= 2206 106
Height (centre to centre)
Permanent load H = 2700 + 175
= 4.38 kPa = 2875 mm
Permanent load Stiffness

= 4.38 kPa R (EI) 0.75 x 8060 x 42.5 x 1O6
H - 2875
Imposed load = 89 x i06
= 2.0 kPa
Distribution factor to walls
Fixed end moment R(EI)
L2 L
FEM = (1.2g1 + 1.5q1)- DF
= R(EI)
382 L
C', =1.2x4.38)+(1.5x2.0)1_- 89
-o = 14.9 kNmlm = 2206 + 89 + 89
('3
0 = 0.0373
Walls
0
('3
4-J
Thickness Moment distributed to wall under slab
=90 mm MAG DF FEM
> = 0.0373 x 14.9
Allowance for openings =0.56kNmIm
p = 0.7
Axial load on wall
Effective width (allowing for openings) FdA = 61.2-5.2
b =pb = 56.0 kN/m
=0,7x 1000
= 700 mm Compressive stress at top of wall
FdA
Stiffness factor = Ab p
R=0.75 56.0 x 1000
- 50,000 xO.7
Elastic modulus = l.6MPa
E = 1000 m >0.25MPa OK
= 1000 x 8.06
= 8060 MPa Ratio slab stiffness to wall stiffness
2206
89 + 89
= 12.3
S
Joint fixity factor Conservative extrapolation
J = 0.4 of AS 3700 Commentary
or FIG 5.3 this manual
Modified moment at top of wall

MAB = J
=0.4x0.56
= 0.22 kNm/m
Eccentricity at top of wall

MAB
=
FdA
_0.22 x 1000
56.0
= 4.0 mm
Eccentricity ratio at top of wall

e1 4.0
- 90
= 0.044
<0.05 Almost concentric
=0
Slenderness and eccentricity factor

k = 1.18- 0.03Sf 7.3.4.5(1)
= 1.18 - (0.03 x 22.5)
= 0.505
tw 7.3.4.5(4)
<
t. e
1-
tw tw
= 0.90 OK
7.3.4.5(5)
1
(12!)
2- tw
= 1.66 OK
Design capacity
Fcap = k F0 7.3.4.2(1)
= 0.505 x 181
= 91.5 kN/m
> 61.2 kN/m OK
5.27
S
S C, aster 6
Horizontal Loads Contents
masonry subject to horizontal loads - either
outof-plane pressures or in-plane shears due 6.2 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
generally to wind or earthquakes.
6.4 WORKED EXAMPLES
6.5 GLOSSARY
BASIS OF DESIGN
4 6.1.4 BENDING AND SHEAR IN
6.1.1 WIND LOADS Bending in Unreinforced Masonry
Australian designers have for many years been required When unieinforced masonry walls built in stretcher bond
to design buildings to withstand wind loads. The and laterally supported on two or more adjacent edges
experience of cyclonic winds, commencing with Cyclone are subjected to horizontal out-of-plane pressures (due to
Tracey in 1974, has led to much research and innovation wind, earthquake or some other load), they may collapse
in the design and detailing of masonry structures for only after the masonry units have rotated relative to the
wind loads and the adaptation of reinforced masonry for units immediately above and below. AS 3700 includes a
Australian conditions. Wind loads can be manifested as method of assessing the resistance to horizontal
uplift on bond beams and lintels (described in pressure based on the virtual work involved in causing
Part B:Chapter 5 of this manual) or as horizontal loads this rotation to take place. The method results from
- either out-of-plane or in-plane shear (described in extensive research sponsored, in part, by the Concrete
this chapter). However, despite this activity, the rational Masonry Association of Australia at the Universities of
design of unreinforced and reinforced masonry for wind New South Wales and Melbourne, Deakin University and
loads is still not widespread, particularly in the southern CSIRO. The basis of the empirical method is set out
states. in the Commentary to AS 3700 and in other published
papers.
6.1.2 EARTHQUAKE LOADS
Test data indicate that three primary types of failure
Long experience in many parts of the world has led develop in unreinforced masonry panels subject to
designers to the conclusion that unreinforced brickwork horizontal out-of-plane pressure. For each particular
does not behave well when subjected to the horizontal masonry panel, the failure pattern and capacity depends
loads resulting from earthquakes. The brittle, low tensile on the type of edge support (ie no support, lateral
strength of the medium leads to cracking and collapse. support or rotational restraint), the number of edges
In many parts of the world where severe earthquakes supported and the height-to-length proportions of the
are common, hollow concrete blockwork reinforced wall, Figure 6.1.
with close-spaced reinforcement is used to provide a
Horizontal Failure Line A horizontal failure will occur
ductile medium capable of withstanding repeated load
when the vertical bending capacity (influenced by bond
reversals without significant loss of strength. Australia
strength, section modulus and compressive load) is
does not have a history of severe earthquakes and the
exceeded. If a wall is relatively long compared to its
use of unreinforced brickwork has become widespread.
height and the top edge is supported, a horizontal crack
However, the 1989 Newcastle earthquake demonstrated
may appear in mortar joints near the mid-height. This is
the possible risks associated with the collapse of
usually the first crack to appear, is often not noticeable
unieinforced walls under the action of even moderate
and does not constitute a structural failure. A horizontal
earthquakes. Thus the introduction of some quantity
failure must also develop at or near the base of the wall
reinforcement to moderately increase ductility and
before collapse can occur. It is normal to assume that
strength is considered appropriate. It is unlikely that
the wall is rotationally unrestrained (due to lack of bond
the Australian public will accept the costs associated
strength).
with the widespread substitution of "close-spaced"
reinforced hollow blockwork for unreinforced brickwork. Vertical Failure Line A vertical failure line will occur
The use of "wide-spaced" reinforced masonry provides when the horizontal bending capacity (influenced by
considerable improvement of strength and ductility at a bond strength and section modulus of perpendicular
more reasonable cost and is therefore considered more Joints and the lateral modulus of rupture of units) is
appropriate. exceeded A vertical failure may be manifest either as a
zigzag pattern around the line of the joints, or as a
6.1.3 ADVANTAGES OF REINFORCED MASONRY vertical crack passing alternately through perpendicular
joint and masonry unit. If a wall is relatively high
The effectiveness of reinforced concrete blockwork when
compared to its length, a vertical failure line will appear
compared with unreinforced masonry is demonstrated by
first. If a wall is continuous past a vertical support, a
the Modified Mercalli Scale which is reproduced in part vertical failure line will develop before collapse occurs.
in Table 6.1.
Diagonal Failure Line A diagonal failure line radiates
It can be seen that an earthquake classified as MM8 on out from any corner where both vertical and horizontal
the Mercalli Scale in which "alarm may approach panic",
edges are supported and forms as the units rotate
masonry that has not been designed to withstand relative to the adjacent units. For structural collapse to
lateral loads, unreinforced masonry or poorly constructed
occur, these diagonal failure lines must cause a
masonry are in various stages of destruction while
mechamsm. The slope of the diagonal failure lines is
reinforced masonry which has been designed to governed by length-to-height proportions of the masonry
withstand lateral forces of Dig remains "undamaged". units. A diagonal failure line will occur when the
diagonal bending capacity (influenced by equivalent
characteristic torsional strength, related to bond
strength, and the equivalent torsional section modulus)
is exceeded.
Table 6.1 Effects of Earthquake Intensity Based on the Modified Mercalli Scale
EFFECT ON:
EARTHQUAKE MASONRY STRUCTURES
INTENSITY EFFECT ON: Reinforced Unreinforced
(Mercalli EFFECT ON: NON-MASONRY Designed for Not designed Normal Poor
scale) PEOPLE STRUCTURES lateral loads for lateral loads workmanship workmanship
MM1 Notfelt, but may cause

diiness and nausea
MM2 Felt by a few persons
at rest indoors
MM3 Felt indoors but not

identified as an
earthquake by all
MM4 Generally noticed

indoors but not outside
S MM5 Generally noticed
I
outdoors
MM6 Felt by all. People S light

(and animals) alarmed damage
MM7 Genera! alarm - - A few instances Cracked
Difficulty standing of damage. Loose and
bnckwork dislodged damaged
MM8 Alarm may Pane! walls thrown Undamaged Damaged in Damaged with partial
approach panic out of frame some cases collapse. Some brick
structures veneers damaged
MM9 General panic Frame structures Seriously Heavily damaged, Destroyed
II
racked and distorted damaged sometimes collapsing
completely.
Brick veneers fail
MM 10 Some well-built Most masonry structures destroyed together with their footings
wooden buildings
seriously damaged
MM11 Wooden-frame
structures destroyed
MM12 Damage virtually total
Walls With Openings height or length of the panel (whichever is the lesser)
Walls with openings are considered to form sub-panels be ignored.
either side of the opening, Figure 6.2. The edges of When a long window or door is to be supported by
the sub-panels adjacent to the opening are regarded as a short length of masonry, care must be taken to
being unsupported (ie no lateral support or rotational ensure that the masonry is built into the supports or
restraint) with the remaining edges being supported. To is continuous past the supports so there is sufficient
simplify the calculations, the openings are assumed to rotational restraint to support the load from the window
extend for the full height of the wall. The pressure on or door.
the opening (ie on the door panel or window glazing) is Shear in Unreinforced Masonry
considered to be fully transferred to the edge of the two
adjoining masonry sub-panels. These are checked for The shear resistance of unreinforced masonry is
flexural capacity as panels supported top, bottom and at influenced by two components, the shear bond strength
one end, subjected to a horizontal line load at the other (the ability of the mortar to bind the masonry units to
end and a uniform horizontal pressure. each other and to their supports) and the shear friction
strength (the frictional resistance to sliding once the
AS 3700 does not give guidance on the permissible size bond is broken). When the masonry is subject to
of small openings that may be ignored. In the absence earthquake loading, the vertical movement of the
of data to the contrary, it is suggested that openings structure relieves the gravity load, thus reducing friction
whose maximum dimension is less than one fifth of the resistance.
Vertical
honzontal
and diagonal
failure lines
Laterally-supported on all four edges
Assume opening extends to

full height of wall
WALLS SUPPORTED BOTH ENDS AND TOP
p
andve
Assume lateral load on
failure in.-.
opening fully transferred
to adjoining panel edge
1'
+
(a) L>H (b) L(H

Figure 6.2 Assumptions for Walls with Openings

WALLS SUPPORTED BOTH ENDS. TOP FREE
Horizontal Diagonal Increasing the Capacity of Unreinforced Masonry

diagonal failure lines
It is increasingly the practice in southern Australia
to provide lateral support to unreinforced masonry
subject to lateral earthquake, wind or fire loads by
building in galvanised steel mullions. Although this is
a convenient practice, it is significantly more expensive
than reinforced masonry. Furthermore, the stiffness of
(a) L>H (b) L<H
the mullion is considerably less than the stiffness of the
masonry, which will possthly experience some cracking
WALLS SUPPORTED ONE END AND TOP
under extreme load. For typical details, see Part C:
Clause 3.3.2 (Page 3.21) and for capacities see this
Chapter, Clause 6.3.
When cavity walls are sublect to lateral earthquake,
wind or fire load, the strength of the wall may
be increased by tying the two leaves together
monolithically, using ties together with either masonry
units or mortar packing. This win provide stiffness as
L well as strength, but is not considered to be ductile. For
(a) L>H (b) L<H typical details, see Part C:Clause 3.3.3 (Page 3.25) and
WALLS SUPPORTED ONE END, TOP FREE for capacities see this Chapter, Clause 6.3.
1.> H
WALLS SUPPORTED BOTH ENDS AND TOP

AND ROTATIONALLY-RESTRAINED AT BOTH ENDS
Figure 6.1 Summary of Observed Failure Patterns

6.1.5 BENDING AND SHEAR IN
REINFORCED MASONRY
Bending in Reinforced Masonry
When reinforced masonry is subjected to bending, the
moment resistance is provided by a combination of the
reinforcement in tension and a width of concrete face
shell in compression.
Vertical reinforcement placed in the cores of hollow
concrete blockwork spans vertically between horizontal
supports and provides strength enhancement to large
wall panels.
If the reinforcement is spaced at 800 mm or less,
the masonry is regarded as close-spaced reinforced
masonry', and may be considered ductile. This will
have advantages in respect of earthquake loads.
. If the reinforcement is spaced at 2.0 m centres
or less, (but wider than 800 mm), the masonry is
regarded as wide-spaced reinforced masonry', with
S some advantages in respect of robustness.
If the reinforcement is spaced further apart than

2.0 m, the masonry is regarded as 'mixed
construction', consisting of unreinforced masonry
supported between the vertically-reinforced masonry
elements.
It is common to lap the vertical bars with starter
bars set in the slab or footings below, thus providing
increased shear resistance and perhaps some moment
resistance at the base. If the masonry supports a
concrete slab, it may also be preferable to continue
the wall reinforcement into the slab above. For typical
details, see Part C:Clause 3.5.2 (Page 3.39) and for
capacities see this Chapter, Clause 6.3.
Shear in Reinforced Masonry
The considerable overseas research into the behaviour
of masonry with close-spaced reinforcement subject to
cyclical in-plane shear loads, formed the basis of
AS 3700 Clause 8.6.2, for shear walls. However there is
S very little corresponding research for wide-spaced

reinforcement subjected to in-plane cyclical loading
simulating the action of shear walls during an
earthquake. The code writers have therefore used
engineering judgment to derive what are believed to be
realistic rules.
If the vertical reinforcement is placed at 2.0 m centres
or closer and the horizontal steel at 3.0 metres centres
or closer, the masonry wall is classified as a reinforced
masonry shear wall.
Reinforced masonry shear walls are a combination
of bond beams and vertically-reinforced masonry. All
reinforcement must be correctly anchored to ensure
that the wall remains intact when being subjected to
in-plane shear. At corners of the wall and at openings,
vertical reinforcement should be lapped with starter bars
at the base and cogged into the bond beams and thus
lapped with the bond beam reinforcement at the top.For
typical details, see Part C:Clause 3.5.1 (Page 3.35) and
for capacities see this Chapter, Clause 6.3.
A DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
Earthquake Design Category HI
Application:
6.2.1 AUSTRALIAN STANDARDS aS < 0.1 Domestic structures
This manual is based on the loads and load All major centres (except Adelaide, Geelong, Latrobe
combinations of AS/NZS 1170.0, AS/NZS 1170.2 and Valley and Newcastle) on rock or not more than 30 m of
AS 1170.4 (see Note 1). AS 1170.4 Clause 5.2 provides dense sand or gravel, firm, stiff or hard clay or
rules on the following factors which affect the controlled fill
magnitude of seismic loads, viz: acceleration coefficient, Analysis Requirements:
site factor, attachment amplification, height amplification Nil.
and earthquake coefficient. It also considers structure
irregularity.
Detailing Requirements:
AS 1170.4 Clause 3.5
AS 3700 provides rules for masonry design and
Non-ductile components such as unreinforced masonry,
construction, including capacity reduction factors,
gable ends, chimneys, parapets shall be restrained to
geometric parameters (eg bedded areas), steel, block and
resist a force of F = 1.8aS G.
mortar properties and detailing provisions (eg cover).
The magnitude of the seismic loads attracted to a See Part B:Chapter 1 of this manual.
masonry wall will depend on its ductility. Unreinforced
masonry being non-ductile attracts higher loads than
ductile reinforced masonry. Guidance on the quantity
Earthquake Design Category H2
and disposition of reinforcement to achieve structure

and member ductility is given in AS 3700 Appendix A,
Application:
see Table 6.2.
0.1 < aS < 0.2 Domestic structures
Anchorage and bar detailing is covered in AS 3600 All major centres (except Adelaide, Geelong, Latrobe
Concrete structures Valley and Newcastle) on more than 5 metres of soft
clay, loose sand, silt or uncontrolled fill.
Table 6.2 Structural Response Factor (Ri) and Deflection
Adelaide, Geelong, Latrobe Valley and Newcastle on any
Amplification Factor (Kd) for Building Structures soil except soft soil.
(From AS 3700 Appendix A Table Al)
Analysis Requirements:
Structural Masonry shear wall Nil.
system reinforcement type Rf Detailing Requirements:
Bearing-wall Close-spaced (reinforced AS 1170.4 Clause 3.2
system or prestressed) 4.0 3.0 Non-ductile buildings (ie unreinforced masonry
Wide-spaced reinforced 2.5 2.0 buildings) shall be detailed to AS 1170.4 Clause 3.3
Unreinforced 1.5 1.25
AS 1170.4 Clause 3.3 - Non-ductile buildings
Building-frame Close-spaced (reinforced (unreinforced masonry buildings)
system or prestressed) 5.0 i All parts of the building shall be tied together in
I Wide-spaced reinforced
Un reinforced
3.0
1.5
horizontal and vertical plane so that forces from all
parts of the building are carried to the foundation.
Dual system: Close-spaced (reinforced ! Each beam or truss shall be connected to the
(with intermediate or prestressed) 5.5 4.5
support by a connector with a strength in the
moment-resisting Wide-spaced reinforced 3.0 2.5
direction of the span of 5% of its gravity load.
frame OR reinforced Unreinforced na na
moment-resisting Secondary framing, purlins and battens shall be tied
frame of steel) to their supporting members and designed for other
loads.
External walls shall be anchored to the roof and
6.2.2 SPECIFIC REQUIREMENTS FOR
floor(s) with connectors capable of withstanding
10 (aS) kN per metre run.
EARTHQUAKE LOADING TO AS 11704(Note 1)
Internal loadbearing walls shall be tied to other walls
Some typical applications for each Design Category are
listed in the following sections However, they are not and horizontally restrained at the ceiling and floor(s).
intended to form a comprehensive list. Refer to AS 1170.4 Clause 3.5
AS 1170.4 Table 2.3, Maps 2.3, Table 2.4(a) and Non-ductile components such as unreinforced masonry,
Appendix A. gable ends, chimneys, parapets shall be restrained to
resist a force of F = 1.8aS G
See Part B: Chapter 1 of this manual.
NOTES:
1 At the publishing date of this Manual, AS 1170.4-1993 is
being revised. When that is published, this Part of the
manual will be amended.
Earthquake Design Category H3 Earthquake Design Category A
Application: Application:
aS > 0.2 Domestic structures aS < 0.1 Structure Type I
Adelaide, Geelong, Latrobe Valley and Newcastle on Normal building in most major areas (except Adelaide,
more than 5 metres of soft clay, loose sand, silt or Geelong, Latrobe Valley or Newcastle) on rock or not
uncontrolled fill. more than 30 m of dense sand and gravel, firm, stiff or
Analysis Requirements: hard clay or controlled fill.
Ductile structures - Nil Normal building in Adelaide, Geelong, Latrobe Valley or
Newcastle on rock with a strength Class L (low) or
Non-ductile structures - Static analysis to AS 1170.4 better.
Clause 3.4
Detailing Requirements: AS 1170.4 Clause 2.72
Nil.
All buildings shall be detailed to AS 1170.4 Clause 3.3.
AS 1170.4 Clause 3.3 - All buildings Detailing Requirements:
AU parts of the building shall be tied together in
Ductile structures (with close-spaced or wide-spaced
reinforcement) - Nil.
Non-ductile structures (unreinlorced masonry
Each beam or truss shall be connected to the
structures) - detailed to AS 1170.4 Clause 4.3.

support by a connector with a strength in the
direction of the span of 7,5% of its gravity load. AS 1170.4 Clause 4.3 - Non-ductile structures
(unreinforced masonry structures)
Secondary framing, purlins and battens shall be tied
to their supporting members and designed for other All parts of the building shall be tied together in
loads.
External walls shall be anchored to the roof and
floor(s) with connectors capable of withstanding Each beam or truss shall be connected to the
lOaS kN per metre run. support by a connector with a strength in the
direction of the span of 5% of its gravity load.
Internal loadbearing walls shall be tied to other walls
and horizontally restrained at the ceiling and floor(s). Walls shall be anchored to the roof and restrained at
the floor(s). The connectors and restraint shall be
AS 1170.4 Clause 3.5 capable of withstanding 0.8 kN per metre run.
Non-ductile components such as unreinforced masonry,
(Note: 0.8 kN per metre is greater than the maximum
gable ends, chimneys, parapets shall be restrained to
possible value of 5aS per metre run.) AS 1170.4
resist a force of F = 1.8aS G
Supp 1 Commentary permits the restraint to be
See Part B Chapter 1 of this manual, provided by friction calculated in accordance with
AS 3700. It also requires loadbeaiing walls supporting
slabs to be arranged at right angles to prevent the
slab from lumping off its support during earthquakes.
a If the distance between connectors exceeds 1.2 m,
the wall shall be designed for bending between the
connectors
AS 1170.4 Clause 5.1, 5.2 and 5.4
Non-ductile non-structural components such as
unreinforced masonry walls, gable ends, chimneys,
parapets shall be restrained to resist a force of
F = aS ac a Ci I G.
See Part B: Chapter 1 of this manual.
NOTES;
I At the publishing date of this Manual, AS 1170.4-1993 is
Earthquake Design Category B Earthquake Design Category C
Application Application:
aS < 0.1 Structure Type II aS < 0.1 Structure Type III
Buildings intended for large numbers of people, in most Building intended for post-earthquake recovery
major aieas (except Adelaide, Geelong, Latrobe Valley 0.1 < aS < 0.2 Structure Type II
or Newcastle) on rock or not more than 30 m of dense
Buildings designed to contain a large number of people
sand and gravel, firm stiff or hard clay or controlled fill or people of restricted or impaired mobility built:
0.1 < aS < 0.2 Structure Type I In most major areas (except Adelaide, Geelong,
Normal buildings in most major areas except (Adelaide,
Latrobe Valley or Newcastle) on a soil profile with
Geelong, Latrobe Valley or Newcastle) on soils softer
more than 12 metres of very soft to soft clays,
than described above.
very loose to loose sands, silts or uncontrolled fill
Analysis Requirements: characterized by shear wave velocities less than 150
AS 1170.4 Clause 2.73
m/sec, or
Ductile regular structures - Nil. In Adelaide, Geelong, Latrobe Valley or Newcastle on
Other structures (ie non-ductile or irregular) - a soil profile with not more than 12 metres of very
Static or dynamic analysis. soft to soft clays, very loose to loose sands, silts or
Detailing Requirements: uncontrolled fill.
AS 1170.4 Clause 2.73 aS > 0.2 Structure Type
Non-ductile regular structures over four storeys shall Normal buildings in Adelaide, Geelong, Latrobe Valley or
incorporate some reinforced masonry, reinforced concrete Newcastle on a soil profile with more than 12 metres of
shear walls or braced frames. very soft to soft clays, very loose to loose sands, silts or
uncontrolled fill characterized by shear wave velocities
Non-ductile irregular structures over three storeys shall
less than 150 rn/sec.
incorporate some reinforced masonry, reinforced concrete
shear walls or braced frames. Analysis Requirements:
AS 1170.4 Clause 2.74
AS 1170.4 Clause 4.3 - All structures
All structures - Static or dynamic analysis.
All parts of the building shall be tied together in
horizontal and vertical plane so that forces from all Detailing Requirements:
parts of the building are carried to the foundation. AS 1170.4 Clause 2.74
Each beam or truss shall be connected to the Structures over three storeys shall incorporate some
support by a connector with a strength in the reinforced masonry, reinforced concrete shear walls or
direction of the span of 5% of its gravity load. braced frames.
Walls shall be anchored to the roof and restrained at AS 1170.4 Clauses 4.3 and 4.4.1 - All structures
the floor(s). The connectors and restraint shall be All parts of the building shall be tied together in
capable of withstanding 10 a S kN per metre run horizontal and vertical plane so that forces from all
(ie up to 2 kN per metre run in Type II buildings parts of the building are carried to the foundation.
and 1 kN per metre run in Type I buildings). Each beam or truss shall be connected to the
AS 1170.4 Supp 1 Commentary permits the restraint support by a connector with a strength in the
to be provided by friction calculated in accordance direction of the span of 5% of its gravity load.
with AS 3700. It also requires loadbearing walls
AS 1170.4 Clauses 4.3, 4.4.2, 4,4,4, 5.1, 5.2 and 5.4 -
supporting slabs to be arranged at right angles to All structures
prevent the slab from lumping off its support during
earthquakes.
Walls shall be anchored to the roof and restrained at
the floor(s), The connectors and restraint for masonry
If the distance between connectors exceeds 1.2 m, walls and other masonry members shall be capable of
the wall shall be designed for bending between the withstanding the greatest of:
connectors.
lOaS kN per metre run of connection
AS 1170.4 Clause 5.1, 5.2 and 5.4
0.33aS G0
Non-ductile, non-structural components such as
unieinforced masonry walls, gable ends, chimneys, 0.05G0
parapets shall be restrained to resist a force of F = aS a0 ax C I Gc
Fp aS a0 a C01 I G.
See Part B:Chapter 1 of this manual.
See Part B:Chapter I of this manual.
NOTES:
being revised. When that is published, this Part of the Cent...
AS 1170.4 Supp I Commentaiy Earthquake Design Category D
Permits the restraint to be provided by friction Application:
calculated in accordance with AS 3700. It also 0.1 < aS < 0.2 Structure Type III
requires loadbearing walls supporting slabs to be Building intended for post-earthquake recovery built:
arranged at right angles to prevent the slab from In most major areas (except Adelaide, Geelong,
jumping off its support during earthquakes. Latrobe Valley or Newcastle) on a soil profile with
If the distance between connectors exceeds 1.2 m, more than 12 metres of very soft to soft clays,
the wall shall be designed for bending between the very loose to loose sands, silts or uncontrolled fill
connectors. characterized by shear wave velocities less than 150
Connections of loadbearing walls to the structure m/sec,
shall have ductility, rotational capacity or strength or
to resist shrinkage, thermal changes and differential In Adelaide, Geelong, Latrobe Valley or Newcastle on
foundation settlement when combined with a soil profile with not more than 12 metres of very
earthquake forces. soft to soft clays, very loose to loose sands, silts or
AS 1170.4 Clauses 4.4.3 - All structures uncontrolled fill.
Floor and roof diaphragms shall be designed for a force aS > 0.2 Structure Type II
equal to; Buildings designed to contain a large number of people
P = 0.5aS(Gdiaph+Gattached) + V or people of restricted or impaired mobility in Adelaide,
Geelong, Latrobe Valley or Newcastle on a soil profile

where:
with more than 12 metres of very soft to soft clays, very
Gdiaph weight of the diaphragm
loose to loose sands, silts or uncontrolled fill
Gattached = weight of attached members
characterised by shear wave velocities less than
V = proportion of the earthquake
150 m/sec.
forces at the storey
AS 1170.4 Clauses 4.4.5 - All structures
AS 1170.4 Clause 2.Z5
The edges of openings in shear walls and
Regular structures - Static or dynamic analysis including
diaphragms shall be strengthened to resist local
vertical effects on critical members
stresses.
Irregular structures - Dynamic analysis including vertical
Allow for at least one Y12 reinforcing bar grouted
effects on critical members
into the hollow cores adjacent to openings in hollow
blockwork and one Y12 reinforcing bar grouted into Detailing Requirements:
AS 1170.4 Clause 2.Z5
a bond beam over (and, where appropriate, under)
openings. Structures over two storeys shall incorporate some
reinforced masonry, reinforced concrete shear walls or
AS 1170.4 Clauses 4.4.6 - All structures
braced frames.
Footing ties shall be provided for piles, caissons or
spread footings on soils with less than 250 kPa ultimate For other details, see Earthquake Design Category C.
bearing capacity.
S NOTES:
Earthquake Design Category E 6.2.3 DESIGN OF MASONRY WALLS FOR OUT-
Application: OF-PLANE EARTHQUAKE LOADS
aS > 0.2 Structure Type III AS 1170.4 requires that walls be designed for
Building intended for post-earthquake recovery built in out-of-plane loading in accordance with Clause 5.2.
Adelaide, Geelong, Latrobe Valley or Newcastle on a This is made clear in at least four locations in AS 1170.4
soil profile with more than 12 metres of very soft to soft (Clause 2.71, Clause 5.2.1, Note attached to Clause 6.2
clays, very loose to loose sands, silts or uncontrolled fill and Figure 1 Flow Chart).
characterised by shear wave velocities less than Worked Example No 2 in this chapter is typical of
150 rn/sec. residential or commercial construction and includes:
Analysis Requirements: 110-mm cored brick (230 mm x 76 mm high) non-
AS 1170.4 Clause 2.76 loadbeaiing outer leaf and 90-mm hollow block
Regular structures - Static or dynamic analysis including (390 mm x 190 mm high) loadbearing inner leaf
vertical effects on critical members i wall height of 2.7 m
Irregular structures - Dynamic analysis including vertical each leaf is considered as acting independently to
effects on critical members support the out-of-plane force caused by its own
Detailing Requirements: weight
AS 1170.4 Clause 2.76 wall length of 3.7 m from the support to a window
All masonry components shall be reinforced.
1.6-rn window opening.

The structure height is limited to 50 m for bearing In this example, the capacities of the 110-mm cored
wall systems, 70 m for building frame systems and brick and 90-mm hollow block for 2.7-rn high walls are
30 m for moment resisting frame and dual system similar at 0.57 and 0.58 kPa, giving a total of 1.15 kPa.
unless special moment resisting frames continuing However, the loads for the top storey are 1.29 kPa. It
down to the footings are included. can be seen that the loads exceed the capacities,
. For other details, see Earthquake Design Category C. indicating that this form of construction should be
strengthened in this application.
Other design considerations would be:
a more accurate assessment of the height
amplification factor (az) required in AS 1170.4
Clause 5.4, particularly in its application to low-rise
buildings, and
modification of the method given in AS 3700
Clause 7.4.4 (for determimng out-of-plane load
capacity of unreinforced masonry in two-way
bending) to account for vertical compression,
eg due to a number of floors above.
NOTES:
in
6.2.4 BENDING IN UN REINFORCED MASONRY 6.2.5 SHEAR IN UNREINFORCED MASONRY
Vertical Bending Strength For loads other than earthquake loads,
The vertical bending moment capacity is given by the Vd = V0 + V1
least of:
0 'ms AdW + kv 1d AdW
=fk 'mt Zd + d Zd
representing a combination of flexural For earthquake loads,
bond strength and compression, Vd = V0 + Vle
= 3.0 1 kmt mt Zd = 0 1'ms w + 0.9 kv 1de AdW
representing an upper bound on flexural where 1de =
bond strength and compression, The gravitational force acting vertically on a wall
M = 1d Zd consists of two components: the self weight of the wall
representing the compression where and attachments (which contribute to both the out-of-
'mt = 0 (ie at a damp-proof course or plane earthquake load on the wall and its frictional
interface with another material). resistance), and the weight of other parts of the
td shall not be taken as greater than 0.36 MPa. structure (which are supported laterally by a shear core,
Horizontal Bending Strength shear walls or structural frame and therefore do not
contribute to the out-of-plane earthquake load on the
The horizontal bending moment capacity is given by the wall). Although neither AS 3700 nor AS 1170.4
least of: specifically requires the gravitational force G0 to be
Mch = 2.0 0 k mt (1 + td/1mt) Zd Nmm/m factored down, the following policy has been adopted in
representing a zigzag failure around the this manual:
mortar Joints with a combination of torsional the self weight of the wall and attachments is not
bond strength and compression, factored, since it contributes to both load and
Mch 4.0 0 kp 'mt Zd Nmm/m resistance
representing an upper bound on the zigzag the weight of other parts of the structure are
failure with torsional bond strength and
factored by 0.8, since they contribute only to
compression,
resistance.
Mch = 0 (0.44 ut + 0.56 1'mt Zu)
representing a straight vertical failure
alternating through masonry unit and mortar.
Diagonal Bending Strength
The diagonal bending capacity is given by:
Mcd = ft Z
AS 3700 gives formulae for calculating the torsional
section modulus of various types of masonry units.
NOTES:
All
6.2.6 BENDING IN REINFORCED MASONRY 6.2.7 SHEAR IN REINFORCED MASONRY
When reinforced masonry is subjected to bending, the The in-plane shear resistance of reinforced shear walls,
moment resistance is provided by a combination of the with a height/length ratio (H/L) less than 2.3 and
reinforcement in tension and a width of concrete face specified quantities of reinforcement crossing the
shell in compression, AS 3700 permits a width of 2 t on potential crack lines is given by:
either side of the reinforcement for vertically-reinforced
Vd =0 (vr Ad + 0.8 f5 As).
masonry and 1.5t on either side of the reinforcement
for horizontally-reinforced masonry.AS 3700 limits the This includes the shear strength of the masonry
area of tensile reinforcement used for design purposes (enhanced by the confining action of the reinforcement,
to a 'balanced failure' value. This does not mean that diminishing from a theoretical maximum of 1.5 MPa to
more reinforcement can not be placed in the wall, only a limit of 0,35 MPa at H/L = 2.3) and 0.8 times the
that it can not all be used for design to resist bending. tensile strength of the reinforcement crossing the
The unconfined masonry compressive strength, i'm' potential crack planes. In the worked examples, the
significantly underestimates the crushing strength of formula has been modified to give reduced shear
reinforced masonry and there is little capacity, accounting for the fact that not all of the steel
likelihood of brittle failure due to over-reinforcement. present crosses potential shear cracks.
The limiting quantity of tensile reinforcement for design The spacing of the reinforcement is limited to
purposes is given by: 2.0 metres horizontal spacing of vertical reinforcement
ASd = (0.29) 1.3 m b and 3.0 metres vertical spacing of horizontal
reinforcement.
Because the compressive strength of masonry is based

on unconfined prisms and the corresponding concrete Walls which are more slender than H/L = 2.3 will
strength is based on confined cylinders, the strength of behave in a manner similar to beams, without any
masonry against which the tensile forces are balanced enhancement of the masonry strength due to
must be adjusted to give -3'm corresponding to f' in confinement by the reinforcement. The shear capacity
reinforced concrete design is given by:
The ultimate bending moment capacity for reinforced Vd = 0 (vm bw d + vs A5t + fsy Adv d/s).
(I) masonry in bending is given by:
-o Their strength relies on:
c3 0 f5 Asd d (1 - 0.6 f ASd /1.3 'm b d)
0 Md The shear strength of the masonry
The dowel action of the main tensile reinforcement
.4-J The tensile force in any stirrups closer together than
C
0 1 0.75D
NJ
Shear walls and lightly loaded piers must be considered
0 for stability and may require starter bars to anchor the
member to the structure. Stability should be checked
using:
Vd 0 [k5 v L/2 + fry A5 (L -2 l')]/H.
The first term defines the resistance due to vertical load
while the second term defines the resistance due to the
anchorage of heel reinforcement. The reduction factor
(ksw) accounts for toe crushing in shear walls under
heavy vertical loads.
NOTES:
1')
6.2.8 TIES AND CONNECTORS AS1I7O.4 Clause 5.1.4 states:
Architectural ... components required to be designed to
Ties and connectors that fix a masonry wall to the
resist earthquake forces shall be attached so that the
supporting structure shall be capable of transmitting
forces are transferred to the structure. The attachment
the loads imposed on the wall by wind or earthquake to
shall be designed to resist the earthquake forces
the supports. These requirements are covered by three
specified in this section. Friction due to gravity shall not
Australian Standards:
be considered in evaluating the required resistance to
AS/NZS 1170.2 Wind actions Clause 2.5.5.
earthquake forces, Minimum anchorage forces are
AS 1170.4 Earthquake loads Clause 3.3.2, Clause 4.3.3, specified in Section 4.
Clause 4.4.2, Clause 5.1.4 and Clause 5.2
However, AS 3700 Clause A8.3 provides a formula for
AS 3700 Masonry structures including Clauses 4.11.4, 2.6, shear strength of unreinforced masonry which accounts
A3.5 A8.3 and Table AS for the possible reduction of gravity loads due to vertical
The loads required to be transmitted vary with building acceleration.
location, soil type, use to which the building is put, AS 1170.4 Clause 5.2 gives the formula for calculating
elevation, shielding from wind and topography. the horizontal forces, F = a S ac a Ccl I G and
AS/NZS 1170.2 Requirements Table 5.1.5(a) requires that Ccl for connections be twice
AS/NZS 1170.2 does not specifically mention ties and the value for the architectural component which is
connections except that, in Tropical Cyclone Regions C connected.
and D, Clauses 2.5.5 require "cladding" connections to AS 1170.4 Supplement 1 Commentary Clause C4.3.2,
be designed to resist fatigue loading states clearly that it is permissible to rely on friction
AS 1170.4 Requirements calculated in accordance with AS 3700 to transfer

The use AS 1170,4 is complicated by the fact that the horizontal loads to and from masonry loadbearing walls.
requirements for connections depend on the building Therefore it is not necessary to provide ties or
location, soil type, use to which the building is put, connectors at the top or bottom of loadbearing walls.
elevation and whether it is ductile or non-ductile. However, it is required to provide ties or connectors at
For Category B structures and Category A non-ductile the top of non-loadbearing walls and it would appear to
structures, AS 1170.4 Clause 4.3.3 states: be the intention of the Standard that connectors (other
Walls shall be anchored to the roof and restrained at than friction) be required at the base of non-loadbearing
all floors which provide horizontal support for the wall. masonry walls.
The anchorage or restraint shall provide a connection Figure 6.3 summarises these requirements
between the walls and the roof or floor system and shall
be capable of resisting a horizontal design earthquake The Commentary goes on to state:
force induced by the wall of 10(aS) per metre run of For load.bearing masonry structures, slabs should be
wall. Walls shall be designed to resist bending between supported on a series of walls at right angles to each
anchors where the anchor spacing exceeds 1.2 m. For other to avoid the possibility of the slab being dislodged
non-ductile structures of earthquake Design Category A, from its supporting wall.
a 50% reduction of the force to be resisted is permitted AS 3700 Requirements
but the force shall not be less than 0.8 klV per metre run AS 3700 Clause 2.6.3 requires that the ultimate design
of wall. load on any supporting members be the greater of.
For Category C, D and E structures, AS 1170.4 Clause The sum of the simple static reactions to the total
4.3.3 states: applled horizontal forces for the appropriate load
All parts of the structure shall be interconnected and the combination and 2.5% of the vertical load that the
connections capable of transmitting the horizontal masonry member is designed to carry. (Note: In this
earthquake force (F) specified in Section 5, induced by
manual the additional 2.5% of vertical loads has not
the parts being connected. Any smaller portion of the
structure shall be tied to the remainder of the structure
been added to the connection loads for earthquake
with elements having a strength to resist 0.33 a S times derived using AS 1170.4 because AS 1170.4 Table 5.2
the gravity load of the smaller part but not less than 5% already requires design for twice the calculated
of the portion's weight. lateral load).
0.4 kPa acting on the appropriate tributary area of
supported masonry
AS 3700 Clause 2.6.4 requires that the ultimate design
load on any connection to a supporting members be the
load calculated from Clause 2.6.3 multiplied by 1.25.
AS 3700 Clause A.3.5 and Table Al expand the
AS 1170.4 requirements set out above.
NOTES:
6.13
Performance of Head Ties and Connectors
Many commercially available head ties do not have
sufficient shear resistance to support large wall panels.
The designer should carefully check the shear capacity
using the tie characteristic shear strength provided by
the tie manufacturer.
Vcap 0tie Ftie /S
where:
Vcap= ultimate capacity of ties kN/m length of wall
G1 for earthquake G3 for earthquake capacity reduction factor, taken as 0.75
0tie
or or
0.8 G1forwind 0.8 G3 for wind Ftie = characteristic shear strength of a single tie,
provided by the tie manufacturer
S = proposed spacing of head ties, to correspond
with perpendicular joints.
pr-
rtibut.
en:'
emal leaf
or con
emat leaf t2m)
G3- - : of internal wall F -Tie or connec
G4-Setfweightofotherparts 0tie Capacity red
of structure torties(-
A1/A2 -TOP AND BOTFOM OF LOADBEARING WALL

Capacity (kN/m) > Loads (kN/m) 1
Earthquake:
(Note 2)
øf'msAriw + 0.9 kxfdcAdw > aS ac ax C,I (G1 + G4) A
> lOaS
or 5aS (Category A)
or0.8 (CategoryA)
>0.4 A
Wind:
0f'mxAriw+
kvfdcAdw> 1.25 pA+ 0,025[1.25(G1 + G4) + 1.5Q]
>0.4 A
B - TOP OF NON-LOADBEARING WALL

Capacity (kN/m) > Loads (kN/m)
Ftie
0tie > aS a a5 C1 I G A
> lOaS
or5aS (Category A)
or 0.8 (Category A)
>1.25 pA
>0.4 A
C - BOTFOM OF NON-LOADBEARING WALL

If slip joint material ix used, design connection asfortop
Ifslipioint material is sot used, design using bond,
ignorisgfriction (AS 1170.4 Clause 5.1.4)
Capacity (kN/m) > Loads (kN/m)
Ft e
0tie f 0 'ms Adw> aS a C1 I 03 A
> lOaS
or5aS (Category A)
orO.8 (CategoryA)
>1,25 pA + 0.025(1.25 G) NOTES:
>0.4 A I At the publishing date of this Manual, AS 1170.4-1993 is
Figure 6.3 Summary of Wall lie/Connector Requirements
2 In this manual the additional 2.5% of vertical loads has not
been added to the connection loads for earthquake derived
using AS 1170.4 because AS 1170.4 Table 5.2 already requires
design for twice the calculated lateral load
1 lit
STANDARD DESIGNS
How to Read
Select the appropriate support conditions
AS/NZS 1170.
(eg supported on four sides).
of control joints, chases, openings, strength and stiffness Project the length of the wall between vertical
of ties and connectors, and strength and stiffness of supports and the height of wall between horizontal
supports, in addition to normal considerations of loads supports to determine the design point.
and masonry properties Control joints and openings Select a curve which is above or to the right
must be treated as free ends as specified by AS 3700. of the design point. Read off the load capacity
Masonry properties corresponding to the selected curve. If necessary,
The standard designs in this chapter are based on interpolate between curves,
minimum masonry properties complying with the Check that the masonry wall is adequate for other
General Specification set out in Part C:Chapter 2,
modified as noted on the standard design
chart and as noted below. requirements. On some charts, the robustness
requirements for the same conditions have been
Hollow concrete blocks superimposed.

List of Charts
Height 190 mm
DESCRIPTION PAGE
Length 390 mm
Moment and Shear Capacities:
Face-shell bedded Galvanised Steel Mullions 6.16
Minimum face-shell thickness, Moment and Shear Capacities:
t = 25 mm for 90-mm, 110-mm and 140-mm units Composite Masonry Mullions 6.17
t5 = 30 mm for 190-mm units
Moment and Shear Capacities,
Minimum characteristic compressive strength, Reinforced Masonry:
uc =15 MPa 140-mm hollow leaf, all exposure environments 6.18
Minimum characteristic lateral modulus of rupture, 190-mm hollow leaf, minimum cover 20 mm 6.19
= 0.8 MPa 190-mm hollow leaf, minimum cover 15 mm 6.20
190-mm hollow leaf, minimum cover 30 mm 6.21
Width 110 mm Shear Capacities,
Reinforced Concrete Masonry Shear Walls:
Height 76 mm
140-mm leaf, 1-N16 bar per end core 6.22
Length 230 mm 190-mm leaf, 1-N20 bar per end core 6.22
Fully bedded 190-mm leaf, 2-N20 bars per end core 6.23
140-mm! 190-mm leafs, starter bar connections 6.23
'uc =10 MPa Horizontal Loading, Unreinforced Masonry,
Without Openings:
Minimum characteristic lateral modulus of rupture, 90-mm leaf, hollow 6.24
t'ut = 0.8 MPa
110-mm leaf, hollow 6.26
Mortar joints 110-mm leaf, solid 6.28
Mortar type M3 (or M4) 140-mm leaf, hollow 6.30
Joint thickness 10 mm 190-mm leaf, hollow 6.32
With Openings:
Concrete grout 90-mm leaf, hollow 6.34
Minimum characteristic compressive strength, 110-mm leaf, hollow 6.38
= 20 MPa 110-mm leaf, solid 6.42
Minimum cement content 300 kg/m3 140-mm leaf, hollow 6.46
190-mm leaf, hollow 6.50
Steel reinforcement
N12, N16 or N20, as noted, complying with AS 3700, Horizontal Loading, Reinforced and
Section 8.5. Mixed Construction
Horizontally-Reinforced:
140-mm leaf 6.54
190-mm leaf 6.56
Vertically-Reinforced:
140-mm leaf 6.62
190-mm leaf 6.64
GALVANISED STEEL MULLIONS - Moment and Shear Capacities
Part C:Clause 3.3.2 (page 3.21) for typical details

Orientation (3) End Shear Moment
Grade (2) (depth connection capacity (5) capacity (6)
Section (1) MPa through wall) type (4) kN kN.m
150x50x5.ORHS C450L0 150 2-M12,8 15.8 31.90

150x50x4.ORHS C450L0 150 2-M12,8 15.8 26.50
125x75x6.ORHS C450L0 75 2-M12,8 15.8 23.90

125x75x5.ORHS C450L0 75 2-M12,8 15.8 20.50
.75x75x6.OSHS C450L0 75 2-M10,8 12.6 15.60

75x75x5.OSHS C450L0 75 2-M10,8 12.6 13.60
75x75x4.OSHS C450L0 75 2-M10,8 12.6 11.40
100 x 50 x 6.0 RHS C450L0 50 2-Mb, 8 12.6 11.20

100x50x5.ORHS C450L0 50 2-Mb0,8 12.6 9.88
.100x50x4.ORHS C450L0 50 2-M10,8 12.6 8.23
00x50x3.5RRS C450L0 50 2-M10,8 12.6 6.92

100x50x3.ORHS C450L0 50 2-M10,8 12.6 5.63
100x50x2.5RHS C450L0 50 2-Mb0,8 12.6 4.22
50x50x5.OSHS C450L0 50 2-M10,8 12.6 5.33
170 x 10 FMS 250 170 Nil Nil 10.80

120 x 10 EMS 250 120 Nil Nil 5.40
90 x 10 FMS 250 90 Nil Nil 3.00
70 x 10 FMS 250 70 Nil Nil 1.80
Notes:
I All hollow sections are BHP Duragal.
of all hollow sections are based on Grade C450L0 in accordance with AS 1163. All other sections are based
Grade 260 in accordance with AS 3679,
The orientation shows the dimension of the steel section when measured through the wall. For square hollow sections,
this value is the same as the side of the section, For rectangular hollow sections, this value is the same as the smaller of
ICapacities
the two sides of the section. It is important to ensure that the steel section will fit into the cores of the blocks.
4 The end connections indicated are the ones most likely to lead to efficient design and construction, although other e
connections can be used with each section. The nomenclature is as follows:
Designation Number of Anchors Anchor type Plate thickness (mm)
I. 2-M12, 8 2 M12 Dynabolrs 8
5 Shear capacity is based on the connection shear capacity, using the shear values provided by Raznset Fasteners (Aust)
Ltd for 20 MPa concrete.
Because there are no end plates on plate mullions, there is no contribution to shear capacity.
6 Moment capacities of Dura gal hollow sections are based on values provided by BHP in Dura gal design capacity tables far
steel hollow sections by Tubemakers. June 1996.
Moment capacities of plate muillons are calculated using AS 4100 assuming continuous lateral bracing by the adace
- masonry.
7 Blocks must be of a type and size to enable the mullions to be built into the masonry and the cores packed with mortar.
c ic
COMPOSITE MASONRY MULLIONS - Moment and Shear Capacities
See Part C:Clause3.3.3 (page 3.25) fortypical details
Wall 2700 mm high Wall 3900 mm high (9)

Inner Cavity Outer Web Intermediate Total Shear Moment Total Shear Moment
leaf width leaf width or width capacity capacity width capacity capacity
mm (I) mm (2) mm (3) mm (4) End (5) mm (6) kN (7) (kN/m) (8) mm (6) kN (7) (kN/m) (8)
110 50 110 300 I 840 1.56 1.49 1080 2.86 2.08
110 50 110 300 E 570 1.09 1.01 690 1.88 1.32
90 50 110 300 I 840 1.55 1.26 1080 2.84 1.75

:90 50 110 300 E 570 1.08 0.85 690 1.86 1.11
90 50 90 300 I 840 1.30 1.08 1080 2.37 1.50

.90 50 90 300 E 570 0.91 0.73 690 1.56 0.95
Notes:
1 An inner leaf of 110-mm brickwork has been common for many years, although increasingly 90-mm is being used because
of the potential savings in both cost and floor space. Concrete blocks 90 x 119 x 290 mm and 90 x 162 x 290 are available.
The 119-mm heights corresponds to 1.5 courses of 76-mm-high brickwork, whilst 162 mm corresponds to two courses of 76-
mm-high brickwork.
2 These tables are based on the most common cavity width of 50 mm. Capacities may be increased by increasing the cavity
width.
3 An outer leaf of 110-mm bnckwork is common. However, split, ribbed polished or fail-face 90-mm concrete blockwork is
sometimes used to provide an attractive economical external face.
4 These tables are based on a web width of 300 mm. This can be achieved using a mortar column tied within the leaves by
[J
cavity ties. A similar result could be achieved using masonry units bonded to form a diaphragm. In both cases, rainwater
must be prevented from crossing the cavity via the diaphragm.
5 End mullions are placed near the end of a wall and have masonry cavity walls extending on one side only. Intermediate
mullions are placed within a length of wall and have masonry cavity walls extending on both sides.
6 The calculation of the effective width of the composite mullion (te the width of each leaf which acts compositely with a
web) is six times the width of the leaf based on AS 3700 Clause 45.2. For an end mullion, the effective width is the web.4
width plus up to six times the minimum leaf width on one side only. For an intermediate mullion, the effective width is the
web width plus six times the minimum leaf width on both sides of the web (te up to twelve times).
7 The shear capacities given in the table is based on the following:
a characteristic shear strength at the interface of the supporting concrete slab. 'ns of zero
a shear factor. k, of 0.3
selfweightforawall2.7m and3.9ml'ugh
no additional applied vertical load
the formula in AS 3700 Clause A8.3 for shear arising from earthquake loads.
For other circumstances, the shear capacity may be increased.
If the wall transfers shear load across an interface confined by reinforcement, the characteristic shear strength, f'.
may be taken as 0.35 MPa.
The shear factor, kv, of 0.3 is appropriate to mortar joints, concrete interface and bitumen-coated aluminium or
embossed polyethylene damp-proof-courses and flashings. For other interface materials, 0.3 may not be appropnate..
Vertical loads as may be applied by supported floor slabs will increase shear capacity.
If the shear load is not caused by earthquake, the component of capacity which is derived from vertical load maybe
increased by 11%. See AS 3700 Clause 7.5.1.
The shear capacity is given for the length over which the composite mullion extends.
8 The moment capacities given in the tables are based on a characteristic tensile strength, 'mt' of 0.2 MPa and the section
j modulus based on composite action and self weight based on a wall height of 2.7 m or 3.9 m.
9 Walls higher than the value 3.9 m used in these tables will have shear and moment resistance higher than the tabulated
values.
4-
REINFORCED MASONRY - 140-mm leaf
Moment and Shear Capacities Afl exposure environments
HORZONTAUY-REfNFORCED BOND BEAMS VERTiCALLY-REINFORCED CORES

IN MID-WALL
BARS Vc Mc
BARS V M BARS Vc M
N12 5.1 2.6
N16 6.3 3.9 300 N12 10.2 4.9 N12 5.1 2.7
N16 12.6 5.7 N16 6.3 4.5
70
e 70
70
HORIZONTALLY-REINFORCED LINTELS VER11CALLY-REINFORCED CORES

ADJACENTTO OPENINGS
BARS V Mc BARS V M BARS Vc Mc
N12 5.1 2.6 N12 12.5 11.4 N12 5.1 2.5

N16 6.3 2.6 N16 13.7 19.4 N16 6.3 3.5
70
BARS Vc Mc
N12 5.1 2.5 BARS Yc M
1 N16 6.3 2.9 N12 10.2 4.7

N16 12.6 4.7
70 hear capacity
e 70
Moment capacity (kN.m)
ickness, 140mm
type,M3
characteristic compressive strength,
I5MPa
compressve strength, f 20 MPa
REINFORCED MASONRY - 1 mm leaf
Moment and Shear Capacities :n cover, c
HORIZONTALLY-REINFORCED BOND BEAMS VERTICALLY-REINFORCED CORES

IN MID-WALL
BARS V M BARS V M BARS V M
100 N12 6.4 3.7 100 N12 8.2 5.1 N12 6.4 3.7
N16 7.6 6.4 N16 9.3 8.8 N16 7.6 6.6
N20 9.1 9.2 N20 10.6 12.7 N20 9.1 9.7
95
< 129(N12 bars)

95 127 (N16 bars)
125 (N20 bars)
w
300 N12 12.9 7.2 300 N12 16.4 10.0 N12 8.2 5.2
N16 15.2 12.0 fi I N16 18.6 16.8 N16 9.3 9.0 129 (N12 bars)
N20 18.1 13.1 N20 21.3 22.6 N20 10.6 13.2 127 (N16 bars)
125 (N20 bars)
[1
.
( ) 129 (N12 bars)
127 (N16 bars)
125 (N20 bars)
HORIZONTALLY-REINFORCED UNTELS VERTICALLY-REINFORCED CORES

ADJACENTTO OPENINGS
BARS VC MC BARS V M BARS V M
N12
N16
N20
6.4
7.6
9.1
3.4
3.6
3.6
N12
N16
N20
7.9
10.2
13.1
3.6
3.6
3.6
N12
N16
N20
6.4
7.6
9.1
3.6
6.2
8.2
a
L
BARS V M BARS V M
100 N12 6.4 3.6 N12 8.2 5.0

N16 7.6 6.0 1 N16 9.3 8.4
N20 9.1 6.5 N20 10.6 11.3
e 95
129 (N12 bars)
127 (N16 bars)
BARS
N12
V
8.2
M
5.1
125 (N20 bars)
N16 9.3 8.6 129 (N12 bars)
N20 10.6 12.4 127(Nl6bars)
125 (N20 bars)
BARS V M BARS V M
N12 16.4 11.7 N12 17.9 22.0

N16 17.6 20.2 N16 20.2 32.2
20 19.0 29.4 N20 23.1 32.2
BARS V M BARS V
N12 12.9 6.9 300 N12 16.4 9.8

<] N16 15.2 9.9 N16 18.6 16.1
N20 18.1 9.9 N20 21.3 17.2
k129(N12bars)
127 (N16 bars)
125 (N20 bars)
REINFORCED MASONRY - :30-mm leaf
Moment and Shear Capacities over, c = 15 mm
IZONTALLY-REINFORCED BOND BEAMS VER11CALLY-REINFORCED CORES

IN MID-WALL
100 N12 6.4 3.7 100 N12 8.5 5.3 N12 6.4 3.7
N16 7.6 6.4 N16 9.6 9.1 N16 7.6 6.6
N20 9.1 9.2 N20 10.9 13.3 N20 9.1 9.7
134 (N12 bars)

95 132 (N16 bars)
130 (N20 bars)
300 N12 12.9 7.2 300 N12 17.0 10.4 N12 8.5 5.4
1 N16 15.2 12.0 N16 19.1 17.6 N16 9.6 9.3 134 (N12 bars)
N20 18.1 13.1 N20 21.8 24.5 N20 10.9 13.8 132 (N16 bars)
130 (N20 bars)
e 4
95
(-3134 (N12 bars)
132 (N16 bars)
130 (N20 bars) I
HORIZONTALLY-REINFORCED UNTELS VERTICALLY-REINFORCED CORES
ADJACENT TO OPENINGS
RS V M BARS V M BARS V M
12 6.4 3.4 N12 7.9 3.6 N12 6.4 3.6

16 7.6 3.6 N16 10.2 3.6 N16 7.6 6.2
20 9.1 3.6 N20 13.1 3.6 N20 9.1 8.2
95
BARS V M BARS V M
1o0 N12 6.4 3.6 100 N12 8.5 5.2

N16 7.6 6.0 K N16 9.6 8.8
e 95
N20 9.1 6.5
K
N20 10. 9
)k34(Nl2bars)
132 (N 16 bars)
130 (N20 bars)
12.2
BARS
N12
N16
V
8.5
9.6
M
5.3
9.0
4
134 (N12 bars)
132 (N16 bars)
N20 10.9 13.0
130 (N20 bars)
BARS Vc M BARS V M
N12 16.4 11.7 N12 17.9 22.0

N16 17.6 20.2 N16 20.2 32.2
N20 19.0 29.4 N20 23.1 32.2
BARS V M BARS V M
capacity(kN)
300 N12 12.9 6.9 300 N12 17.0 10.2
-nt capacity(kN.m)
j N16 15.2 9.9 I N16 19.1 16.9
190mm
N20 18.1 9.9 N20 21.8 18.6
M3
eristic compressive strength,
134 (N12 bars)
132 (N16 bars)
95
130 (N20 bars)
' ')n
REINFORCED MASONRY - 190-mm leaf
Moment and Shear Capacities Minimt ,r,c=3Omm
HORIZONTALLY-REINFORCED BOND BEAMS VERTICALLY-REINFORCED CORE1
IN MID-WALL

N12 6.4 3.7 100 N12 7.7 4.2 N12 6.4 3.7
1 N16 7.6 6.4 J N16 8.8 8.0 N16 7.6 6.6
N20 9.1 9.2 N20 10.1 11.6 N20 9.1 9.7
95
119 (N12 bars)

95 117 (N16 bars)
115 (N20 bars)

N12 12.9 7.2 300 N12 15.4 9.1 N12 7.7 4.7
<1 N16 15.2 12.0 N16 17.5 15.3 N16 8.8 8.2 119 (N12 bars)
N20 18.1 13.1 N20 20.2 19.2 N20 10.1 12.0 117 (N16 bars)
115 (N20 bars)
119 (N12 bars)

H
117 (N16 bars)
95
115 (N20 bars)
HORIZONTALLY-REINFORCED UNTELS VERTiCALLY-REINFORCED CORES

ADJACENT TO OPENINGS
BARS V M BARS Vc M BARS V M

N12 6.4 3.4 N12 7.9 3.6 N12 6.4 3.6
N16 7.6 3.6 N16 10.2 3.6 N16 7.6 6.2
N20 9.1 3.6 N20 13.1 3.6 N20 9.1 8.2
95
BARS V M BARS V M
N12 6.4 3.6 N12 7.7 4.6
N16 7.6 6.0 N16 8.8 7.7
N20 9.1 6.5 N20 10. 1 9.6
e 95
K119(N12
bars)
117 (N16 bars)
BARS
N12
Vc
7.7
M
4.6
115 (N20 bars)
N16 8.8 7.9 119 (N12 bars)
N20 10.1 11.2 117 (N16 bars)
115 (N20 bars)
BARS Vc Mc BARS V M
N12 16.4 11.7 N12 17.9 22.0
N16 17.6 20.2 N16 20.2 32.2
N20 19.0 29.4 N20 23.1 32.2
I
0 BARS V M BARS V M
300 1. N12 12.9 6.9 N12 15.4 8.9
N16 15.2 9.9 N16 17.5 14.6
N20 18.1 9.9 N20 20.2 14.6
119 (N12 bars)

117 (N16 bars)
95
115(N20 bars)
REINFORCED CONCRETE MASONRY SHEAR WALLS - Shear Capacities 1
SHEAR CAPACITY (kN) FOR 140-mm THICK WALL WITH 1-N16 BAR PER END CORE1
Height
Length of wall (m)
of wall
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2
2.3 4.6 6.9 9.3 11.7 14.1 16.6 19.2 21.7 24.6 27.3 30.0 32.7 35.5 38.3
6.0 2.7 5.3 8.0 10.7 13.5 16.3 19.1 22.0 24.9 28.2 31.2 34.3 37.4 40.5 43.7
5.0 3.2 6.3 9.5 12.7 16.0 19.3 22.6 26.0 29.4 33.2 36.7 40.3 43.9 47.5 51.2
I7°
4.0 3.9 7.8 11.7 15.7 19.7 23.8 27.9 32.0 36.2 40.7 45.0 49.3 53.7 58.1 62.5
3.0 5.2 10.3 15.5 20.7 26.0 31.3 36.6 42.0 47.5 53.2 58.7 64.3 69.9 75.6 81.3
2.7 5.7 11.4 17.2 22.9 28.2 34.6 40.5 46.5 52.5 58.8 64.8 71.0 77.1 83.4 89.6
Length of wall (m)
3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5.0 5.2 5.4 5.6 5.8 6.0
7.0 41.2 44.1 47.1 50.0 53.6 56.7 59.8 63.0 66.2 69.4 72.7 76.0 79.4 82.8
6.0 46.9 50.2 53.5 56.9 60.8 64.2 67.7 71.2 74.8 78.4 82.1 85.7 89.5 93.2
5.0 55.0 58.7 62.5 66.4 70.8 74.7 78.7 82.8 86.8 91.0 95.1 99.3 103.5 107.8
4.0 67.0 71.5 76.1 80.7 85.8 90.5 95.3 100.1 104.9 109.8 114.7 119.6 124.6 129.6
3.0 87.0 92.8 98.6 104.4 110.9 116.8 122.8 128.9 134.9 141.1 147.2 153.4 159.7 165.9
2.7 95.9 102.2 108.6 115.0 122.0 128.5 135.0 141.6 148.3 155.0 161.7 168.4 175.2 182.1
Remainder of wau reinforced with 1 vertical N16 at 2.0 m centres and 1 horizontal N16 at 3.0 m centres.
L. See Part C:Chapter3, DetaU Gi (Page 3.36) fordetails.
SHEAR CAPACITY (kN) FOR 190-mm THICK WALL WITH 1-N20 BAR PER END CORE2
Length of wall (m)

lof wall
1(m) 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2
7.0 3.5 7.1 10.6 14.2 17.9 21.6 25.4 29.2 33.0 37.3 41.3 45.3 49.4 53.6 57.8
4.1 8.2 12.3 16.4 20.7 24.9 29.2 33.6 38.0 42.9 47.4 52.0 56.7 61.4 66.1
5.0 4.9 9.7 14.6 19.5 24.5 29.6 34.7 39.8 45.0 50.6 55.9 61.3 66.8 72.2 77.8
E6.0
4.0 6.0 12.0 18.1 24.2 30.4 36.6 39.9 47.8 55.5 62.3 68.8 75.3 81.9 88.5 95.2
3.0 8.0 15.9 23.9 30.3 33.6 44.9 56.4 64.6 72.9 81.6 90.1 98.6 107.1 115.7 124.3
2.7 8.8 17.6 26.5 30.4 36.0 53.4 62.4 71.5 80.7 90.3 99.6 108.9 118.3 127.7 137.2
Length of wall (m)
3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5.0 5.2 5.4 5.6 5.8 6.0
7.0 62.0 66.3 70.6 75.0 80.2 84.7 89.3 93.9 98.6 103.3 108.1 112.9 117.8 122.7
6.0 70.9 75.7 80.6 85.6 91.3 96.4 101.5 106.7 112.0 117.2 122.6 128.0 133.4 138.9
5.0 83.3 89.0 94.6 100.4 106.9 112.7 118.6 124.6 130.6 136.7 142.8 149.0 155.2 161.4
4.0 102.0 108.8 115.6 122.5 130.2 137.2 144.3 151.4 158.6 165.8 173.1 180.4 187.8 195.2
I
3.0 133.0 141.7 150.5 159.3 169.0 177.9 187.0 196.0 205.1 214.3 223.5 232.8 242.1 251.5
2.7 146.8 156.4 166.0 175.7 186.2 196.0 205.9 215.8 225.8 235.9 245.9 256.1 266.3 276.5
Remainder of wall reinforced with 1 vertical N20 at 2.0 m centres and 1 horizontal N 16 at 3.0 m centres.
See Part C:Chapter 3, Detail G2 (Page 3.37) for details.
REINFORCED CONCRETE MASONRY SHEAR WALLS - Shear Capacities 2
SHEAR CAPACITY (kN) FOR 190-mm THICK WALL WITH 2-N20 BARS PER END CORE3
Height
Length of wall (m)
of wall
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2
I(m)
7.0 3.9 12.8 20.6 27.5 33.0 36.2 39.5 42.7 45.9 56.0 59.2 62.4 65.6 68.9 83.5
6.0 4.6 14.8 23.9 29.8 33.1 36.3 39.6 42.8 46.0 56.1 59.3 62.6 80.3 98.1 115.3
5.0 5.4 17.7 26.7 29.9 33.2 36.4 39.7 42.9 46.2 58.4 77.6 95.9 113.5 130.6 147.2
4.0 6.7 22.1 26.8 30.1 33.3 36.6 39.9 47.8 65.8 94.5 112.6 130.0 146.8 163.2 179.3
3.0 8.9 23.6 27.0 30.3 33.6 44.9 63.8 81.6 98.5 130.8 147.8 164.3 180.4 196.1 211.6
2.7 9.8 23.7 27.0 30.4 36.0 56.0 74.4 91.8 108.4 141.7 158.4 174.7 190.5 206.1 221.4
Length of wall (m)
3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5.0 5.2 5.4 5.6 5.8 6.0
7.0 100.8 117.7 130.4 138.1 146.6 154.5 162.4 170.3 178.3 186.4 194.5 202.6 210.8 219.1
6.0 132.1 141.6 150.4 159.2 168.8 177.8 186.8 195.9 205.0 214.1 223.3 232.6 241.9 251.2
5.0 157.7 168.0 178.3 188.7 199.9 210.4 220.9 231.6 242.2 252.9 263.7 274.5 285.4 296.3
4.0 195.0 207.6 220.2 232.9 246.4 259.3 272.1 285.1 298.1 311.1 324.2 337.4 350.6 363.8
3.0 226.9 242.0 257.0 306.6 324.0 340.7 357.5 374.3 391.1 408.1 425.0 442.1 459.1 476.3
2.7 236.6 302.8 321.0 339.3 358.4 376.9 395.4 413.9 432.5 451.1 469.8 488.6 507.4 526.2
0
-J
Remainder of wall reinforced with I vertical N20 at 2.0 m centres and 1 horizontal N16 at 3.0 m centres.
See Part C:Chapter 3, Detail G3 (Page 3.38) for details. 4-J
0
0
OUT-OF-PLANE SHEAR CAPACITY OF STARTER-BAR CONNECTIONS
kN/connection and (kN/metre length of wall)
Details of connection
Centres, 1-N 12 starter bar 1-N 16 starter bar 1-N20 starter bar
Arrangement4 S(m) Cog 200/lap 450 Cog 240/lap 700 Cog 290/lap 1000
190-mm hollow blockwork
2.0 29.1 (14.5) 30.2 (15.1) 31.6 (15.8)
1.6 24.0 (15.0) 25.2 (15.7) 26.6 (16.6)
1.2 19.0 (15.8) 20.1 (16.8) 21.5 (20.6)

0.8 14.0 (17.4) 15.1 (18.9) 16.5 (20.6)
Starter
bars at 'S 140-mm hollow blockwork
centres
2.0 24.0 (12.0) 25.1 (12.6) 26.5 (13.3)
1.6 19.8 (12.4) 20.9 (13.1) 22.3 (14.0)
1.2 15.6 (13.0) 16.7 (13.9) 18.1 (15.1),

Wall
thickness 0.8 11.4 (14.2) 12.5 (15.7) 13.9 (17.4)'
For actual details of the connections given above, see Part C:Chapter 3, Details Hi, H2 and H3 (Pages 3.39 and 3.40)
without openings -mm leaf
390 x 190 units
25 mm face-shell bedded
9.0
// 7 ////////////////////
8.0
// a,
=
Laterally-supported
both ends
and top
/,
7.0
/ Length )
lii! LWI
6.0
Design pressure, Wd (kPa)
5.0

E
cn
0
4.0
IL'k I - Not supporting a concrete slab
0.
0.
3.0
=
a)
0.5
2.0
/-4.O 3.0 2.0

1.51LO
=0
//1.0
0 1.0 2.0 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Laterally-supported
a,
both ends,
top free
4
Length )
Design pressure, wd (kpa)
Robustness governs
in shaded area
0 1.0 2.0 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
UNREINFORCED MASONRY -
without openings 90-mm leaf
390 x 190 units
9.0 -
V ////////////////////i
Laterally-supported
8.0
one end
and top
7.0
Length
6.0
5.0 -

4.0
0
0.
0
0)
2.0
0.5
1.0
0)
0
0 1.0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
I
9.0
Laterally-supported
one end,
8.0
/ / top free
7.0
/ / Length
6.0
/ / Design pressure, Wd (kPa)
5.0 // Robustness governs

in shaded area
t
0,
0
0.
4.0
0.
3.0
=
0)
a)
2.0
j-1.& i.e 0.5

.L
/
0 1.0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
NOTE: It is the designers responsibility to allow for the effects of control joints, chases, openings, strength and stiffness 0f ties
390 x 190 units
9.0
, ////////////////////;/
8.0
7.0
6.0
lIEU
iiIn VUL.
both ends
and top
Length )
/
Ift V_
_
0 - Supporting a concrete slab
5.0

E
4.0
0) H Robustness governs in shaded areas
0
a.
a.
3.0 0.5
=
0)
0)
2.0
1.0
-/ /
/ Wd 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.5
1.0
=0) 0 K
0 1.0 2.0 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
9.0
Laterally-supported
both ends,
topfree
8.0
4
7.0 Length )
Design pressure, wd (kPa)
6.0
5,0
I Robustness governs
in shaded area
t
0,
0
a.
4.0
a.
3.0
=
0)
2.0
Wd - 4.0 3.0-2.O 1.5 1.0 0.5

1.0
on
=0
0)
0 1.0 2.0 30 4.0 50 60 70 80 90

ç
390 x 190 units
Laterally-supported
one end
a,
= and top
' Length 'I

0.5
10 20 30 4.0 50 60 70 8.0 90
ength of Wall Between Supports (m)
9.0
8.0
' /
// / a,
=
Laterally-supported
one end,
top free
/ /
/
7.0 Length
6.0
/ / Design pressure, Wd (kpa)
Robustness governs
in shaded area
5.0
0
0.
4.0
//
0.
3.0
=
0)
0)
2.0
Wd= 1.5 1.0 0.5

1,0
//
0 1.0 20 3.0 4.0 50 60 70 80 90
A 77
230x76 units
fully bedded
liii
9.0
I // /////////////////////
lii
LateraHy-supported
8.0
both ends
and top
7.0 4
6.0
'U Length )
ii.
I9&. U 'I
0 Supporting a concrete slab
5.0
.ItLt Not supporting a concrete slab

3.0
0)
0.5
2.0
4.0 3.0 2.0 1.5 1.0

1.0
7
00 7
=0) 0
10 2.0 30 40 50 60 70 80 go
9.0 /.
Laterally-supported
both ends,
top free
8.0
/
7.0 Length

6.0
Robustness governs
in shaded area
5.0
=
0)
3.0
2.0 I.. L
Wd = 4.0 3.0 2.0
-
1.0
-
- 0.5
0 1,0 2.0 30 40 50 60 70 80 9°
30 x 76 units
Ily bedded
9.0
/
8.0
7.0
/ a,
=
one end
and top
I' Length 'I

6.0
0
5.0
4,O
I11ti'i-- -.
LIWINU Robustness governs in shaded areas

0.
0.
3.0
=
0)
2.0 0.5
j-3.O 2. 1.0
11.0
0
0 1.0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
9.0
Laterally-supported
one end,
a,
8.0
= top free
7.0 Length
V Design pressure, Wd (kPa)

6.0 V
v_V - Robustness governs
in shaded area
5.0 v_v_v_v_v_v_V
E
4.0
0
0.
0.
=
a,
3.0
VVv
2.0
Wd=2.I 1.5 1.0 '5

V
7-
V
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
390 x 190 units
9.0
8.0
111L1!i
7.0
tIE Robustness governs in shaded areas
'hr1
5.0
0.5
// /////////////////////
........
Laterally-supported
3.0 both ends
a,
and top
/
a 2.0
H/
//
1.0
Length )
/ /,
, 4.0 3,0 2.0 1.5
1,0
0 Design pressure, Wd (kPa)
0
0 10 2.0 30 4.0 50 60 70 8.0 90
9.0
8.0
7.0
6.0
Robustness governs
in shaded area
5.0 -
t
0,
0
C.
4.0
C. Laterally-supported
3.0 - both ends,
top free
2.0 0.5
Length )
1.:
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 50 60 70 80 go

' .n
390 x 190 units
mm face-shell bedded
9.0 -
8.0
7.0 -

Laterally-supported
one end
w
0.5 = and top
2.0
Length
1.0
a)
0
0 1.0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
9.0
8.0
7.0 -
Robustness governs
in shaded area
5.0
t0
0.
4.0
0. Laterally-supported
3.0 one end.
=
a) =a) top free
a)
a) 2.0
Length
±0
0 1.0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
6.31
without openings 190- leaf
390x 190 units
9.0
Robustness governs
in shaded area
8.0
TO -
6.0 -
5,0
t
0,
0
4.0
// /////////////////////
0. 1.0
3.0 both ends
= andtop
a
1.5
2.0
2.0 Length
Design pressure, Wd (kpa)
0 10 20 30 4.0 50 60 70 80 90
9.0
8.0
Le
IiF
7.0
Robustness governs
in shaded area
60
5.0
4.0 0.5
0,
0
0
L
3.0 both ends,
= topfree
2.0
1.0
Length )
4.0 3.0 2.0 1.5
1.0
w
0
0 10 2.0 3.0 4.0 50 60 70 80 90
U)
without openings 190- leaf
390 x 190 units
7.0
6.0
5.0
// ////////////////////z
-C
3.0 00 one end
0)
= and top
0)
1.0
20
Length
1.0
on
0)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
9.0
8.0
7.0
Robustness governs
in shaded area
6.0
5.0
t
0
0.
4.0
one end,
top free
0.5 Length
1.0
0 Design pressure, wd (kPa)
on
±0
0 1.0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
with openings 90-mm leaf
390 x 190 units
9.0
8.0
7.0
I
Open ng width 900 mm 25 mm face-shell bedded
Laterally-supported
both ends and top
iI-
Opening
6.0
Length width
5.0 Design pressure, Wd (kPa)
LikI Robustness governs in shaded areas

2.0
d 2.0 1.0 0.5
/
a)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Laterally-supported
Opening width 1500 mm both ends and top
9.0
/
/
8.0
/
7.0
/ Length
Opening
width
/
6.0
/ Design pressure, wd (kPa)
/
5.0
/
-'I
t
0
a.
4.0
a.
/ Wd =1.5 1.0 0.5
/
/
0 10 2.0 30 4.0 50 60 70 80 90
with openings
Opening width 2100 mm

9.0
U Laterally-supported
8.0
7.0
_LU both ends and top
E
6.0
5.0 I-_ Length

Opening
Width
t
0
4,O
0.
0.
3.0
=
a)
2.0
9.0
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
Pr_
I-
Laterally-supported
both ends and top
/ ////////// ///////////
-'//////////(//,',
\ Length
Opening
width

/
t4o Supporting a concrete slab
3.0
=
a)
a)
2.0
5,0 6.0 7.0 8.0 90

Length of Wall Between Supports(m)
with openings -mm leaf
390 x 190 units
Opening width 900 mm 25 mm face-shell bedded
9.0
/ /
/
Laterally-supported
/
both ends, top free
8.0
/ /
7.0
// __liz
rOpening
6.0
/ Length width

5.0
Robustness governs
E in shaded area
t
0
4.0
//
3.0
=
a
2.0
J1.00.5
0 10 20 30 4.0 50 60 7.0 80 90
Laterally-supported
//
9.0 both ends, top free
an______
8.0 -
__liz=
ri'
//
Opening
7.0 -
Length Width
6.0
/ // Design pressure, Wd (kPa)
/
in shaded area
5.0
E
/ /
//
t
0)
0
4.0
0.
3.0
=
a,
//
2.0
0.5
//
1.0
a,
0
0 1.0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
x 190 units
Openig width 2100 mm 5 mm face-shell bedded
9.0
/ / Laterally-supported
//
/
both ends, top free
8.0
/
7.0
/ / / __liz
rOpening
6.0
/ / Length width
5.0
//
Robustness governs
E in shaded area
S
t
0 /
//
3.0
=
ci,
2.0
/\s%
ci)
&__
//
1.0
0
m
± 0
0 10 20 30 40 5.0 60 70 80 90
-p
390 x 190 units
9.0
Laterally-supported
_'I
both ends and top
8.0
7.0
6.0
_I'Length
/
Opening
width
5.0
,P!__ Design pressure, Wd (kpa)

2.0
/ Wd -2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5

1.0
/
0
/
0 1.0 2.0 30 4.0 50 60 70 80 9.0
Laterally-supported
9.0
8,0
U
Opening
7.0
Length width
6.0
5.0
-
3.0
=
'1)
2.0
1.0
/ -2.0 1.5 1.0
IWd 0.5
/
0 7
0 10 20 30 4.0 50 60 70 80 90
with openings
90u
Opening width 2100 mm face-sh - eded
9.0
/ both ends and top
8.0
/
/
7.0
/
6.0 Opening
Length width
E Supporting a concrete slab
t0
a.
4.0
/ Not supporting a concrete slab

a.
r
2.0
/ Wdl.5
1.0 / 1.0 0.5
/
/
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Laterally-supported
9.0
/
/
8.0
/
/ Opening
7.0
/ width
6.0
/ Design pressure, Wd (kPa)
5.0
/
E Supporting a concrete slab

4.0
0 Not supporting a concrete slab
a.
a.
3.0
=
0)
0)
2.0
0 10
/ Wdl5 1.0 0.5
/
/
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 9.0
6.39
with openings
390x 190 un
9.0
Open ng width 900 mm
/ /
/
Laterally-supported
/
both ends, top free
8.0
/ / ___'I
7.0
/ / /
/
Opening
6.0 width
/
Length
5.0
/ / Design pressure, w (kPa)
//
Robustness governs
in shaded area
a)
a)
2.0
/w - 1.0
(I)
-o
03 a)
1.0
0
/
0 0 10 2.0 30 4.0 50 60 70 80 90
03
0
NJ
Laterally-supported
0 9.0 both ends, top free
8.0
Opening
7.0 - Width
Length
Design pressure, w (kPa)

6.0
in shaded area
5.0
t0
Cd,
0.
4,0
0.
3.0
=
a)
2.0
1.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
390 x 190 units
9.0
/ /
8.0
/ / Laterally-supported
both ends, top free
/ /
/
7.0
6.0
/ / Opening
/ Length width
5.0
//
Robustness governs
E in shaded area
//
t
0
0.
4.0
0
3.0
=
/>d.
2.0
0)
0
0 10 2.0 30 40 50 60 70 80 9.0
6.41
with openings 11O rn leaf
230x76 units
Opening width 900 mm fully bedded
9.0
Laterally-supported
both ends and top
8.0
7.0
6.0
50
lit II Length
Opening
width

E

00.
2.0
-2.0 1.0 0.5
-c
a)
1.0
/
0
0 1.0 2.0 30 40 50 60 7.0 8.0 90
IIi
both ends and top
I--
8.0
7.0 /
Opening
width
6.0
5.0

E
iii
4.0
0
0.
0.
3.0
=
a)
a)
2.0
Wdl.5, 1.0 0.5

1.0
/ r
a)
0 I
0 10 20 30 4.0 50 60 7.0 8.0 90
/19
S UNREINFORCED MASONRY -
with openings 110:: leaf
230x 76 units
fully bedded
9.0
Laterally-supported
both ends and top
8.0 //
7.0
/
Opening
6.0 Length width

5.0
E
4.0
0
0.
0.
=
0)
2.0
0.5
1.0
0
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 7.0 80 90
Opening width 2700 mm Laterally-supported

9.0
//
both ends and top
8.0
1.0
6.0 Ii // Length
Opening
width
5.0
E

0
=
a)
2.0
//
Wd 1.0 0.5
1.0
/ 20 30 40 60 80 90
0 10 50 7.0
6.43
with openings leaf
230x76 units
Opening width 900 mm fully bedded
9.0
Laterally-supported
both ends, top free
8.0
___'I
7.0
___I'
Opening
77
6.0 Length width
7 77
7.
7 7 Robustness governs
3.0
7 7 in shaded area
=
7 7
1.0
07
0 1.0 20 30 40 50 60 7.0 80 90
Opentng width 1500 mm

both ends, top free
8.0
7,0
6.0
7
7 7 Design pressure, wd (kPa)
5.0 -
7 7
E 7 7
4.0
77
0 Robustness governs
0.
in shaded area
3.0
=
7
7
2.0
,-
V
7 Wd
11.0
V
7
0
0 10 20 30 4.0 50 60 7.0 80 90
Lid
with openings
3i 76its
Opening width 2100 mm Ilybedde.
9.0
Laterally-supported
II
both ends, top free
8.0
00 ______
7.0
V Opening
6.0 V Length width
V
5.0 V
V
E V
V
0 V Robustness governs
0. in shaded area
0.
V
2.0
V
V-VWdO.5
V
0)
0
0
/ V
10 2.0 30 40 5.0 60 7.0 80 go

both ends, top free
8.0
7.0
Opening
width
6.0
V Length
V Design pressure, Wd (kPa)
50
I
V
/V
V
E V
4.0
V
0
0.
0
V Robustness governs
in shaded area
3.0 V
=
C) \\ V
V
2.0
w(-0.5
1.0
V
00 V
0
V
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 7.0 80 90
with openings 41:
390x1'' units
9.0
/
IL
IN
8.0
7.0
E
U)
6.0
5.0
4.0
t.I1 Robustness governs in shaded areas

3.0
=
Q)
2.0
1.0
0.5
/
Opening
1.0
Length width
= 0 Design pressure, wd (kPa)

0 10 2.0 30 4.0 50 60 70 8.0 90

9.0
8.0
7.0
h.
5.0
t
U)
0
0.
4.0
Laterally-supported
3.0
=
0)
2.0
/ Wd 2.0 1.5 1.0

0.5
Opening
1.0
/ Length width
0)
= 0
0 10 2.0 30 4.0 50 60 7.0 8.0 90
with openings 140-
390 x 190 units
-iii
9.0
/
8.0
7.0
1.I
6.0
5.0
t
a.
a. both ends and top
3.0
=
0>
0>
2.0
0.5
/
Opening
Length width
a>
0 1.0 20 30 40 50 60 7.0 80 90

9.0
/
8.0
TO
6.0
5.0
-
_ii Robustness governs in shaded areas
t
c0
4.0
rn
/U
a. both ends and top
a.
2.0
-
/ Wd - 1.5 1.0 0.5 Opening

110 / Length width
a,
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
390 x 190 units
9.0
/
both ends, top free
/...
ii
8.0
7.0
/ // II' /
/
Opening
6.0 width
/
Length
//
5.0
Robustness governs
E in shaded area
0,
4.0
0
0.
0.
3.0
=
2.0
/
1.0
a)
0
o 0 10 20 30 4.0 50 60 70 80 90
Ct3
C
0
Laterally-supported
__I'
0 9.0 both ends, top free
L. 8.0
I 7.0 r.Al1'
Length
Opening
width

6.0 -
Robustness governs
in shaded area
5.0
t
0)
0
0.
4.0
0.
3.0
0 10 20 30 4.0 50 60 70 80 90
S
flQ
390 x 190 units
Opening w' th 2100 mm 5 mm face-shell bedded
9.0
Laterally-supported
both ends, topfree
8.0
7.0
/
Opening
6.0 Length width

5.0
Robustness governs
E in shaded area
0
0.
0.
3.0
=
0)
2.0
0 10 20 30 4.0 50 60 70 80 90
Opering width 2700 mm Laterally-supported

9.0 both ends, top free
8.0
/
Opening
7.0
Length width

6.0
Robustness governs
in shaded area
5.0 --
2.0
=0
0)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Ei4q
with openings 0-mm
390 x 190 units
9.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
E
-
'I,
4.0
0.
0 both ends and top
II
3.0
0.5
/
=
0
0)
0) 2.0
Opening
/
1,0
0 Length width
(I)
-o
('3 0)
0 Design pressure, wd (kPa)
0 0 10 20 30 4.0 50 60 70 80 90
Ct,
0
N4
0 Opening width 1500 mm

9.0
7.0
6.0
t0
U,
0
0.
5.0
4.0
2.0
'II 0.5 /
Laterally-supported
both ends and top
__i1
/ Wd = 2.0 1.5 1.0
IOpening
/ Length width
/ Design pressure, Wd (kpa)

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
390 x 190 units
9.0
'I- m face-shell bedded
,r
- H Supporting a concrete slab
7.0
6.0
5.0
. E
C
4.0
Laterally-supported
C.
C. both ends and top
3.0
= 0.5
U
2.0
Wd2011.5 1.0
/
Opening
1.0
Length width
U Design pressure, Wd (kPa)

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

9.0
7.0
. Not supporting a concrete slab
6.0
5.0
/
=
U
a,
3.0
NI 0.5
Laterally-supported
both ends and top
'a 2.0
/ 1.0
Opening
1.0
// Length width

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
A 1
with openings 19'- leaf
390 x 190 urnts
9.0
Laterally-supported
both ends, top free
8.0
7.0
6.0
ri opening
1/ width
Length

5.0
Robustness governs
E in shaded area
t
cd)
0
4.0
0.
0.
3.0
=
0)
2.0
0 10 20 30 4.0 50 60 70 80 90
Laterally-supported
both ends, topfree
0)
Opening
Length width
Robustness governs
in shaded area
0 10 20 30 4.0 50 60 70 80 90
with openings 190-mm lea
390 x 190 units
Open ng width 2100 mm m face-shell bedded
9.0
/ /
/
Laterally-supported
/
both ends, top free
8.0
/ /
//
7.0
/
//
Opening
6.0 Length width
//
5.0
__ Robustness governs
E in shaded area
0
3.0
=
2.0
/ / Wdl.O 0.5
1.0
/ /
0 1.0 2.0 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Laterally-supported
Opening width 2 '0 mm
9.0
/ / both ends, top free
8.0
/ /
/ Opening
7.0
/ / 7 Length width
6.0
5.0
/ // Robustness governs
in shaded area
t
C"
4.0
/ /
0
0.
0.
3.0
=
a,
a,
2.0
1.0
/ Wdl.O 0.5
//
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
and connectors, and strength and stiffness of supports, ir addition to normal considerations of loads and masonry properties
horizontally-reinforced bond beams 140-mm leaf
390 x 190 units
Bar diameter 12 mm .5 mm face-shell bedded
E
- 8.0
a)
Reinforced
= nIH bond beams
7
Err -
0
I' Length 'I

0
.E 4.0 Design pressure, wd (kPa)
a)
in shaded area
C.)
d 4.0 3,0 2.0
(I,
Cc
C-)
>0 a)
0 1.0 2.0 30 40 50 60 7.0 80 90

1
Reinforced
PH H bond beams
I' Length 'I

Robustness governs
in shaded area
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 40 50 60 7.0 80 go

Length of WaU Between Supports (m)
S
S REINFORCED AND MIXED CONSTRUCTION
390 x 190 units
Bar diameter 16 mm 25 mm face-shell bedded
LLU
- 80
0
70 I\1I1__ I
HH
Reinforced
bond beams
6.0
C
E
Cl
IItt I' Length 'I
C
= Design pressure, Wd (kPa)
Ct
NJ
0 Robustness governs
in shaded area
1.0
0 1.0 2.0 3,0 4.0 50 60 7.0 80 90

Bar diameter 16 mm
Reinforced
H H
bond beams
C;
C
=
5)
50- I' Length 'I
5)
C-)
C Design pressure, Wd (kPa)

4Q
C;
NJ
=C Robustness governs
in shaded area
C;
C.
C') i0 -
C;
Cl
0 10 2.0 3.0 4.0 50 60 7.0 80 90

horizontally-reinforced bond beams mrn
390 x 190 units
a) Li1Li
cc
Reinforced
E HH bond beams
7u
0
0
=
a)
L)
0
tLtuIi -. I' Length

3.0
0
=
o2
00 -
0.
3.0 2.0 1.5 I 0.5
C/) 1J
C.,
>a) 0
1.0 2.0 3.0 40 50 60 7.0 80 90
WLU
.1.
00
a, fll fl
Reinforced
= bond beams
.08
a, /
= 00
0
0
Ct
I' Length 'I

a) c Design pressure, w (kpa)
a,
P
0
.E 4 0
3.0 -
C
U
00
C.)
CO
0.
Cl) 1.0
CO
C.)
>0
a)
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 40 50 60 7.0 80 90

and connectors, and strength and stiffness of supports. in addition to normal considerations of loads and masonry properties
horizontally-reinforced bond beams
= 7fl -
Reinforced
C H H
bond beams
6.0
C
5)
5)
C
=
I' Length 'I
S C
0 1.0 20 30 40 50 60 7.0 80 go
Bar diameter 12 mm Li
Reinforced
HI H bond beams
I' Length 'I

0.5
Wd 4.0 2.0 1.5 1.0
0 1.0 2.0 30 4.0 50 60 7,0 80 90

horizontally-reinforced bond beams 19O-. 'I-;
390 x 190 Units
C-
Reinforced
= bond beams
C- -
5.0
I' Length ':
C)
- Design pressure, wd (kPa)
Ct
=
o 3.0
C
Ct
Ct
C-
0 1.0 20 3.0 40 50 60 7.0 80 90

LiLi
9.0 --
C-C
L!!J Reinforced
C- HR bond beams
C)
=
== -
C
Ct
C I' Length 'I

0.5
0 1.0 20 30 40 50 60 7.0 80 90
Length of WaU Between Supports (m)
' cQ
90 x 190 units
111111__IkI
t'It1I II H H
Reinforced
bond beams
'kilL
_IAV
' Length

'I
0.5
1103.J
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 40 50 60 7.0 80 90
Bar diameter 16 mm LU
'111! Ii H] H
i. Reinforced
bond beams
50
4.0
-'"I' 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.5

0.5
1.0
I' Length

'I
C-
0 10 20 30 4.0 50 60 7,0 80 90
6.59
390 x 190 units
Ba diameter 20 mm 30 mm face-shell bedded
LIII_K Reinforced
IL"
HI H bond beams
' I
I' Length ':

1k Design pressure, wd (kPa)
0.5
1.0
U)
c3
J0 0 1.0 2.0 3.0
4.0 50 60 7.0 80 90
0
r
0 u-U
.1.
Reinforced
H! H bond beams
I' Length 'I

0.5
0 1.0 20 30 40 50 60 7.0 80 90
i;r
390 x 190 units
Reinforced
HH bond beams
I' Length 'I

S
0,5
0 1.0 2.0 30 4.0 50 60 7.0 80 90

S "Ut
Bar diameter 20 mm
I
HI H
I'
Reinforced
bond beams
Length 'I
1.0
1.5
0 10 20 30 40 50 6.0 7.0 80 90
661
vertically-reinforced cores -mm Iea''
390 x 190 units
Bar diameter 12 mm mm ace-s e '
9.0
8.0
7.0

6.0
Robustness governs in shadec areas
Not supporting a concrete slat

5.0
E
0,
4.0
0 Reinforced cores
0.
3.0
4)
4) 0.5
2.0
Ii I
Wd 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.5 1.0 , , /

K .
4) Design pressure, wd (ki a)

0
0 1.3 2.0 30 40 50 60 7.0 80 90
Horizontal Spacing of Vertical Reinforcement for Wall of Unlimited Length (m)
9.0
8.0
7.0

6.0

5.0
0 Reinforced cores
0.
0.
3.0
4)
4)
2.0
1.0

I 20 30 4U TO
Horizontal Spacing of Vertical Reinforcement for Wall of Unlimited Lengrii
vertically-reinforced cores 190-mm leaf
390 x 190 units
9.0
8.0
6.0
5.0
E
.4J
0 Reinforced cores
0.
a,
3.0
2.0
__i.
1.0
Wd 4.0 3.O 2.0 1.5

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 8.0 90
Bar diameter 12 mm
9.0
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
E
4.0
0 Reinforced cores
0.
0
3.0
=
a,
a)
2.0
jl0 1<
ntal '
"no
U 1,0 20 30 40 50 60 7.0 80 9
Horizontal Spacing of Vertical Reinforcement for Wall of Unlimited Length (i
NOTE: Ills the designer's responsibility to allow for the effects of control joints, chases, openings, strength and stiffness of ties
6.63
vertically-reinforced cores Om': leaf
390 x 190 units
9.0
8.0
6.0
5.0
0 Reinforced cores
0.
3.0
=
a,
2.0

0 IC 2.0 30 40 50 0 7.7 0 0
Horizontal Spacing of Vertical Reinforcement for Wall of Unlimited Length Irn)
Bar diameter 16 mm
9.0
8.0
6.0
5.0
E 0.5
4.0
0 Reinforced cores
0.
0.
3.0
0
a
2.0
1.0
a) Design pressure, Wd (kPa)

0
1.0 2.0 3ü ' 50 70 70
Horizontal Spacing of Vertical Reinforcement for Wall of Unlimited ngoi m)
vertically-reinforced cores
Bar diameter 20 mm

Reinforced cores
I
Horizontal 'I

0 LU 20 30 4.0 50 60 70 80 U
Bar diameter 20 mm
'i1uiu
9.0
8.0
6.0
0.5
5.0
E
4J LIII
0 Reinforced cores
0.
3,0
=
a) -C
a)
a)
2.0
Wd4.O 3.0 2.0

C 1.0 20 3: 40 50 60 7,0 80 90
Horizontal Spacing ofVerticn Reinforcement for Wall of Unlimited Length (m)
WORKED EXAMPLES
Mortar joints
Purpose of the worked examples Joint thickness 10 mm

The purpose of the following worked examples is to Concrete grout
demonstrate the steps to be followed when performing Minimum characteristic compressive strength,
manual calculations or when preparing compute f'0 = 20 MPa
software for the analysis and design of masonry. Minimum cement content 300 kg/m3
The worked examples also serve the purpose of
demonstrating the origin of the Standard Designs which Steel reinforcement
are based on similar masonry capacity considerations. N12, N16 or N20 as noted.
worked examples are not intended to analyze or design
all parts of the particular structure. They deal only with
requirements of AS 3700 and, where appropriate, AS
1170.

of control (oints, chases, openings, strength and stiffness

Masonry properties
Specification set out in Part C: Chapter 2, modified as
noted in the calculations and as noted below
Height 190 mm
Length 390 mm
Face-shell bedded
t = 25 mm for 90-mm, 110-mm and 140-mm units
t = 30 mm for 190-mm units
'uc =15 MPa
= 0.8 MPa
Width 110 mm
Height 76 mm
Length 230 mm
Fully bedded
f' =10 MPa
= 0.8 MPa
S
DESIGN BRIEF
For low-rise industrial building in Sydney on less than 30 m of hard clay, design unreinforced masonry
(Wall D') and reinforced masonry (Wall A' and Wall 'C') for wind load of 1 kPa and earthquake loading.
Wall A: Vertically-reinforced masonry

Wall B: Bond beams and panels
Wall C: Reinforced shear wall
Vall D: Bond beams and panels
GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF FACTORY BUILDING
Bond beam
J
Steel portal Steel Steel portal Steel
K
frame portal frame ) frame portal frame -3
Bond beam
Wall A 6500
190-mm hollow concrete block
vertically-reinforced at 2.0-m centres
> k
10200 6800
600
WALL A' ARRANGEMENT WALL 'B' ARRANGEMENT
4.200
Bond beam
2670
b
Steel portal Steel
Bond beam
200 frame portaltrame-
7070 6500
Bond beam
6500 1800 WaI1C 400
Bond beam 190-mm hollow
WaIID
200 concrete block
Door 190-mm
with bond beams
opening S 3000
hollow
2000 and vertical
concrete block
reinforcement
4000 2850 3050

900 600
WALL 'C' ARRANGEMENT WALL 'D' ARRANGEMENT

Masonry Properties
400
x Bond beam (4-Y20 bars)
2700 4
I
fj1
I
2001 hollow concrete
blockwork
Steel portal
frame
6500 400
x - Bond beam (4-Y20 bars)
IReinforced core Reinforced core

(1-V 16) (1-Y16)
3000
2001 hollow concrete
Reinforced core Door blockwork (Wall D)
(1-Y16) opening
-- 100 -
/ .- Li Floorslab
/
( 2850 900 3050 600
WALL 'D DETAILS
190 NOTE:
( ) 20-MPa grout in bond beams and reinforced cores
2091 or Steel portal frame Steel portal frame

2-N20 bars 2048 with connectors to with connectors to
Wall C
- (on web) Double-U or blockwork blockwork
H block U
2-N20 bars
(on plastic 190 A ..
supports) 2012
lintel block
1-N 16 bar - 1-N16 bar 1-N 16 bar 2-N20 bars
grouted grouted grouted - grouted
Control joint
SECTION A-A SECTION B-B SECTION C-C
Width of masonry unit Shear strength at mortar joints

= 190 mm ms = 1.25 mt 3.3.4
= 1.25 x 0.2
Face-shell thickness =0.25MPa
= 30 mm <0.35 MPa OK
>0.15MPa OK
Characteristic flexural strength
3.3.3 Shear strength at dpc
tms 0

0 = 0.6 Table 4.1 Load factor on resisting loads
'YR = 0.8 AS/NZS 1170.1
Density of wall material Shear capacity at mortar joint
Dens = 21.8 kN/m3 VcapVo+Vi 7.5.1(a)
= 9.0 + 3.2
Material thickness of wall = 12.2 kN/m
tm =96 mm
Shear capacity at dpc
Height of wall acting at base Vcap = V0 + V1 7.5.1
He = 6.5 m = 0 + 3.2
= 3.2 kN/m
> wind load
Shear Capacity of Unreinforced Masonry wH
Vd = For I kPa wind
for Loads other than Earthquake 2
Design compressive force at base of wall lOx 3.0
Fd=YR Dens tm He 2
=0.8x21.8x0.096x6.5 =l.5kN!m OK
= 10.9 kN/m
Area resisting shear Shear Capacity of Unreinforced Masonry

Adw = 2 t for Earthquake Loads
= 2 x 30 x 1000 Design compressive force at base of wall
= 60.000 mm2/m Gg(G+WcQ) A8.3 and
= Fd AS 1170.4 6.2.5
Design compressive stress at base = 10.9 kN/m
Fd
Where Ad = Adw
Ad NOTE: Although AS 3700 and AS 1170.4
l0.9x 1000 do not require the application of the
- 60,000 load factor YR = 0.8 when calculating
= 0.18 MPa Gg, it has been done for consistency
<2.OMPa OK 7.5.1(a) with the normal load case and because
the gravity loads could be over estimated
Shear factor for embossed plastic dpc
k = 0.3 3.3.5 Table 3.3 Design compressive stress at base
= Fd Where Ad = Ad
Shear bond strength at mortar joint Ad
V0 = 0 f'ms Adw 7.5.1(a) 10.9 x 1000
0.6 x 0.25 x 60,000 - 60,000
- 1.000 = 0.18 MPa
= 9.0 kN/m
Shear factor for embossed plastic dpc
Shear friction strength = 0.3 3.3.5 Table 3.3
V1 = k d Adw 7.5.1(a)
0.3x0.18x60,000 Shear bond strength at mortar joint
1.000 Vo=Ofms Adw A 8.3
= 3.2 kN/m 0.3 x 0.25 x 60,000
1,000
= 9.0 kN/m
Note: At the publishing date of this Manual, AS 1170.4-1993 is being revised. When that is published, this Part of the manual will be amended
6.69
Shear friction strength Lateral load parameters
V1 = 0.9 k de Adw A 8.3 2(h0+tj) 7.4.4.2(a)
G=
_0.9x0.3 xO.18x60,000 lu + tj
1,000 2(190+ 10)
= 2.9 kNIm 390 + 10
= 1.0
Shear capacity at mortar joint
Vcap = V0 + V1 A 8.3 A=(1+tY'i1 +G2 7.4.4.2(b)*
= 9.0 + 2.9 =(390+ 10)Jl + 12
= 11.9 kN/m 566
Shear capacity at dpc h 7.4.4.2(b)

B=
VcapVo+Vl A8.3 + G2
=0 + 190+ 10
2.9 kN/m - 1+
<earthquake load = 141

V=aS ac ax Cci I Ggi
=0.08x lOx l.0x2.Ox
C=
r
I
Bt
+tu-tsl
7.4.4.2(b)*
(2 x 1.8)x 1.0 x 10.9/2 L15B+0.9ts J
= 3.1 kN/m PROBLEM
=1
r l41x30 +190 30J
L('5 x 141 + (0.9 x 30)
One possible solution is to provide = 178
ties to the concrete slab
Equivalent torsional section modulus
>lOaS= lOxO.08x 1.0 2BtC 7.4.4.2(b)
=0.8kNIm OK
zt =
A
2 x 141 x 30 x 178
566
Moment Capacity of Unreinforced Masonry =2 mm3/mm
Subject to Transient Loads
(eg wind or earthquake) Equivalent torsional strength
Section moduli Zd = Z = Z ft = 2.25 '1mt 7.4.4.2(b)
= 2.25 Iö
i000t2 = 1.01 MPa
Zd
6
[6()_
t
12(-.)+8()
t - tI
19o2r6( 30 30 2 Characteristic lateral modulus of rupture

12( ) +
- 6 L 190 190 = 0.8 MPa 1.5.2.9
30 )31
8(
4.09 x 106 mm3/m 190 J Load factor on resisting loads
*
Mortar joint thickness Note: Terms A
tj = 10 mm Density of wall material and C are not
Dens = 21.8 kN/m3 used in AS 3700,
Length of masonry unit but are included
1= 390 mm Material thickness of wall here for
tm =96 mm simplicity
Height of masonry unit
h = 190mm cont...
p 7n
Height of wall acting at mid-height of the Diagonal moment capacity
panel being designed Mcd = 0 lt Zt 7.4.4.2(b)
He = 6.5 - 1.5 Assuming that bond beams 2666
=0.6x1.Olx
= 5.0 m do not distribute vertical loads 1000
to the ends of the panels = 1.61 kNm/m
Design compressive force at mid-height of wall

Fd = YR Dens tm He L0 = 0.9 m
=0.8x21.8x0.096x5.0 Ld = 3.05 m
=8.4kNlm H
Hd
2
Design compressive stress at mid-height = 1.5 m
Ld
F
fd =
Ad Slope factor
8.4x 1000 GLd 7.4.4.2
60.000 Hd
=0.I4MPa 1.0x3.05
1.5
For concrete blockwork = 2.03
kmt = 1.0 7.4.2 > 1.0
Perpend spacing factor Aspect factor
kp = mm. (P E, i.o) 7.4.3.4 a a

190
t
190
h1
1-3a-+--
L01
2Ld
Table 7.4
= mm. ( ' ' i.o) = 1.0

190 190 2.03
0.9
1- +
Vertical moment capacity * 7.4.2 3x2.03 2x3.05
= 0 k1 t'mt Zd + d Zd = 2.066
= (0.6 x 1.0 x 0.2 x 4.09) + (0.14 x 4.09)
= 1.06 kNm/m Restraint factor for
<3.0 0 k111 mt Zd continuous past first supported edge
=3.OxO.6x 1.OxO.2x4.09 R1 = 1
= 1.47 kNm/m
k1 = R1 Table 7.4
Horizontal moment capacity 7.4.3 =
Mch = 0 (0.44 fut Zu + 0.56 mt Z)
= 0.6[(0.44 x 0.8 x 4.09) + Table 7.4
=1+
(0.56 x 0.2 x 4.09)]
=l.l4kNm/m
=1
<2.Oøkpfmt(1 +)Zd
=2.0
=2.OxO.6x 1.0x2(l +)4.09
=3.73kNm/m OK
* Note: In this example,
<4.0 0 kp 'mt Zd vertical moment capacity,
=4.OxO.6x 1.0xIOx4.09 is never required
=4.39kNm/m OK
6.71
Lateral load capacity
(k1 Mch + k2 Mcd) 7.4.4.2
Wcap
Ld2
= 2 x 2.066 [(lxl.14)+(2x1.61)]
3.052
= 1.94 kPa
> Windload
wd=l.OkPa OK
> earthquake load

Wd = a S a ax Cci I Ggi
=0.08x lOx 1.Ox 1.35x 1.8x 1.Ox
(21.8 x 0.096)
=0.4lkPa OK
REINFORCED MASONRY
Masonry Properties
190
U)
-o
Ct31
0
I.
CD
C
K-- Steel portal
frame
Steel
portal frame 30
Er-
145 145
0NJ 6500 TYPICAL REINFORCED CORE

WaIIA
I0 190-mm hollow concrete block

vertically-reinforced at 2.0-rn centres
tu
NOTE:
20-MPa grout in all
> K reinforced cores
10200
600
2-N20 bars
WALL A ARRANGEMENT
tSTLd
tt C
Steel portal frame SECTION B-B

with connectors to
blockwork
1-N20 bar - 1-N20 bar - 2-N20 bars 2-N20 bars

grouted - grouted grouted grouted
190
2
600 2000 2000
)K) 200 200
100 100
2000 - 200
2000
0.9 = 1.0-p1 = 0.1
SECTION A-A
iS 7)
Width of masonry unit Effective depth
t= 190mm
d = tu - ts - ti -dr- - C
2
Face-shell thickness NOTE:
= 190-30-5- -20
t=30mm tandt 2
may vary = 125mm
Taper in face-shell depending on
t = 5 mm manufacturer Area of main reinforcement
A = 310 mm2
Bedded area of ungrouted masonry
Ab = 2 t 1 p1 4.5.4 Spacing of main reinforcement
2 x 30 x 1000 x 0.9 Sm = 2000 mm
= 54,000 mm2/m 2000 mm OK 8.5
Design cross-sectional area of member Height ratio

Ad=2tslpI+tulp2 h 190
=(2x30x l000xO.9)+(190x l000xO.1) tj 10
= 73,000 mm2/m = 19.0
Design cross-sectional area of grout Compressive strength factor

A = Ad- Ab 4,5,7 kh= 1.3 Table 3.2
= 73,000 - 54,000
= 19,000 mm2/m Masonry factor for face-shell-bedded
concrete units
Block height km 1.6 Table 3.1
h = 190 mm
Mortar type
Mortar joint thickness M3 (1:5 + water thickener)
tj = 10 mm
Characteristic unconfined unit strength
Steel reinforcement to AS 1302 = 15 MPa
1-Y20 bar in each face of grouted cores
Characteristic masonry strength for
Diameter of bars 76-mm heigh units
dr = 20 mm 'mb = kmJfuc 3.3.2(a)(i)
= 1.6'F
Yield strength of reinforcing bars to AS 1302 = 6.2 MPa
= 500 MPa Table 3.7
Characteristic unconfined masonry strength
Reinforced masonry is below the dpc in contact 1m = kh 'mb 3.3.2(a)(i)
with non-aggressive soils = 1.3 x 6.2
C =20 mm = 8.06 MPa
>15mm Table 5.1
20 mm aggregate 10.7.2.5 Characteristic grout cylinder strength
= 20 MPa
> 12 MPa Cement, 300 kg/rn3
for durability 5.6
Aggregate, 20 mm 10.7.3
6.73
Design characteristic grout strength Moment Capacity for Reinforced Masonry
= 1.3 3.5 Width of compression face
= 1.3 x 15 b=2t0x2 8.5
= 19.5 MPa = 2 x 190 x 2
<2OMPa OK = 760 mm
<400 x 2
Capacity reduction factor =800 OK
0 = 0.75 Table 4.] <Distance to structural end + 2 t
OK
Out-of-plane Shear Capacity for
Reinforced Masonry Design area of reinforcement
Characteristic shear strength Asd = A5
'ms = 0.35 MPa (at interface) 3.3.4(d) =310 mm2
vm = 0.35 MPa 8.6.3 (0.29) 1.3fmbd 8.5
Width of web 0.29x1.3x8.06x760x125

b = 200 mm/core 500
= 577 mm2 OK
Design shear strength
f= 17.5 MPa 8.6.3 >0.00l3bd 8.5
(I) =0.0013x760x 125
c4
-o
0
-J
Cross-sectional area of main reinforcement
= 310 mm2
= 124 mm2 OK
(D4 <0.02 b d Moment capacity 8.5

C = 0.02 x 200 x 125 - 0.6 f, Asd
0 = 500 mm2 OK
Mcap =o A5dd I
1 bd
0
= Cross-sectional area and spacing of shear reinf.
=0.75x500x310x 125x
A5 = 0 (ho tirrups) S = NA 0.6x500x310 1
1.3 x 8.06 x 760 x 125]
Out-of-plane shear capacity 8.6.3 = 13.2 kN.m/core
At + f
A d) > Wind load
Vcap = 0 (fvm b d +
Wdw B H2
= 0.75 [(0.35 x 200 x 125) +
Md-
8
(17.5 x 310) + o] 1.0x2.0x6.42
= 10.6 kN/core 8
> Wind load = 10.2 kN.mlcore OK
WdWBH
Vd- 2 > Earthquake load
1.0x2.0x6.4 Wide B H2
Md -
2 8
= 6,4 kN/core OK 0.6 x 2.0 x 6.42
8
> Earthquake load = 6.1 kN.m/core OK
Wde B H
Vd -
2
0.6 x 2.0 x 6.4 Note: At the publishing date of this Manual, AS 1170.4-1993 is
2 being revised. When that is published, this Part of the manual
= 3.8 kN/core OK will be amended

In-plane Shear Capacity for A5
1860
Reinforced Masonry Ad 318000
In-plane shear capacity is affected by the = 0.00585
geometry of the wall being considered (Wall 'C') >0.0013 OK
Reinforced Horizontal reinforcement (2-N20 in top

cores (2-N20)
2O bars) .J 200 J. 100 bond beam, 1-N20 in intermediate bond beams)
Ash=(2x3lO)+(l x310)+(1 x310)
= 1240 mm2
2670 2870
>1
i Bond beam
200->( Adh=2tslpl+tulp2
(1-N20 bar) 6970
=(2x30x6970x0.92)+
6500 1800 2000
Bond beam
(190 x 6970 x 0.08)
=20O X = 490,700 mm2
(1-N20 bar)
Al 2000 2100
Ash 1240
Adh 490700
4000 = 0.0025
WALL 'C' ARRANGEMENT >0.0007 OK
Vertical:
4000 - (3 x 200) Height of shear wall (to load application)
p = 0.85 = 1.0- = 0.15
4000 H = 6.970 m
Horizontal:
6970-(3x 200) Length of shear wall
0.92 = 1.0- p1 = 0.08
6970 L=4.000m
1 Nl6bar
grouted
NOTE: H to L ratio
Wall D 20-MPa grout in all
reinforced cores H 6.97
Steel portal frame L - 4.00
2-N20 bars - 2-N20 bars 2-N20 bars = 1.74
grouted grouted grouted <2.3
L Design as shear wall 8.6.2(a)
2
1800 2000 Shear stress value
100 10
SECTION A-A vr = l.5o.5 8.6.2
15 0.5x6.97
4.00
(2-N20, or equivalent, in each core) = 0.63 MPa
Asv=2x3l0x3cores
= 620 mm2/core x 3 cores For H/L> 1.0
= 1860 mm2 Area of horizontal reinforcement
crossing potential crack
Ad=2ts1pI+tulp2
= (2 x 30 x 4000 x 0.85) +
A s Ash L
H
(190 x 4000 x 0.15) 310 x 4000
= 318,000 mm2 6970
= 534 mm2
6.75
In-plane shear capacity (based on stress) In-Plane Shear Load on Wall 'C'
Vcap = 0 (fvr Ad + 0.8 fsy A) 8.6.2
[(0.63 x 318000) + 0.89 kPa 051 kPa

(0.8 x 500 x 534)]
0.7 0.65
= 310 kN WALL WALL

C 'C2
Check anchorage against overturning

Applied uniform vertical load (self weight) 4000
2000
'6.5 + 7.07\ 2180 x 0.096 x 9.81 WALL 'C' ARRANGEMENT
P=4.0x 2 1000
= 55.4 kN Earthquake loads from AS 1170.4
<m Ab 8.6.2(a) <wind loads
8.06 x 318000 .. Design shear wall for wind loads
1000
=2563kN OK Wind loads from AS 1170.2

Internal pressure on opposing walls does not
Reduction factor contribute to total shear load
r.SW - I -
1 1 8.6.2(a)
Ab m Assume all shear load is resisted by end walls.
Half of load goes directly to floor slab,
1
2563 half of the residual goes to each end
= 0.978
Total shear load at one end
Anchorage steel is 2-N20 bars at end of wall 6.5 x 35.2
Vt = (0.7 + 0.65)
Area of anchorage steel 4
I
= 2 x 310 = 77 kN
= 620 mm2
Shear on wall 'C'
Centroid distance 77 x 4.0
Vd
1' = 100 mm (4.0 + 2.0)
=0.1 m = 68 kN
<l38kN OK
In-plane shear capacity
(based on anchorage) 8.6.2
Vcap = [ksw Pv + fsy A5 (L 2 1')]
0.75
[0.978 x 55.4 x +
- 6.97
500 x 620
(4.0 - 2 x 0.1)1
1000
= 138 kN
this over-rides stress-based capacity
' 7
BUILDING AND SITE PARAMETERS
DESIGN BRIEF
Home units: AS 1170.4
For medium-rise residential building, design Normal use 2.2.3
the unreinforced and reinforced masonry for
earthquake loads Structure: Type I AS 1170.4
1=1.0 Table 2.5
1050
Location: Sydney AS 1170.4
a=0.08 Table 2.3 Fig 2.3(b)
Walls to be
2700
designed
Level 3 Soil profile: > 30 m clay AS 1170.4

175
S = 1.25 Table 2.4(a)
2700
12300 aS = 0.08 x'1.25
Level 2
175
= 0.10
Earthquake Design AS 1170.4
2700 Category B Table 2.6
Level 1
600 Unreinforced brickwork loadbearing walls
with 3 residential storeys and a reinforced
190-mm 290x 1000
2100
blockwork blade columns blockwork basement and shear core
to be designed
Base Total storeys = 4
100
Non-ductile building AS 1170.4
Irregular shape 2.7,3(b)&(c)
3000 1000
Carry out static (or dynamic) analysis.
SECTION A-A Provide a reinforced masonry core
S 2000
Outline of basement level
7300
1600
a
Wall to be designed
41 800
/ Balconies at level 1
IA
3700 / Typical residential floors
k.. fl'. ...... .. .. .. ..

k
110 + 90 10000
PART PLAN AT LEVELS 2 & 3 BUILDING PLAN
NOTE:
References are to AS 3700, unless stated otherwise
Note: At the publishing date of this Manual. AS 1170.4-1993 is being revised. When that is published, this Part of the manual will be amended
677
BASE SHEAR Structural response factor AS 1170.4
R= 2.5 6.2.6(a) and
Height of structure above base DR 96495 Al
hn = 4 storey heights + roof
= (0.1+ 2.1+ 0.6 + 2.7 + 0.175 + 2.7 + Calculate gravity loads for strength limit state
0.175 + 2.7) + 1.05 of the masonry components of the building.
= 12.3 m A separate analysis should be carried out for
the stability limit state.
Fundamental period
AS 1170.4 Floor area
T--
- 46 6.2.4 A= 10x41.8
12.3 = 418 m2
46
= 0.27 seconds Dead load for floors, partitions, walls & roof
G = [Gslab + Gwalls]NO. + Groof
Orthogonal period = [(0.175 x 25)+ 2.4]3 + 1.1

AS 1170.4 = 21.4 kN/m2
T---
- 58 6.2.4
12.3 Live load for floors & roof
58 VcQ = 0.4[(3 X 2.0) + 2.5]
= 0.21 seconds = 2.5 kN/m2
Earthquake design coefficient in the Total gravity load for top three floors
fundamental direction Gg=(G+WcQ)A AS 1170.4
1.25 a AS 1170.4 = (21.4 + 2.5) 418 6.2.5
C= (Fundamental)
T2 6.2.3 = 10,000 kN
1.25 x 0.08
0.272/3 Base shear
=0.241
=i [jj Gg
AS 1170.4
6.2.2
Earthquake design coefficient in the l.OxO.241 x l.25x 10,000
orthogonal direction 2.5
1.25 a AS 1170.4 = 1205 kN
C (Orthogonal)
T2 6.2.3
1.25 x 0.08 Limits on base shear AS 1170.4
0.212/3 V 0.01 Gg 6.2.2
= 0.281 0.01 x 10,000
lOOkN OK
NOTE: The fundamental period and earthquake design and
coefficient for the orthogonal direction are associated AS 1170.4
with the more rigid direction and lead to higher base
shear than the analysis in the fundamental direction.
V=
R''
r2.5 al
L f ..J 6.2.2
Because the basement structure in this example is 1.0 x 2.5 x 0.08 x 10,000
much more rigid in the orthogonal direction than in the 2.5
fundamental direction, only loads in the fundamental
direction have been considered. In practice, designers 800 kN
*
should consider both directions. Use V = 800 kN
Bearing walJ construction with a shear core *

Note: The second coefficient overrides when
consisting of reinforced concrete blockwork.
Wide-spaced reinf: N12 @ 2000 crs vertically
cs>---
S
Note: At the publishing date of this Marnial, AS I 170.4-1993 is being revised. When that is published, this Part of the manual will be amended
7Q
VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF Level4
HORIZONTAL FORCES 4- G=571kN
h4= l0.650m
Structural period 571 x 10.65
T = 0.27 secs = 54.719
<0.5 secs = 0.111
2700 F4 C,4 V
=0.111 x800
Number of stories = 89 kN
n=4 V4 = 89 kN
Level3
E1Ggi hk = (3143 2.200) + (3143 X 5.300) +
X
175 4- G3 = 3143 kN
(3143 x 7.975) + 571 x 10.65) h3=7.975 m
= 54,719 kNm 3143 x 7.975
Cv3
= 54.719
= 0.458
2700 F3 C,3 V
=0.458x 800
=366kN
V3 = 366 + 89
= 455 kN
LU
c.'J
Level 2
175 4... G=3143kN
h2=5.300m
3143 x 5.30
C2
= 54.719
= 0.304
2700 F2 = C,,2V
= 0.304 x 800
= 244 kN
V2 = 455 + 244
S = 699 kN
Level 1
4... G=3143kN
600
h1 = 2.200 m
3143 x 2.20
= 54.719
= 0. 126
F1 = C,1 V
2100
= 0.126 x 800
I = 101 kN
VI = 699+ 101
= 800 kN
Base
V = 800 kN
100 T
S
DESIGN OF BLADE COLUMNS IN BASEMENT Concrete floor acts as a diaphragm.
All piers and shear walls are 2.100 m clear height
The following analysis of the strength limit state plus 0.100-rn concrete floor = 2.200 m from
of the reinforced masonry blade columns in the top of footing to under side of beams
basement is carried out in the fundamental
direction only. The four 3.0-rn-long shear walls 10 columns (290 x 1000 cross section)
should also be designed by the same method. 290 x
Consideration should also be given to the strength 12
limit state in the orthogonal direction. A separate = 24,200 x 106 mm4
analysis should be carried out for stability.
4 shear walls (190 x 3000 cross section)
19 190 x 3000
'
12
= 427,500 x 106 mm4
6665
290 Shear on each blade column

24,200
- vu V
6660 (10 x 24,200) + (4 x 427,500)
_ 1a
vu
- = 0.0124 x 800
= 9.9 kN
:::: Contributory area

4180 I
290 ___ A = 4.0 x 6.95
Two-wayIboms = 27.8 m2
6660 - bearingn
blade cdiursns
Vertical load for strength limit state
0
10,000 x 27.8
_
Reinforcd
6660
masonry
418
290X_--L- blade cdiunns
Reinforced
= 665 kN
Beams are very stiff.

6665
masonr No bending moment from beams
shearwIIs
ie effectively concentric loads
1901 (1000 M=0
) M=0 665
3000 X 4000 X 3000 )

( )
U/Sotheaml L V
vu = 9.9
PLAN AT BASEMENT LEVEL
2200
Masonry blade column specification
Each column is 290 x 1000 x 2100 mm high
with 2-N 12 vertical bars (one each end) and Top of footing
L
4-N 12 horizontal bars, evenly-spaced up 11

'290 k 1000
the column.
'
Blockwork Strength Design for Compression
Characteristic strength of units Steel reinforcement can NOT be tied in two
= 15 MPa directions
Use the refined calculation method for
Mortar type: M3 unreinforced masonry
Supporting a concrete slab at the top
Prism factor Laterally supported top and bottom
km 1.6
a = 0.85 7.3.4.3
Masonry characteristic strength
mb = km fuc H = 2200 mm
= 1.6 x 15
= 6.2 MPa No stiffening returns
k= 1.0 Table 7.2
Block height
= 190 mm Slenderness
aH
Sr =
Mortar thickness
= 10 mm 0.85 x 2200
- 1.0x290
Height ratio = 6.45
h
1.9
Concentric stiff beams in two directions apply
the vertical and shear loads
Compressive strength factor Eccentricity ratio
kh= 1.3
0.05
tw
Blockwork characteristic strength
= kh 'mb Slenderness and eccentricity factor
= 1.3 x 6.2 k5 = 1.18 0.03 Sr 8.4
= 8.06 MPa = 1.18 - (0.03 x 6.45)
= 0.987
Grout Strength Capacity reduction factor (unreinforced)

Specified strength 0 = 0.45 for compression
= 20 MPa
Bedded area *
Design strength Ab = (30 + 30) x 1000
f= 1.3f = 60,000 mm2/m
= 1.3 x 15
= 19.5 MPa *
All cores and web areas grouted
A = (290 x 1000) -60,000
Block density 230,000 2
Dens = 2200 kg/rn3

*
> 2000 kg/rn3 NOTE: It is both conservative and consistent
with AS 3700 to assume the face shells extend
k = 1.4 along the long sides only of the piers, and not
across the ends
6.R1
Basic compressive strength
fvr (1.5oo.5
F0 = 0 Em Ab + kc/1 A + fsyAs] 8.4
= 1.50 -(0.5 x 2.2)
= 0.45[(8.06 x 60.000) + = 0.40 MPa
1 .4,J 119..: 230,000 + (400 x 0)1

= 500 MPa
= 779 kN
Capacity reduction factor (reinforced masonry)
Fd = k F0 8.4 0 = 0.75 Table 4.1
= 0.987 x 779
= 768 kN In-plane shear capacity
Vu = 0 (fvr Ad + 0.8 fsy A) 8.6.2
For combined bending and compression, the = 0.75[(0.40 x 290,000) +
compressive capacity would be factored down
(0.8x500x 110)]--
Fucom = 0.85 F 8.8 1
= 0.85 x 768 = 120 kN

= 653 kN >9.9kN OK
>665kN OK
Check columns for local overturning
Pv>fmAb
Design for In-plane Shear
Height
H = 2200 mm Ab m
665
=1
Length 290,000 x 8.06 x
L= 1000 mm = 0.72
H 2200 1=100mm
L 1000
= 2.2 Resistance to overturning
<2.3 .. Design as shear wall 8.6.2 PL
> 1.0 .. Horizontal reinforcement
v = {k5 +f (L - 21)} 8.6.2
is basis of A 0.75 0.72 x 665 x 1.0

2.2k 2 +
Area of horizontal reinforcement 500x 110
[l.0-(2x0.l)]}
crossing potential crack 1000
A= lx 110 (1 of 4-N12 bars) = 96 kN
= 110 mm2 >9.9kN OK
Note: This is more conservative than Carry out similar analysis for shear walls in
AS 3700 requirements basement and shear walls in each floor
Design cross-sectional area

Ad = 290 x 1000
= 290,000 mm2
CHECK P-DELTA EFFECTS ROOF ANCHORAGE
Form 0.10 the P-A effect AS 1170.4 Roof permanent load

need not be considered 6.7.3 g= l.2x 1.01
= 1.2 kN/m2
For first storey
mjim=O.lO Span
S = 10.0 m
= 10,000 kN
Total roof weight
V, = 800 kN G= 1.2x 10
= 12.0 kN/m length along the line of the wall
h5 = 2200 mm
Required connection strength
For wide-spaced reinforcement P=0.05G
S
kd = 2.0 Table Al =0.05 x 12.0

= 0.6 kN/m length along the line of the wall
m
PA for trusses to top plate and
- V h5 kd top plate to wall
m V, h5 kj NOTE: This same connection will be required

Aurn
to resist at least 10(aS) resulting from the
0.10 x 800 x 2200 out-of-plane earthquake forces on the wall,
10,000 considered below
= 17.6 mm
Provided the first floor does not Provide cross-bracing in the roof system to
drift more than 17.6 mm, the allow diaphragm action to transmit roof loads
P-A effect need not be considered to shear walls
Check level 1 for storey drift

E= 1000pm
= 1000 x 8.06
= 8060 MPa
I = 1952 x l0 mm4
L= 2200 mm
V L3
A
3E1
800 x iO3 x 2.2 x l0
- 3 x 8060 x 1.952 x 1012
= 0.18 mm
<17.6mm OK
6.83
EXTERNAL WALLS ABOVE TOP FLOOR Solid units (ie 110-mm units)
Section moduli Zd110 = Z110 =
Attachment amplification factor
ac= 1.0 AS 1170.4 1000 t2
Zd10 -
5.4.1 6
Wall to be
designed l000x 1102
For the top storey Level 3 6
h 11.250 AS 1170.4 = 2.02 x io6 mm3/m
h0 12.300 5.4.2
= 0.91 Mortar joint thickness
t = 10mm
Height amplification factor
AS 1170.4 Length of masonry unit
a= i.0+(--) 5.4.2
h l90 = 390 mm
= 1.0+0.91 1110 = 230 mm
=1.91
Height of masonry unit
Horizontal earthquake pressure h90 = 190 mm
Fp=aSacaxCcl tGc AS 1170.4 h110 = 76 mm
= 0.08 x 1.25 x 1.0 x 1.91 x 5.2.1
1.8 x 1.0 (1.62 + 2.12) Lateral load parameters
= 0.56 + 0.73 2(h0+t) 7.4.4.2(a)
G
= 1.29 kPa l + tj
<0.5 Ge 2 (190 + 10)
G90=
= 0.5 (1.62 + 2.12) 390+10
=1.87kPa OK = 1.0
2 (76 + 10)
G110-
Use Clause 7.4.4 to check the out-of-plane 230+ 10
bending capacity of the wall = 0.717
Capacity reduction factor A = (l + tj)I I + G2 7.4.4.2(b)

0=0.6 Table 4.1 A90 =(390+ lO)Jl + 12
= 566
Characteristic flexural tensile strength of masonry A110=(230+ 10)Jl + 0.7172
mt = 0.2 MPa 3.3.3 = 295
Section Moduli hu + t 7.4.4.2(b)

B
Hollow units (ie 90-mm units) Ii + G2
Section moduli Zd90 = Z90 = Z90 190 + 10
B90 =
+ 12
Zd90
1000
6
r6()
L -t tlj t1.
= 141
76+ 10
B110 =
1000 x 902 r6 25 25 2
1l + 0.7 172
6 L 190
12(
190
)+ =70
8(25 ) <tu
=1.23x106mm3/m 190 =110mm
Use Equation 7.4.4.2(4)
for solid units coni...
P
S
For hollow units (ie 90-mm units)
Bt5 7.4 .4 .2(b)
<2.0ok'(l +-!.)Zd
1mt
7.4.3.2(2)
c90 = +tu-ts
L1.5B+0.9t5
141x25 <4.0 0 kp 1mt Zd 7.4 .3 .2(3)
= +90-25
L(1.5 x 141 + (0.9 x 25) =4.OxO.6x 1.OxV0.2x2.02
= 80 =2.l7kNmlm OK
Equivalent torsional section modulus Diagonal moment capacity

2Bt C 7.4 .4 .2(b) Mcd = 0 t Zt 7.4 .4 .2(b)
zt90- A 1001
Mcd900.6X 1.01 x
2x14!x25x80 1000
566 = 0.607 kNm/m
= 1001 mm3
Mcd110=0.6x 1.01 x 879
1000
= 0.532 kNmlm
S For solid units (ie 110-mm units)
Z110
r2B22 ii
- L3t+ 1.8 B] A L0= 1.6m
- 2x702x 1102 11 Ld=3.70m
x 110)+ (1.8 x 70)] 295 H H
Hd =
= 879 mm3
2.70
Equivalent torsional strength 2
ft = 2.25 7.4 .4 .2(b) = 1.35 m
= 2.25 IO Slope factor
= 1.01 MPa G Ld 7.4.4.2
Hd
Characteristic lateral modulus of rupture 1.0 x 3.70
= 0.8 MPa 1.5.2.9 1.35
= 2.74
Perpend spacing foctor > 1.0
kp=min.(2 , .P, i.o) 7.4.3.4 0.717 x 3.70
t h,
aim
1.35
k
9°
=min.(-' 190
90
190
190
' i.o)
1.96
>1.0
= 1.0
Aspect factor
kp
110
= mm. (
110
110
' -'110761.0) a
af =
= 1.0 Table 7.4
1-
3a 2Ld
Horizontal moment capacity 7.4.3 2.47
af90 -
Meh = 0 (0.44 ut Z + 0.56 mt Z) 7.4 .3 .2(4) 1 1.6
1- +
3x2.74 2x3.70
Mh90 = 0.6[(0.44 x 0.8 x 1.23) + = 2.50
(0.56 x 0.2 x 1.23)]
= 0.342 kNm/m 1.96
10 =
Mh110= 0.6[(0.44 x 0.8 x 2.02) + 1 1.6
1- +
(0.56 x 0.2 x 2.02)] 3x1.96 2x3.70
S = 0.562 kNmlm = 1.87
Note: At the publishing date of this Manual, AS 11704-1993 is being revised. When that is published, this Part of the manual will be amended
Restraint factors
Rf1 = 1
Rf2 =0
2000
k1 = R1 Table 7.4
=1
Table 7.4 140-mm thick
G2 reinforced piers
1
100
k290 = I +
= 2.0 1600
k2tio= 1
p.172 100
=2.95
Lateral load capacity

2a 7.4.4.2(1) 1800
Wcap (1(1 Mch + k2 Mcd)
= Ld2
DETAIL A'
2 x 2.5 [(1 X 0.342) + (2 X 0.607)] 3700
Wcap90 = 372
= 0.568 kPa
2 x 1.87 [(1 xO.562)+(2.95 xO.532)] 1800
Wcap110
372
= 0.582 kPa 110 + 90
cavity waIls (50 cavity)
Wcap = Wcap90 + Wcap110

= 0.568 + 0.582
= 1.15 kP LAYOUT PLAN OF INTEGRAL PIERS
<1.29 kPa .. PROBLEM

Lta These calculations indicate that the external
unreinforced cavity masonry walls do not have Core grout
20 MPa
sufficient strength to resist the out-of-plane
lateral loads caused by earthquakes. 1-N12 @ 1800 crs
One solution would be the provision of 140-mm
reinforced piers, built within the cavity as shown. PVC membrane
Mcap = 2.2 kNmlpier This manual, 140-mm block pier
Page 6.13
S = 1.8 m
8 Mcap 110 50 90
Wcap
= H2
8x2.2 DEAILA
- 1.8x2.72
= 1.34 kPa Note: At the publishing date of this Manual, AS 1170.4-1993
> 1.29 kPa OK is being revised. When that is published, this Part of the manual
will be amended.
Shear in connections at top of wall Design compressive stress at base
Earthquake coefficient for connections Gg
dc
=2 AS 1170.4 Adw
Table 5.1.5(a) 8.16x 1000
50.000
Design shear for connection = 0.163 MPa
[F H1
V0 = 2
2 Masonry bond strength (at concrete interface)
_2x l.29x2.7 f'ms=0
2
= 3.48 kN/m Shear bond capacity
V0 = 0 'ms Adw
Provide head ties with shear capacity and spacing 50,000
FV = 0.60 x 0 x
1000
Sø =0
3.48
0.75 Shear factor for concrete interface
= 4.64 kN/m k=0.3 3.3.5
Table 3.3
Shear friction capacity
Shear at base of wall Vie = 0.9 k de Adw
Wall is a Ioadbearing external wall 50,000
= 0.9 x 0.3 x 0.163 x
Design shear at base of wall 1000
=2.2kN/m
1.29 x 2.7 Total shear capacity

2 VcapVo+Vle
=l.74kN/m =0+2.2
This shear is to be resisted by mortar/concrete = 2.2 kN/m
joint of internal leaf only FpH
2
Design compressive force at base of wall 1.29 2.7
Gg=G+WcQ 2
= G9øwaii + 0.8 Groof = 1.74 kN/m OK
u2l80 x 9.81 90 x 0.8 x 2.70
1000
X
1000
1+ >lOaS
[0.8 x 1.0 x lO.O = 10 x 0.08 x 1.25
2 =1.0kM/rn OK
= 8.16 kN/m
NOTE: Although AS 3700 and AS 1170.4
Area resisting shear do not require the application of the
Adw = 2 t load factor 'y = 0.8 when calculating
= 2 x 25 x 1000 Gg, it has been applied to the roof dead
= 50,000 mm2/m load but not to the wall dead load. Roof
live loads are not included since they
would add to the resistance but not to the
out-of-plane earthquake loads which
S Note: At the publishing date of this Manual, AS 1170.4-1993 is
being revised. When that is published, this Part of the manual result only from the wall self-weight
will be amended
EXTERNAL WALLS BELOW TOP FLOOR Section Moduli
Hollow units (ie 90-mm units)
Attachment amplification factor Section moduli Zd90 = Z90 = Z90
a=1.0 AS 1170.4
5.4.1
Zd = r6( -
I1
For the second top storey Level 3

l000x902 25
h 8.375 AS 1170.4 6 190 190
h0 - 12.300 5.4.2 Walls to be 25
8(
= 0.68 designed
=1.23xl06mm/m 190) -
Level 2
Height amplification factor Solid units (ie 110-mm units)

h AS 1170.4 Section moduli Zd,10 = Zuiio= Zp110
ax= l.o+() h11 5.4.2
= 1.0 +0.68 1000 t2
Zd110 =
= 1.68 6
1000 x 1102
Horizontal earthquake pressure 6
F = a S ac ax I Gc AS 1170.4 = 2.02 x i06 mm3/m
=0.08x 1.25x 1.Ox l.68x 5.2.1
1.8x 1.0 (1.62+2.12) Load factor on resisting loads
= 0.49 + 0.64 = 0.8
= 1.13 kPa
<0.5 Gc NOTE: Although AS 3700 and AS 1170.4
=0.5(1.62+ 2.12) do not require the application of the
=1.87kPa OK load factor YR = 0.8 when calculating
Gg, it has been applied to all gravity
Although the compression in the internal loads except those attributed to the
loadbearing leaf of the external wall will assist wall being considered. This is for
in resisting lateral earthquake and wind loads, consistency with the normal load case
AS 3700 Clause 7.4.4 does not make any and because the gravity loads could
provision for enhancement of lateral strength. be over estimated
The strength could also be checked using

AS 3700 Clause 7.4.2 for vertical bending Vertical Loads on Internal Loadbearing Leaf
Capacity reduction factor Length of wall under consideration

Table 4.1 L=3.70 m
Characteristic flexural tensile strength of masonry Roof

rmt = 0.2 MPa 3.3.3 Area of roof acting on wall
7.5 x 8.93
AR=
2
= 32.5 m2
Dead load of roof structure

g= l.2kPa
cont...
Note: At the publishing date of this Manual, AS 1170.4-1993 is being revised. When that is published, this Part of the manual will be amended.
t;t QQ
Imposed load of roof Permanent load
qR = 0.25 kPa g53= 25.0 xO.l75
= 4.38kPa
Factored roof loads (ignoring any live loads)
0.8 g AR Factored slab loads (ignoring live loads)
FdR=
L
FDs3 = 0.8 g53
0.8x1.2x33.5 L
5.70 12.6
= 0.8 x 4.38
= 5.64 kN/m 5.70
= 7.75 kN/m
Floor 3 walls
Only the internal leaf is loadbearing Total factored loads on internal loadbearing leaf
Fdw2
= FdR + Fdw3 + + Fds3
Height of wall
Hw3 = 2.70 m
S = 5.64 + 4.37 + 7.75
2
Length of loadbearing leaf = 19.9 kN/m
Lw3 = 5.70 m
19.9 x 1000
Use 90-mm denseweight hollow blockwork = 50,000
Density 2180 kg/rn3 80% solid = 0.4MPa
1 face with plasterboard 10 mm thick
Surface density Vertical Loads on External

(90 x 0.8 x 2180 x 9.81) Non-loadbearing Leaf
gW3
- 1,000,000 +
(1 x lOx 800 x 9.81) Floor 3 wall
1,000,000 External leaf is non-loadbearing
= 1.62 kN/m2
Use 110-mm denseweight brickwork
Permanent load Density 2180 kg/m3 90% solid
gHL
Fw3=
L Surface density
l.62x2.70x5.70 1l0x2180x9.81 xO.9
= 5.70 gw3 = 1,000,000
= 4.37 kN/m = 2.12 kN/m2
Floor 2 walls Permanent load

Fdw2 = 4.37 kN/m (similar to Fdw3) gHL
0W3
Slab3 2.12x2.70x1.0
Area 1.0
(7.3 x 2.0) - (2.0 x 2.0) = 5.72 kN/m
2
= 12.6m2 Floor 2 wall
Fdw2= 5.72 kN/m
Slab thickness
t3= 175mm
Note: At the publishing date of this Manual, AS 1170.4-I 993 is being revised. When that is published, this Part of the manual will be amended.
6.89
Total factored loads on
external non-loadbearing leaf
Fn-'ext = Fdw3+ Fdw2

2
5.72
= 5.72 +
2
= 8.59 kN/m
8.59 x 1000
=
ext
110,000
= 0.O78MPa
Vertical moment capacity of

internal loadbearing leaf
Mcvjnt = 0 k mt Zd. + Zd.
l0
=[o.6 x 1.0 x 0.2 x 1.23 x
I- l0
I0.40x 1.23
106
L
= 0.640 kNmlm
Vertical moment capacity of

external non-.loadbearing leaf
Mcvext = 0 f'mt Zdext + fdext Zd
=r0.6 1.0x0.2x2.02xil
106]
+
L
06
0.078 x 2.02 x
106
= 0.40 kNm/m
Total vertical moment capacity

= Mcv t + Mcvi
0.64 + 0.40
= 1.04 kNm/m
Total lateral load capacity

8
Fcap
- H2
8 x 1.04
= 2.702
= l.l4kPa
>l.l3kPa OK
Check connections similar to top floor
c on
lJ GLOSSARY
This glossary of technical terms relevant to Horizontal

Ductile structures
It is assumed in this manual that ductile structures
include:
Loads is in addition to the general Glossary given in
Part B: Chapter 1 Where appropriate, the definitions buildings with reinforced concrete floors and
have been expanded to give more information. reinforced masonry loadbearing walls, and
buildings with reinforced concrete floors, beams and
Acceleration coefficient, a columns and reinforced masonry shear walls.
An index related to the expected severity of earthquake Concrete floors, beams and columns must comply with
ground motion. AS 3600.
AS 1170.4 Clause 2.3, Table 2.1 and Figure 2.3 provide Reinforced concrete masonry loadbearing walls and
the value of this coefficient for all locations in Australia. shear walls must comply with AS 3700 and consist of
Site factor, S 190-mm or 140-mm hollow concrete blockwork with
A factor indicating the susceptibility of particular soils close-spaced reinforcement (horizontal and vertical
to earthquake movement. steel reinforcing bars, N12 or larger, grouted into the
blockwork at up to 800-mm centres) in concrete of
The site factors are provided by AS 1170.4 Clause 2.4, characteristic compressive strength at least 20 MPa.
Table 2.4(a) for general structures and Table 2.4(b) for
domestic structures. In Categories A, Hi, H2 and H3 the requirement for
close-spaced reinforcement (800-mm centres) may be
S aS relaxed to wide-spaced reinforcement (2000-mm
The product of acceleration coefficient, a, and site horizontal spacing, 3000 vertical spacing).
factor, S, provides the basic measure of earthquake
severity likely to be transmitted to a building on a Nonductile structures
particular site It is assumed in this manual that nonductile structures
include:
Earthquake design category
buildings with loadbearing walls or shear walls
A category assigned to a structure based on its
structure classification, acceleration coefficient and site consisting of unreinforced masonry, and
factor for the particular site. The categories are given in buildings with reinforced concrete masonry consisting
AS 1170.4 Clause 2.5 and Table 2.6. of wide-spaced reinforcement (greater than 800-mm
Categories Hi, H2 and H3 are used for domestic centres either horizontally or vertically).
structures, H3 being the most severe. Domestic Regular and Irregular Structures
structures are defined in AS 1170.4 Clause 2.2.2 and AS 1170.4 Clause A2 defines buildings regularity.
Figure 2.2.2 as one- or two-storey detached single
dwellings, terrace houses, townhouses and the like, with Oig
a maximum storey height of 2.7 m, maximum eaves 0.1 g is the force equal to 0.1 times the gravitational
height of 6.0 m, maximum ridge height of 8.5 m, force exerted by a particular element. A typical 190-mm
maximum width of 16.0 m and maximum length of hollow concrete, reinforced blockwork wall
10 times the width.
(consisting of grouted elements and ungrouted
elements) would have an average wall density of
Categories A, B, C, D and E are used for all other approximately 220 kg/m2 and a gravitational force of
structures, E being the most severe. approximately 2.2 kN/m2 This would correspond to a
Structure classification lateral working pressure at 0.1 g of 0.22 kPa.
A classification assigned to a structure based on its use. Out-of-plane horizontal load
Type III Buildings intended for post-earthquake A pressure or point load which acts perpendicular to
recovery the plane of the wall. This includes earthquake loads,
wind pressures or suctions on a building wall.
Type II Buildings intended for large numbers of people
or people of impaired mobility In-plane horizontal load
A force that acts in the direction of the plane of the
Type I Buildings not intended for post-earthquake
wall. This includes:
recovery and not intended for large numbers of a vertical compression resulting from gravity, or
people or people of impaired mobility - overturning forces and horizontal shear forces in
referred to in this manual as normal buildings.
shear walls intended to convey lateral earthquake
Ductility loads,
The ability of the structure or element to undergo or
repeated and reversing inelastic deflections beyond the a wind loads from the top of the structure to the base.
point of first yield while maintaining a substantial
proportion of its initial load-carrying capacity.
NOTES:
6.91
S
Movement Contents
movement joints in masonry to control cracking
due to shrinkage of the wall, concrete slab 7.2 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
shrinkage, foundation movement and thermal
expansion or contraction. 7.3 STANDARD DESIGNS
7.4 WORKED EXAMPLE
7.5 GLOSSARY
I
BASIS OF DESIGN ___
Temperature Differential
Walls that are exposed to large temperature differentials
Unreinforced concrete masonry is a brittle material
(including those on the northern or western facades of
which will crack if long walls are constructed without
buildings in temperate areas) will be more likely to
a break or if its supports move. The following factors
suffer cracking than similar walls in benign
influence the formation of cracks in masonry which may
environments.
be controlled by the methods set out in clause 7.1.2.
Footing Movement
7.1.1 FACTORS INFLUENCING THE FORMATION Footing movement is a major source of cracking in
OF CRACKS IN MASONRY unreinforced masonry and is discussed fully in
Chapter 10 of this manual.
Shrinkage of Masonry Units
Concrete masonry units shrink as the concrete cures. Support Movement
To avoid this, units should be properly cured before Differential movements of supports can lead to cracking.
delivery to the site. Saturated units should not be laid For example, if a masonry wall is fixed to large steel
as they could be subject to subsequent drying portal frames it will move sympathetically with the
shrinkage. AS/NZS 4456.12 provides two tests, frames as they deflect under the action of lateral loads.
Coefficient of Residual Curing Contraction and A crack will develop in the bottom bed loint but this
Coefficient of Drying Contraction, for contraction of would not normally be noticed. However, if the masonry
concrete masonry units. These tests are not routinely wall is also bonded to a masonry shear wall (parallel to
performed, and are specified only when dealing with the frames) which is much stiffer than the frames, there
specific problems related to shrinkage and cracking. is potential for diagonal cracks to develop in the
masonry
Coefficient of Residual Curing Contraction is the
shrinkage which takes place in newly manufactured Mixing Clay and Concrete Masonry
concrete units (at constant saturated moisture content). Clay units expand while concrete units contract. It is
It is an indication of the likelihood of shrinkage related permissible to construct cavity walls with one leaf of
cracking as a result of cement hydration in the units. clay units and the other leaf of concrete units, provided
It is indicative of the lower bound of shrinkage in they are separated by cavities with flexible ties. While
the wall. little harm is done by incorporating the odd clay unit
into a concrete masonry leaf or the odd concrete unit
For exarnple: into a clay masonry leaf, large area of each should not
0.1 mm/rn represents at least 0 8 mm in an 8-rn be mixed in the same leaf since this will lead to
length of wall. differential movement and cracking.
0 0.3 mm/rn represents at least 2.4 mm in an 8-rn
E length of wall.
0> Although no limits are set in AS/NZS 4455 or
7.1.2 METHODS OF CONTROLLING CRACKING
0 IN MASONRY
AS/NZS 4456, a value over 0.1 mm/rn would normally be
regarded as relatively high.
Mortar
To avoid potential cracking from mortar shrinkage, the
Coefficient of Drying Contraction is the shrinkage which mortars recommended in the Standard Specification,
takes place in concrete units when dried from a provided in Chapter 1 should be used, viz:
saturated condition to a stable dry condition. It is an M3 applications - 1:0:5 + water thickener or
indication of the likelihood of shrinkage-related cracking M4 applications - 1:0:4 water thickener.
as a result of expelling all of the moisture from the
units. When combined with the shrinkage caused by the Applied Renders and Coatings
mortar, it gives an indication of the upper bound of the To minimise the risk of cracking, the specified render
mix should be suitable for the type of masonry and the
possible shrinkage in the wall.
thickness of any coat not more than 12 mm.
For example: If necessary, wire or expanded metal reinforcement can
0.6 mm/rn represents at least 4.8 mm in an 8-rn be used to control cracking. Control joints in renders
length of wall. and coating should be included wherever control joints
0.8 mm/rn represents at least 6.4 mm in an 8-rn are provided in the masonry.
length of wall.
Footings
No limits are set in AS/NZS 4455 or AS/NZS 4456. To limit cracking from footing movement, suitable
A value over 0.6 rnm/rn would normally be considered precautions include:
to be quite high.
Adequate drainage for the removal of water from the
Shrinkage of the Mortar foundations
If mortars with a particularly high cement content are
used, their shrinkage could provide sufficient tensile Ensuring that large trees are not placed adjacent to
force to crack the masonry. the footings
Shrinkage in applied renders and coatings a Correctly sized footings
Renders are prone to cracking if a high cement content a Inclusion of reinforcement in the wall
is used, if excessively fine sands are used (requiring
additional water) or if the render is too thick.
79
Supports
The potential for diagonal cracks to develop where
masonry walls are bonded to masonry shear walls
(parallel to and in conjunction with portal frames) which
are much stiffer than the frames, can best be avoided by
the incorporation of reinforced bond beams.
Reinforcement
The inclusion of reinforcement within the masonry will
greatly enhance its ability to spread the cracks and thus
restrict their width. Reinforced masonry will tolerate
larger deflections than unreinforced masonry before
collapse occurs. Therefore, design for strength will not
necessarily provide a guarantee of adequate
serviceability performance. In particular, centrally-
reinforced masonry walls may exhibit larger than
expected lateral deflections and crack widths due to
their small effective depth.
Control Joints
The strategic placement of control joints will limit the
o position and width of cracks.
Contraction joints are opening joints to cater for

shrinkage of the wall. In a wall exposed to the weather,
contraction joints must be weather-proof with a flexible
sealant at the surface. They may also be filled with a
compressible material if required to serve also as
expansion loints (for thermal movement) or as
articulation loints (for footing or support movement).
Expansion joints are closing joints. They are usually
built into clay masonry to cater for brick growth and
find application in concrete masonry only when there
is the possibility of high thermal movement. Expansion
joints incorporate a compressible material of sufficient
thickness to cater for the expansion in the walls
adjacent to the joint.
Articulation joints are both opening and closing joints
that cater for movement of the footings or supports. The
strategic positioning of articulation joints at points of
weakness (such as door or window openings) will
minimise cracking as the supports move due to
foundation movement and similar actions. In some
cases, contraction and expansion joints will function as
articulation joints
Control joints result in free ends of the masonry which
may increase slenderness and decrease support
conditions of walls. Therefore, the location of joints
should be determined as part of the structural design.
Control joints should be detailed so as to maintain
resistance to moisture penetration, fire, heat and sound
S
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
AS 3700 Clause 25.2 places an upper limit on crack

width of 1 mm for 'masonry which is not subject to
aesthetic limitations. Because it is often difficult to
assess the crack widths which result from particular
load actions (eg wind, earthquake and foundation
movement), the 1-mm limit is not intended to cover all
situations. However, it does define a quantifiable limit
for use in design, construction and post-construction
assessment.
The performance requirement for residential dwellings is
set out in AS 2870 Clause 1.3 which states that the
footing systems used to support the masonry walls shall
be such that there is "usually no damage, a low
incidence of damage Category I (fine cracks which do
not need repair, crack < 1 mm) and occasional incidence
of damage Category 2" (cracks noticeable but easily
filled, doors and windows stick slightly, crack < 5 mm).
Refer to Chapter 10 of this manual.
AS 3700 Clause 4.8 requires that the opening movement

shall not exceed 10 mm. The closing movement (if any)
shall not exceed 15 mm and the width of the joint after
closure shall not be less than 5 mm.
The strategic positioning of control joints will limit the
formation of cracks, and those which do form will be
kept small.
C
Q)
E
t3)
>
0
ri
S
7n
S STANDARD DESIGNS
Incorporating N16 horizontal reinforcement at not
greater than 400 mm centres
7.3.1 GENERAL On a soil of type A or S Site Classifications in
Design and detailing accordance with AS 2870, and
All design and detailing shall comply with the With a reinforced concrete footing of adequate
requirements of AS 3700. It is the designer's stiffness.
chases, openings, strength and stiffness of ties and No control joints are required for single-leaf, partially-
connectors, and strength and stiffness of supports, in reinforced masonry for houses as defined in AS 3700
addition to normal considerations of loads and masonry Section 12.
properties. Control joints and openings must be treated Hollow concrete blocks
as free ends. Width 90 mm. 110 mm, 140 mm and 190 mm
Masonry properties Height 190 mm
The standard designs in this chapter are based on
Length 390 mm
masonry properties complying with the Standard
Specification set out in Part C: Chapter 2, modified Face-shell bedded
as noted on the standard design The Standaid Minimum face-shell thickness,
Specification includes the following requirements: t5 = 25 mm for 90 mm, 110 mm and 140 mm units
Unreinforced Masonry Construction - t = 30 mm for 190 mm units
Vertical control joints or articulation joints at least Minimum characteristic compressive strength,
10 mm wide shall be built into unrein forced masonry at = 15 MPa
the following locations;
centres not exceeding the following in straight = 0.8 MPa
continuous walls without openings:
For Class A and S sites - Articulation is not required
Width 110 mm
For Class M, H, M-D and H-D sites -
External masonry face finish, Height 76 mm
rendered or painted 70 m Length 230 mm
Internal masonry sheeted Fully bedded
and/or face finished 6.0 m
Internal masonry rendered Minimum characteristic compressive strength,
= 10 MPa
and/or painted 5.0 m
at not more than 5 metre centres in a wall with
f = 0.8 MPa
openings more than 900 mm x 900 mm, and
positioned in line with one edge of the opening
at the position where a wall changes height by more
than 20%
at a change in thickness of a wall
at control joints or construction joints in supporting
slabs
at the junctions of walls constructed of different
masonry materials
at deep rebates
at a distance from all corners not less than 500 mm
and not greater than 3000 mm.
Reinforced Masonry Construction -
Control joints shall be built into reinforced concrete
masonry at all points of potential cracldng and at the
locations shown on the drawings. The spacing of control
joints should not exceed 16 metre.
The spacing of control joints may be increased in
reinforced masonry walls meeting the following criteria;
Consisting of at least 190 mm hollow concrete units,
and
Built less than 3 metres high, and
Incorporating a top reinforced bond beam, and
CONTROL JOINTS Concrete Masonry Houses
-
-I-
==E '.
;=== ====
__1_
Window
.- -_---_--_------
,-___-_-_-__-____-=.--
-
--
Ci Ci ci
Mm. 500 5000 max. when openings >900 x 900 5000 mm. to 7000 max. depending on finishes
max. 3000
from corner * Carry window and door openings to top of wall and use timber orsimilar infihl panel
UNREINFORCED MASONRY VENEER CONSTRUC11ON (Class M, H, M-D and H-D sites)
7f4 4575f97jy/ J%4r# 4

.:
_____
Window Door
'a
'a---
'a_a
Reinforced masonry shown hatched
REINFORCED SINGLE-LEAF MASONRY CONSTRUCTiON (As defined in AS 3700 Section 12)

L. - .i.i.ii,i.u. 1-
Li
0
0
h
...h....
.
0
E
E
0
C.)
0 -I-I-I-I-I-
- 11111
II _I_I_I_I_
U, 1!!iOPIII!.
.
z
0 r .
ii....
........ ._........
-J
0 ' !'!I!i!!.'III';Hr"
I-
z
0
C.)
a I S
A..
WORKED EXAMPLE
Mortar joints
Concrete grout
f = 20 MPa

Steel reinforcement
N12, N16 or N20 as noted.
7.3.2 TYPICAL DESIGN DETAILS

The following diagrams show the suggested positions of
control joints in concrete masonry houses and industrial
or commercial buildings.
79
DESIGN BRIEF
Design control joints in the walls of an industrial building at the locations indicated.
15000
(
190-mm unreinforced blockwork Reinforced bond beams
.___ ._________.___ I WJ# .-----

_______________._________.I___._.___I d --
rrj,i
___.._______________
.__________________.
___.._______________ ._________I________
_________.u_______. U----- ------
___.._______________ ______.
.__________________..______
___.._______________ ______.
.-----
------
.-----
.__________________..______
___[ ---------------
.__________________.
------------------- ______.
.______
______. ------
U-----
.-----
------
Q
C
C -----------------=-
.__________________. _--__.
.______
._qi .- ------
U-----
.-----
(0
.______________.____.
-------------------N
u__________________.
-------------------
.______
______.
.______
______.
Door
opening ------
U-----
------
.-----
-------------------
.__________________.
-------------------
.__________________.
.______
______I
______.
.______
------
.-----
------
.-----
.__________________.
------------------- .______
------------------- ______.
.__________________.______.
.______
------
.-----
------
.-----
ci
Ci indicates control joint
7500
LAYOUT OF CONTROL JOINTS 20 dia dowel with

bond-breaker and Bitumen-impregnated
plastic cap one end filler board between
190
20-MPa grout in
Sealant with backing rod bond beam
SECTION A-A SECTION B-B
H = height of wall = Cc S
= 6.0 m = 0.0006 x 8000
> 3.0 m Provide articulation of both = 4.8 mm
S reinforced and unreinforced masonry <10.0mm OK 4.8
NOTE: Actual opening movement under
Sr = spacing of control joints in reinforced masonry normal environmental situations will be
= 15.0 m much lower than the calculated maximum
<16m OK
Detail at control joints provides for
= spacing of control joints in unreinforced masonry weather-proofing OK
= 7.5 m
<8 m OK Detail at control joints provides for the
horizontal out-of-plane support of all
Cc = coefficient of drying contraction reinforced and unreinforced masonry OK
=0.6mmlm
Relative in-plane movement between the
= maximum possible opening movement reinforced bond beam and the unreinforced
under the condition of repeated wetting masonry panel may lead to a little localized
S and drying of the unreinforced masonry bed joint cracking. but this is considered to
be minor OK
GLOSSARY 4 Mortar joints
7.4.1 GENERAL Joint thickness 10 mm
Purpose of the worked example Concrete grout
The purpose of the following worked example is to Minimum characteristic compressive strength,
demonstrate the steps to be followed when performing f = 20 MPa
Minimum cement content 300 kg/m3
The worked example also serves the purpose of Steel reinforcement
demonstrating the origin of the Standard Designs which N12, N16 or N20 as noted.
requirements of AS 3700. It is the designer's
chases, openings, strength and stiffness of ties and
connectors, and strength and stiffness of supports, in

addition to normal considerations of loads and masonry
properties. Control joints and openings must be treated
Masonry properties
noted in the calculations and as noted below
Height 190 mm
Length 390 mm
Face-shell bedded
t = 25 mm for 90 mm, 110 mm and 140 mm units
t = 30 mm for 190 mm units
f =15 MPa
= 0.8 MPa
Width 110 mm
Height 76 mm
Length 230 mm
Fully bedded
ic =10 MPa
f = 0.8 MPa
7 Ifl
7.11
NOTES
S
S Cha!ter8
Durability Contents
This chapter provides the design requirements to 8.1 BASIS OF DESIGN
ensure that both unreinforced masonry and
reinforced masonry have sufficient durability to 8.2 GLOSSARY
prevent erosion of the masonry units or mortar and
prevent corrosion of any steel reinforcement, ties, 8.3 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
connectors, lintels or fittings.
8.5 WORKED EXAMPLE

BASIS OF DESIGN
The durability of masonry and its components must This glossary of technical terms relevant to Durability
be such that the required function can be performed is in addition to the general Glossary given in Part B:
throughout the entire design life of the structure. While Chapter 1. Where appropriate, the definitions have been
some marginal deterioration of the units or mortar may expanded to give more information.
be acceptable over a long period, any substantial Protected Grade
deterioration of the masonry units, mortar, ties, Masonry units that would suffer substantial and early
connectors, lintels or reinforcement would be failure when subjected to the test method in
unacceptable. AS/NZS 4456.10.
Prevention of corrosion is of primary importance. Ties, General Purpose Grade
connectors and lintels should be galvanised to the Masonry units that, in the supplier's experience, can be
required thicknesses or, in extremely aggressive demonstrated to have a history of surviving under
environments, be manufactured from non-corrosive environmental conditions similar to the site considered.
materials such as stainless steel. Products that fit this category are not expected to meet
Concrete grout which protects reinforcement must have the mass-loss criterion for "exposure category" when
sufficient cement content to create an alkaline tested in accordance with AS/NZS 4456.10.
environment which lasts for the duration of the Exposure Grade
design life. Masonry units that, in the supplier's experience, can be
demonstrated to have a history of surviving in saline
environments.
DESIGN UI!ENTS
Built-In Components
Building accessories are commonly manufactured from
8.3.1 GENERAL galvanised steel and durability will be satisfied by the
prescriptive galvan.ising covered in AS 2699.1, AS 2699.2
AS 3700 Section 5 sets out the durability requirements or AS 2699.3.
for masonry units, mortar, built-in components and
reinforcement or tendons throughout the design life of The testing criteria for components in categories RU to
the structure. R4 are quite severe:
AS 3700 Table 5.1 defines the required classifications for Maximum temperature of 55°C (or 40°C if the
masonry units, mortar, built-in components and cover for component is embedded)
reinforcement or tendons for the particular environments Daily temperature cycles from ambient (say 13°C) to
and positions within the structure. 40°C.
The associated Clauses and Standards cited in The medium surrounding the accessory being
Table 5.1 are: initially alkaline pH up to 10 but reducing over time
AS/NZS 4456.10 provides a test and means of to become not less than 10 (ie close to neutral).
classifying the durability of masonry units. Remaining wet for a 3-month period.
AS 3700 Table 10.1 provides suitable mortar mixes Aerosol penetration to an extent depending on
for particular classifications distance from the coast:
AS 3700 Appendix F provides performance RU - Nil
requirements for built-in components and Ri - 10 g/m2/day

deemed-to-comply corrosion resistance of galvanising R2 - 20 g/m2/day
and other treatments. R3 - 60 g/rn2/day
AS 3700 Clause 5.6 provides the requirements for R4 - 300 g/m2/day
grout to achieve the covers specified in Table 5.1. Exposure to UV radiation of 20 MJ/rn2 for a period
of up to 4 weeks corresponding to the period of
8.3.2 REQUIREMENTS FOR SPECIFIC ITEMS construction.
Exposure Environments Grout
AS 3700 Clause 5.2 defines the exposure environments The specified 300 kg/rn3 cement content is to ensure
for which the masonry and its components must be that an alkaline environment surrounds embedded steel
designed, while Appendix E gives further explanation reinforcement and other items.
and examples of each environment. Reinforcement and Tendons
Concrete Masonry Units Where horizontal reinforcement is to be used, hollow
Salt resistance needs to be provided for masonry units concrete blocks should be of a type which allows the
that may be subject to salt attack. AS/NZS 4456.10 grout to surround the reinforcement throughout its
provides a test for resistance to salt attack. length. 'H' blocks and 'Double-U' blocks are suitable
Mortar types.
The durability of the mortar is covered by the If flush-ended masonry units are used (which require the
deemed-to-satisfy compositions in AS 3700 Table 10.1. reinforcement to pass through the perpendicular joints)
Type Ml and Type M2 mortars are not recommended the reinforcement must be supported off the webs in
for concrete masonry and therefore the mortar choice is such a way that the cover requirements can be achieved
between Type M3 and Type M4. over the whole length of the reinforcement. This is
difficult to achieve and would be unsuitable unless
another form of corrosion protection is provided.
STANDARD DESIGNS
This section sets out the required cover and resulting

maximum effective depth of reinforcement for design
purposes. For the specification of masonry units,
mortars, built-in items arid grout, refer to Part C:
Chapter 2.
REINFORCED MASONRY - Cover (C) and Effective Depths (d) urn leaf
d
Block thickness, t (mm) = 140
I
Note: Manufacturers may adopt vanations
from these values for core taper and
Core taper*, t (mm) = 5 face-shell thickness. If so, this will alter
Face-shell thickness *, t (mm) = 25 the effective depth,d, given lithe Table below
EXPOSURE CONDITIONS
Very severe Severe Other applications

Severe marine environments. Interior environments subject (Note: 15mm is considered
Saline or contaminated water to saline wetting and drying. to be the practical minimum
Grout
and in tidal or splash zones. Masonry below the damp-proof for cover, giving consideration
Within 1 km of industry course or in contact with to the normal nominal size
ts cr producing chemical pollutants aggressive soils. Masonry of aggregates)
t, in fresh water
Required grout cover, c (mm) 30 20 15

Maximum possible effective
depth, d (mm) forfollowing
reinforcement diameter, r (mm):
12 74 84 89
16 72 82 87
20 70 80 85
REINFORCED MASONRY - Cover (c) and Effective Depths (d) 190-mm leaf
Block thickness, t (mm) = 190 Note: Manufacturers may adopt variations

from ttresevaluesforcoretaperand
Core taper*, tt(mm) = 5
face-shell thickness. If so, this will alter
Face-shell thickness t (mm) = 30 the effective depth.d, given in the Table bel
EXPOSURE CONDITIONS
Very severe Severe Other applications

Severe marine environments. Interior environments subject (Note: 15mm is considered
Saline or contaminated water to saline wetting and drying. to be the practical minimum
Grout
and in tidal or splash zones. Masonry below the damp-proof for cover, giving consideration
Within 1km of industry course orin contact with to the normal nominal size
ts cr producing chemical pollutants aggressive soils. Masonry of aggregates) -
t, in fresh water
Required grout cover, c (mm) 30 20 15

Maximum possible effective
depth, d (mm) forfollowing
reinforcement diameter, r (mm):
12 119 129 134
16 117 127 132
20 115 125 130
Qn
S S . S
z
WORKED EXAMPLE
Mortar joints
Purpose of the worked example
software for the analysis and design of masonry = 20 MPa
demonstrating the origin of the Standard Designs which Minimum cement content 300 kg/m3
Although comprehensive in its treatment of AS 3700, the N12, N16 or N20 as noted.
requirements of AS 3700.

and masonry properties.
Masonry properties
Specification set out in Part C Chapter 2, modified as
noted below.
Height 190 mm
Length 390 mm
Face-shell bedded
t = 25 mm for 90-mm, 110-mm and 140-mm units
t5 = 30 mm for 190-mm units
'uc =15 MPa
'ut 0.8 MPa
Width 110 mm
Height 76 mm
Length 230 mm
Fully bedded
'uc =10 MPa
'ut = 0.8 MPa
DESIGN BRIEF Grout
Grout shall be of a pourable consistency and
For a 190-mm reinforced concrete masonry wall have a minimum portland cement content of
below the damp-proof course in contact with an 300 kg/m3 and a minimum characterisitic
aggressive soil, select the correct masonry units, compressive strength at 28 days (f c) of 20 MPa.
mortar and components for durability.
Calculate the effective depth of reinforcement. f =20MPa
allowing for the required cover. > l2MPa OK 10.7.3
ie The specified 20-MPa grout is stronger
than the minimum strength permitted
)
Design characterisitic compressive strength of
grout (used in structural design)
f cg= l.3f uc(Clause3.5)
= 1.3 x 15
= 19.5 MPa
<f =20MPa
H
kk
t
ttl
C r
Grout ie By specifying grout f c = 20 MPa.
a design characterisitic compressive
strength of grout (f cg) of 19.5 MPa
may be used in structural design.
Masonry Unit This is the maximum value which is
Exposure grade. 5.3, Table 5.1 compatible with a concrete block of
Seek advice on availability strength f uc = 15 MPa.
from the manufacturer
Reinforcement
Mortar = total width of masonry unit
Type M4 5.4, Table 5.1 = 190mm
1 part Type GP cement, = work size face shell thickness at
4 parts sand plus its thinnest point
methyl cellulose water thickener Table 10.1 = 30 mm
t = taper in core of hollow units from thinnest
Built-in Components part of face shell to the thickest part
R4 durability classification 5.5, Table 5.1 = 5 mm (This should be checked
with the manufacturer)
Unless an alternative is proven Tables Fl, c = cover
by test result, wall ties and F2 and F3 = 20 mm
connectors shall be stainless steel 316 required cover Table 5.1
= 20 mm
Unless an alternative is proven by test result, maximum size of aggregate 10.7.2.5
lintels and shelf angles shall be galvanised = 20 mm
or coated in accordance with AS 2699.3 r = diameter of reinforcement
= 20 mm
Alternatives for lintels and shelf angles d = effective depth
include stainless steel 316, AS 3700 (Table F4) = t - t - tt - c - r/2
or abrasive blast cleaned and coated in = 1903052020/2
accordance with AS 2312 or AS 3750 (Table 5) = 125 mm
Thermal
Performance Contents
This chapter provides design guidance for 9.1 BASIS OF DESIGN
maximising the thermal efficiency of buildings
using concrete masonry superstructures. 9.2 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
It considers masonry's resistance to the passage
of heat (thermal insulation) and the resistance to 9.3 STANDARD DESIGNS
gain or loss of heat (thermal mass).
9.4 WORKED EXAMPLE
9.5 GLOSSARY
ISOFDESIGN
Peak Energy Savings (without considering cost)
This criterion is similar to the previous one, but with an
9.1.1 INTRODUCTION emphasis on reducing the peak daily energy use. Such
an approach is attractive to power-generating authori-
Increasing community awareness of the need to con-
ties because the low peak demand can be more easily
serve energy has resulted in the provision of thermally
achieved using existing generating equipment. Greater
efficient buildings becoming the focus of community
reliance on the thermal mass properties of concrete
and regulatory attention. Large quantities of energy are
masonry will help achieve this end.
used for climate control of buildings and many of which
are designed with little or no thought for minimising Community Cost Savings (considers life-cycle cost
cooling and heating loads. Significant reduction in the discounted to present worth)
capital cost of heating and air-conditioning equipment, This criterion minimises the "life cycle cost" of the
the space it occupies and its energy consumption and building capital cost, heating and cooling equipment
operating costs, are possible. Well-insulated walls and capital cost and energy cost. While an important factor
intelligent facade treatment reduce summer heat gains in this approach is the minimising of energy use, it is
and winter heat losses over the life of a building. not the only consideration. This is the approach used in
Savings in running costs can be considerable and can AS 2627.1 and should be attractive to consumer groups
more than offset any additional capital costs. concerned with economic benefit to the population. It
will favour those low-cost building materials that also
9.1.2 ENERGY, COST AND GREEN ROUSE GAS have reasonable insulation properties, such as
EMISSIONS concrete masonry.
It is important to understand that not all building First Home Buyer Savings (considers a relatively
systems will necessarily achieve simultaneously what short life-cycle cost discounted to present worth)
may be perceived to be desirable goals. The designer As for the previous one, this criterion minimises the
must balance the potentially conflicting goals of: "life cycle cost" of the building capital cost, heating
and cooling equipment capital cost and energy cost,
Minimising energy use, including heating and cool- but over a shorter period corresponding to the period of
ing energy as well as the energy used to produce the ownership of the "first-home buyer". The method used
building materials in AS 2627.1 can be adapted to provide building designs
Minimising cost, including heating and cooling cost that meet this criterion. It will also favour those
as well as the cost associated with particular low-cost building matenals that also have reasonable
insulation properties, such as concrete masonry.
building-construction practices
Minimising greenhouse gas emissions. 9.1.4 DETAILING BUILDINGS
9.1.3 CRITERIA FOR COMPARING ENERGY USE In all cases, sensible architectural design and detailing
are significant factors in achieving the criteria. In
AND COST
southern Australia, prominent north-facing shaded
When considering cost, it is also necessary to windows with large eaves overhangs will permit the
distinguish between the initial building cost (borne by entry of winter sun and restrict that of summer sun. In
the initial property owner) and the long-term heating northern Australia, large eaves around the building and
and cooling costs (borne by subsequent property users). well-designed ventilation will help keep the building
The problem is further complicated by government cool. Well-designed, properly-sealed doors and windows
policies and international commitments to particular will allow cross-ventilation in summer and restrict air
levels of greenhouse gas emissions. When analysing and heat leakage in winter.
energy use and costs, the following criteria should be
considered: 9.1.5 HEAT TRANSFER
Total Energy Savings (without considering cost) Heat is transfered through the building envelope from
This criterion relies on the insulation properties of the spaces of higher temperature to those of lower
roof and wall structures, together with some allowance temperature. Thus, in summer, the heat flow is into
for thermal mass, to minimise total energy use. This the building, while in winter it is usually in the reverse
philosophy forms the basis of the Home Energy Rating direction. Heat is transferred in a combination of three
Schemes (HERS) which are in use in various parts of modes - conduction, convection and radiation, defined
Australia, Such an approach is attractive to those who below.
are principally concerned with conserving energy over a
long period with little concern for the short-term cost. Conduction is the principal heat transfer mechanism
Lightweight concrete masonry is a good insulating through opaque airtight barriers such as external walls.
material and appropriate for this approach. Similarly, the Radiation is significant where, for example, glass is not
use of insulation in conjunction with concrete masonry shaded from direct sunlight. Glass transmits heat both
is suitable. by conduction and by radiation. Its comparatively poor
thermal insulation properties make large windows
undesirable.
Q,)
Convection becomes a problem only when poor Its good insulating qualities are derived primarily from
detailing or construction practice leave openings which the minute voids in the concrete of the units. In
allow transfer of heat by air leakage. general, it will be found that masonry units of lower
Much of the thermal advantage of using walls of high density concrete will have higher thermal resistance
thermal resistance will be lost if radiation and because of their greater voids content. Thermal
convection are not controlled by avoiding excessive use resistance is generally improved by substituting light-
of glass, shading them from summer sun and designing weight aggregates for dense aggregates in the masonry
and building to ehrmnate air leakage. concrete. It may be further improved by filling the cores
of walls of hollow blocks with granular
insulating materials such as perlite or vermiculite.
9.1.6 INSULATION
Where cores are filled in this way, measures must be
The primary method of restricting heat flow is by taken to prevent entry of moisture to the wall cores and
providing insulating materials in the roof and walls. the core-filling material. Such precautions include the
Such materials have a high thermal resistance or use of cavity wall construction, moisture-resistant
R rating. external coatings and the preventing of water entry by
A wall is typically made up of a number of components, good flashing and weathering practice.
each of which has a different ability to insulate against
heat flow. Dense concrete (as used in most concrete 9.1.9 DESIGN OPTIONS
masonry units) is not a particularly good insulator but The main options open to the users of masonry are:
lightweight concrete masonry is. Metal cavity ties are
S Insulation
poor insulators. Wall

Thermal bridging is the phenomenon whereby heat System None Foil Batts Pumped
flows through concrete webs, cavity ties or other bridges Masonry Most Common Must be Masonry
to enter or leave the building. When considering the veneer common water- must be
flow of heat across a wall, it is necessary to consider resistant sealed
the thermal bridging as heat travels through materials
Cavity Common Common Must be Masonry
with lower R values rather than through those with
masonry water- must be
high ones.
resistant sealed
9.1.7 THERMAL MASS Single-leaf Common Possible Possible Masonry
masonry with only must be
Thermal mass (also known as thermal inertia or thermal
internal with sealed
capacitance) is the ability of a material to retain heat plaster- customised
when subjected to a temperature differential. Dense- board inserts
weight concrete has high thermal mass. If a building
with high thermal mass is subject to a heating and
cooling cycle that crosses the comfort zone, the material
with high thermal mass will maintain its heat energy
for an extended period In practical terms, in summer
a building with dense concrete floors and walls will
remain relatively cool during the day time, while in
S winter the same building will remain relatively warm.
9.1.8 PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE MASONRY

Concrete masonry has moderate thermal insulation
properties (controling the passage of applied heat out
of the building in winter or atmospheric heat into the
building in summer). It has good thermal mass (slowly
releasing stored heat in winter and slowly absorbing
atmospheric heat in summer) It is a relatively
inexpensive building material, providing attractive
life-cycle costings, particularly when the building life is
relatively short. The amount of energy used to produce
concrete masonry is relatively low when compared to
most other building materials.
Generally, materials that are good thermal insulators
are incapable of supporting heavy loads. Conversely,
most good load-supporting materials are poor insulators.
Concrete masonry is a notable exception to these
general rules.
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
9.2.2 AS 2627.1 THERMAL INSULATION OF
DWELLINGS PART I THERMAL
9.2.1 GENERAL INSULATION OF ROOF/CEILINGS AND
Background WALLS IN DWELLINGS
The following sequence, traces the development of In 1993 Standards Australia published the revised
energy standards and regulations in Australia. AS 2627.1 which is a performance Standard with
In the early 1980's, Standards Australia Published deemed-to-comply prescriptive insulation provisions.
AS 2627.1, recommending insulation in the ceilings of The following flow chart outlines the origin of the data
some dwellings. in the Standard and the steps involved in using it. The
steps and their main requirements are then covered in
In the 1980's, the Victorian Government required
detail.
ceilngs to have R 2.2 and walls to have R 1.3 (if
the ground floor has B 1.0) or R 1 7 (if the ground Important Note:
floor has R 0.7). Masonry of thickness 180 mm on a The state building regulations, based in some states
concrete slab was exempted. on the Building Code of Australia (BCA) override the
provisions of AS 2627.1, which must be considered only
In the 1980's, the South Australian Government as an indication of possible thermal performance. For
required wall insulation of R 0.8. practical design of real buildings, designers must refer
In 1992, the ACT Government required insulation of tc the building regulations, not AS 2627.1.
Class 1, 2 and 3 residential buildings (and permitted
the same exemptions as Victoria) with a value of R

1.5, except for masonry of 180 mm thickness on a
concrete slab.
In 1993, Standards Australia the revised version of AS
2627,1, recommending insulation in the ceilings and
walls of some dwellings.
During the 1990's, Standards Australia unsuccessfully
attempted to write a Commercial Building Energy
Code and to standardise the protocols for Home
Energy Rating software.
In 2003, the Australian Building Codes Board (ABCB)
published amendments to the BCA to reduce energy
use and greenhouse emissions:
Housing Amendment 12 has been adopted in
Tasmania (subject to some additions), South
Australia and Northern Territory.
Western Australia and Queensland adopted
the recommendations of Amendment 13, with
some amendments to the BCA model.
New South Wales will not adopt the
Amendment, but will instead implement the
BASIX online approval system based on Nat
HERS and limited Deemed-to-Satisfy values.
Victoria will not adopt the Amendment, opting
instead for 5 Star Rating.
ACT will not adopt the Amendment, opting
instead for 4 Star Rating.
In 2004, an amendment to the BCA for Commercial
Buildings will be published for Class 2, 3 and 4
buildings (ie those that incorporate residential
elements). They will adopt a single performance
requirement of (probably) 3 Stars and allow for trade-
offs between fabric and services.
In 2004, the ABCS is expected to publish Protocols
for Energy Rating software.
all
1 Performance requirements
2 Performance calculations
3 Deemed-to-comply method
4 Tabulated values for

additional insulation
5 Calculated values for
additional insulation
16 Costs, savings and optimum

R values to minimise costs
Total cost
7 Costofheatingand cooling
equipment
8 Cost of insulation including

installation
9 Presentworth of energy
charges
10 Present worth factor
11 Unitcostofheatingand
cooling energy
15 Heatingandcoolingenergy
12 Areas
13 Thermal resistance, R
14 Heating and cooling

numbers
Flow Chart of the Outline and Steps in the Use of AS 2627.1

STEP 1 Performance Requirements There are two methods of satisfying the deemed-to-
The fundamental requirement of AS 26271 is: comply provisions:
Clause 1.5 Dwellings shall be designed to minimise specifying the additional thermal resistance given in
the energy requirements for heating and Section 2, or
cooling, having due regard for overall
calculating a required amount of added thermal
costs...
resistance which, when added to the resistance of
STEP 2 Performance Calculations the element, gives a total not less than that given in
The note contained in Clause 1.5 gives a lead to those Section 2.
designers who are prepared to take some care in siting If a particular design does not comply with these
the house and designing the particular elements. methods and parameters, it must provide an alternative
Clause 1.5 Note: Good thermal performance maybe method of satisfying the performance requirement.
achieved by a combination of measures,
a fundamental one being thermal STEP 4 Tabulated Values For Additional
insulation. Additional measures include Insulation
thermal mass, orientation of the building, Clause 1.6 The required amount of thermal
double glazing and shading resistance shall be obtained either -
by applying the appropriate
While AS 2627.1 does not give detailed performance additional thermal resistance as specified
requirements, the follow specification would capture the in Tables 2.1 and 2.2; or
spirit of the performance requirement
Dwellings shall include an appropriate combination of Section 3 and Appendices A, B and C explain the
roof, ceiling and wall materials, orientation, thermal background and methodology used to derive the
mass, double glazing (if advantageous) and thermal insu- deemed-to-comply levels of insulation prescribed in
lation to ensure the following performance: Section 2.
a mean indoor temperature of 18°C during the STEP 5 Calculated Values for Additional
heating season Insulation
a mean indoor temperature based on night time Clause 1.6 The required amount of thermal
resistance shall be obtained either -
cooling during the six-month cooling season of
... ; or
(13.9 + 0.48 Tai)°C (where Taj is the external mean air by calculating the added thermal
temperature) resistance required in accordance with
the least present worth of costs associated with the method specified in Section 3,
heating and cooling. provided that such a calculation yields a
total thermal resistance of the wall or
STEP 3 Deemed-To-Comply Method roof assembly which is not less than that
Provided the designer is prepared to adhere to the resulting from the use of Tables 2.1 and
design methods spelt out in Section 3 and Appendices 2.2. The assumptions made for the
A, B and C, the resulting solution may be deemed-to- thermal resistance of the uninsulated
comply with the Standard. wall or roof assembly is set out in
Clause 1 5 ... The addition of thermal resistance Appendix A.
specified in this Standard is deemed to
comply with the requirement for the
This option enables a designer to make use of
purpose-designed roof,/ceiling or wall systems that have
S
specified areas of the building... total insulation properties not less than those in
The principal requirements of these sections may be Tables 2.1 and 2.2.
summarised as: For example, single leaf masonry walls incorporating
Insulation complying with Section 2 or Section 3 insulation are not covered by Table 2.2 and may be
must be added to the components of the dwelling designed by this method
to minimise the energy requirements for heating and STEP 6 Total Cost
cooling, having due regard for overall costs The method described in Section 3 and Appendices A,
Maintenance of a mean indoor temperature of 18°C B and C to calculate the required additional thermal
resistance is based on minimising the present worth of
during the heating season all costs associated with heating and cooling.
Maintenance of a mean indoor temperature based on
Clause A2.2... basic approach used in deriving levels
night time cooling during the six-month cooling of resistance required for various
season of (13.9 + 0.48 Taj)°C where Tai is the external localities, ie to minimise the total costs...
mean air temperature
CH = Cost of heating/cooling equipment $ ()
Future costs modified by a present worth factor of
CL A Cost of installing insulation $/m2.m2 (8)
27, based on:
amortisation of costs over a 40-year period C1 A = Cost of insulation $/m2.m2 (8)
energy inflation rate of 6.2%

annual discount rate of 8.4%
CE
CT
= Present worth of energy charges
= Total cost
$ (9)
S
a Energy costs in accordance with Table A3. CH +CLA + C1A + CE
STEP 7 Cost of Heating and Cooling Equipment
12
The cost of heating and cooling equipment depends on
its capacity, which is a function of the amount of heat 11
Wall insulation
it is required to input or remove This depends on the 10
climate, layout of the house and the insulation. 9
Roof/ceiling
However, when compared to the total cost, the variation 8
insulation
in cost due to different capacities of heating and 7
cooling equipment is of little consequence and can be
safely ignored. 0
Co
STEP 8 Cost of Insulation Including Installation
Set out below are the costs at October 1992 for installed
insulation which were assumed in the preparation of
AS 2627.1.
Insulation in Roof/Ceiling 21
0
Approximate costs of glass wool batts:
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
R1.5 $ 7.20/rn2
Thermal Resistance, R (m2.IcfW)
R2.0 $ 8.50/rn2
R2.5 $ 9.60/rn2
These costs give a fixed cost component, Figure 9.1 Typical Installed Insulation Costs
S of $ 3.60/rn2 and a variable cost component,

of $ 2.40/m2.R (Figure 9.1)

Variable cost component used for AS 2627.1 is
$2.70/m2.R
STEP 9 Present Worth of Energy Charges
The energy charges will accumulate over the
Insulation in Weatherboard and Brick Veneer Walls amortisation period of 40 years and must be reduced to
Approximate costs of glass wool batts: their present worth, in order to add them to the costs
R1.5 $9.30/rn2 $ 6.17/rn2.R incurred at the construction phase. This is done by
R2.0 $ 10.60/rn2 $ 5.30/rn2.R summing the unit costs of energy multiplied by the
These costs give a fixed cost component, annual energy used and factoring it by the present
of $5.40/rn2 and a variable cost component, worth factor.
of $2.60/rn2.R (Figure 9.1)
= Present worth factor (10)
Variable cost component used for AS 2627.1 is
Unit cost of heating energy $/rnegajoule (11)
$3.73/m2.R
Cc = Unit cost of cooling energy $/megajoule (11)
Insulation in Cavity Brick Walls Eh = Heating energy megajoules (15)
Variable cost component used for AS 2627.1 is Ec = Cooling energy megajoules (15)
$6.00/rn2.R CE = Present worth of energy charges
Once the decision to place some insulation in the wall f.(Ch.Eh + Cc.Ec)
or roof/ceiling has been rnade, the fixed cost compo- STEP 10 Present Worth Factor
nent becomes irrelevant. Only the variable component The amortisation rate of 40 years was selected to
affects the level of insulation to be specified, However, approximate the design life of dwellings and will
this assumption is not valid when determining whether therefore yield an optimum solution if the other
an insulated wall or roof/ceiling is a more economical assumptions remain relatively constant over this period.
solution than an uninsulated wall or roof/ceiling, since However, it should be remembered that the selection
the fixed cost component would no longer be common of an optimum R value is quite sensitive to the chosen
to all options. arnortisation period.
n = amortisation period
= 40 years
= annual nominal rate of return from
the best alternative investment
= 0.12
The taxation rate represents the most likely marginal
rate to be paid on alternative investments using the
money saved by reduced energy bills.
= tax rate
= 0.30
d = discount rate
= r (1 - t)
= 0.084
s = Uniform annual inflation rate for energy costs
= 0.062
The selection of inflation rates, tax rates and returns is are not included. In such circumstances, the designer
reasonably subjective. However, the most significant may calculate the resistance of the
feature is the difference between the discount rate and component using either the values from Appendix E
the energy inflation, (d - s). This has been calculated to or other sources, making due allowance for thermal
be a constant 0.022 over the amortisation period. bridging.
Present worth factor
=
1s - f1sn Roof/Ceiling
d-s 11d. The heat flow upwards through a roof/ceiling system for
a particular temperature differential with internal
STEP 11 Unit Cost of Heating and Cooling Energy heating will be greater than the heat flow downwards
= Unit cost of heating energy cents/Mi through the same system for the same temperature
Heating equipment efficiency - differential with internal cooling.
zh
= 0.99 for electric resistive heating or 0.7 for gas 0.35 m2.K/W for heat flow upwards through an
Table A2 uninsulated roof/ceiling system consisting of a
pitched tile roof and a horizontal plasterboard
0.01 ch
li $/MJ ceiling
Z
= Unit cost of cooling energy cents/MJ Rod= 0.70 m2.K/W for heat flow downwards through the
cc
same roof/ceiling
Cooling equipment efficiency
= 2.0 for electric refrigeration or conditioning e correction factor for the difference between heat
flow upwards and downwards for non-reflective
0.01 c heat spaces

$/MJ
zc CN . cc
STEP 12 Areas
Roof/Ceiling Spaces HN . c CN . cc
It is assumed that insulation will be placed only above Zh Zc
those areas which are to be heated or cooled
A further modification to allow for the effect of
A = area of roof/ceiling that is insulated
reflective foil in the roof space can be made to these
Walls values when designing for this situation.
The cost of retrofitting insulation is relatively high.
Walls
Therefore, if a wall is to be insulated, it is considered
R= 0,50 m2.K/W for brick veneer
desirable to insulate all of the external walls at the time
of construction. Insulation not adjacent to the R,= 0.54 m2.K/W for ventilated cavity brick
heated/cooled space is relatively ineffective and its cost RN= 0.50 m2.K/W for weatherboard, fibrous cement
must be accounted for in the calculation of optimum with an unventilated cavity
insulation levels.
STEP 14 Heating and Cooling Numbers
AT = gross area of wall to be insulated At any point in time, heat will attempt to leave a warm
A gross area of wall to be insulated and which is building on a cold day or enter a cool building on a
adjacent to the heated/cooled space hot day. The amount of heat movement is a function of,
among other factors, the temperature differential which
? =AT/ATH varies with time.
= 0.8 for dwellings with central heating or cooling
or 0.33 for other dwellings Appendix F provides the formal proof of expressions
used for heating and cooling numbers.
Furthermore, allowance must also be made for the
space occupied by the framing between which the Appendix G provides the list of heating numbers (base
insulation is placed. temperatures 15°C) and cooling numbers (where the
base varies with climate).
- Aframe
The following points should be considered:
In the calculation of the heating numbers, it was
STEP 13 Thermal Resistance, R
assumed that a constant internal temperature of 18°C
Appendix E provides some thermal resistance values for
would be maintained for a full 24-hour period,
building components, including air spaces. Appendix D
combines these resistance values for common wall or allowing for a solar gain or 3 K during this period.
roof/ceiling structures.
HN
=
NDj (15 aj) kelvin days
Two observations arise:
The values tabulated are slightly conservative in It could be argued that, depending on their lifestyle, the
some situations and provide a reasonable basis for occupants, would be prepared to tolerate a reduced
design. period of constant temperature, say 18 hours.
The deemed-to-comply section of the Standard does
not provide insulation values for all wall and roof!
ceiling types. For example, single-leaf masonry walls
OQ
In the calculation of the cooling numbers, it was
10
assumed that a variable internal temperature of
(13.9 + 0.48aj)°C would be maintained for night time
cooling during the six-month cooling season.
CN
=
Naj kelvin days
where:
The sum is taken for those months where the
expression is positive
= mean air temperature for the period (°C)
= mean of the increments (sol-air less temperatures)
for the period (kelvin)
= mean internal air temperature for the period (°C)
It could be argued that, depending on their lifestyle, the
occupants, would be prepared to tolerate temperatures
in excess of these values for part of the period.
STEP 15 Heating And Cooling Energy
Eh = 0.0864 A - HN
Ec = 0.0864 A CN
watts
= 0 0864 rn2 K days
m2.K R2.53
= 0.0864 watts.days 0 V
Where 1 watt = I joule/sec 0 1 2 3 4 5
= 60 x 60 x 24/1,000000 MJ/day Thermal Resistance, R (m2.K/W)
= 0.0864 MJ/day
STEP 16 Costs, Savings and Optimum R Values to Figure 9.2 Example of Minimum Cost plot for Melbourne,
Minimise Costs giving R = 2.5 minimum. (Based on AS 2627.1 Figure B2)
Steps 5 and 8 above provides the basic formulae to
combine energy, unit costs, present worth factor and
insulation costs. Values for each of these components
Optimum R Value for Roof/Ceiling
have been developed.
The detailed development of formulae is set out on
CT= Total cost Page 69 of AS 2627.1.
= CH + CL A + C1 A + CE Shown below is the approximate solution shown on the
= CH + (CL + C1)A + f(Ch. Eh + Cc. Ec bottom of Page 69 in the same format as that developed
It is possible to plot the costs against the corresponding on the next page for walls.
insulation values and read off the B value at the
It can be seen that the solution is the same, except for
minimum cost as shown in Figure 9.2. the complications caused by the different heat flows up
However, the B value corresponding to maximum saving and down in the case of roof/ceilings and the effect of
can be determined more efficiently mathematically by the wall studs in the case of walls.
calculating the savings as a function of B1,
dS
differentiating the expression and setting the dR1
0
differential to zero.
When.
The value of R1 corresponding to
dS B1 (1 + e)
= 0 will be the optimum value. =
dR
The equations are developed below: rHN ch CN Ccl
a = 0.000864
L zh zc ]
C0 = Present worth of the total energy costs of
uninsulated elements
Cs = Present worth of the total energy costs and
insullation costs of insulated elements
S = Savings per unit area for an element.
NDARD DESIGNS
Optimum R Value for Wails
C0 = Present worth of the total energy costs of
uninsulated elements 9.3.1 GENERAL
Cs Present worth of the total energy costs and Design and detailing
insulation costs of insulated elements All design and detailing shall comply with the
S = Savings per unit area for an element requirements of AS 3700 and state building regulations.
C= a bR1 Masonry properties
a' R1 masonry properties complying with the General
R wR
w +R'1' Specification set out in Part C:Chapter 2 of this
-
a? 1
-a-bR1
manual, modified as noted below.
R
i) Hollow concrete blocks
-1
R
(Rw + i) - a - b R1 Height 190 mm
Length 390 mm
Face-shell bedded
dR1 R R1 R12 Average face-shell thickness,
av = 28 mm for 90-mm, 110-mm and 140-mm units

= 0 for maximum savings
av = 33 mm for 190-mm units
where: Material density is noted in the tables.
wy R Mortar joints
- Mortar type M3 (or M4)
R R2R
1(w+ i)
2
B1 Joint thickness 10 mm
2
R12(' =-
1b 9.3.2 CALCULATION OF R VALUES
The consideration of R values in this manual is based
on the following:
R1
-+ i) (a?)1/2 HA. Trethowen
R Values that are made-to-measure
Building Research Association of New Zealand
1/2
(Reprinted from ASHRAE Transactions Volume 91
Part 2 1986)
1/2
a? 9.3.3 STANDARD DESIGN CHARTS
R1=(--) -B
The following Charts are included:
Thermal Resistance of Concrete Masonry Units
Thermal Resistance of Masonry Walls, 90-mm
Thermal Resistance of Masonry Walls, 110-mm
Thermal Resistance of Masonry Walls, 140- and
190-mm
a in
THERMAL RESISTANCE OF CONCRETE MASONRY UNITS
THERMAL RESISTANCE, R (m2.K/W)
Hollow Units without Insulation

Density (kg/m3)
rrw
Units with Mineral Wool Insulation in Cores
Density (kg/m3)
MasonryUnitThickness(mm) 1600 1800 2000 2200 1600 1800 2000 2200
90 0.22 0.17 0.14 0.12 0.30 0.22 0.17 0.14

110 0.24 0.19 0.16 0.14 0.40 0.30 0.24 0.20
140 0.26 0.21 0.18 0.16 0.53 0.40 0.32 0.27
190 0.28 0.23 0.20 0.18 0.70 0.54 0.45 0.38
NOTE: The R values include allowance forthemial bridging across the concrete webs. These theoretical values are yetto be verified by test
These values do not include any contribution by airfilms.
PLOT OF ABOVE VALUES

0.81
U
Wckness
(mm) 190
- - - Hollow units without insulation
0.7
Units with mineral wool insulation in cores
0.6
140
0.5
110
0.4
0.3
E
0.2
I
F
E
I-
1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300
Concrete Masonry Unit Density (kg/rn3)
9.11
THERMAL RESISTANCE OF CONCRETE MASONRY WALLS 90-mm
Internal insulation in masonry units: NO YES
Netdensityofmasonryunits(kgfm3) >2100 1800 >2100 1800

Wall ètail (Not to scale) Component Specification Thermal resistance (m2.K/W)
i-90
Internal
Outdoorairfilm 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04
Insulation
NO External masonry leaf 90-mm hollow block 0.12 0.17 0.14 0.22
YES lndoorairfilm 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12
TOTALTHERMAL RESISTANCE, R(m2.K/W) 0.28 0.33 0.30 0.38
75 50 Outdoorairfilm 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04

io1 External masonry leaf 90-mm hollow block 0.12 0.17 0.14 0.22
Internal
insulation Airspace 50-mm ventilated 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14
Plasterboard 10-mm gypsum 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06
lndoorairfilm 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12
TOTALTHERMAL RESISTANCE, R (m2.K/W) 0.48 0.53 0.50 0.58
100 50 Outdoorairfilm 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04

10
Extemalmasonryleaf 90-mmhollowblock 0.12 0.17 0.14 0.22
1L Internal
91 '1 insulation Reflective airspace 50-mm ventilated 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55
NO Reflectiveairspace 100-mm with RF1 0.61 0.61 0.61
YES
0.06 I
Indoorairfllm 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12
50 Outdoorairfilm 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04

External masonry leaf 90-mm hollow block 0.12 0.17 0.14 0.22
IUU I
iisuIation Airspace 50-mm ventilated 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14
NO Internal masonry leaf 90-mm hollow block 0.12 0.17 0.14 0.22
YES
Indoorairfllm 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12
TOTAL THERMAL RESISTANCE, R (m2,K/W) 0.54 0.64 0.58 0.74
50 Outdoorairfilm 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04

110
External masonryleaf 110-mm hollow block 0.14 0.19 0.20 0.30
Internal
H insulation Airspace 50-mmventilated 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14
Internal masonry leaf 90-mm hollow block 0.12 0.17 0.14 0.22
Indoorairfilm 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12
TOTALTHERMAL RESISTANCE. R (m2.K/W) 0.56 0.66 0.64 0.82
0 1)
S THERMAL RESISTANCE OF CONCRETE MASONRY WALLS 110-mm
Internal insulation in masonry units: NO YES
Net density of masonry units (kg/rn3) >2100 1800 >2100 1800

Wall detail (Not to scale) Component Specification Thermal resistance (m2.K/W)
___ 110
Internal
insulation Outdoorairfilm 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 1
NO External masonry leaf 110-mm hollow block 0.14 0.19 0.20 0.30
YES
lrrdoorairfilm 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12
TOTAL THERMAL RESISTANCE, R (m2.K/W) 0.30 0.35 0.36 0.46
50 Outdoorairfllm 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04

110
Internal
NO Plasterboard 10-mm gypsum 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06
S lndoorairfllm 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12

TOTAL THERMAL RESISTANCE, R (m2.IVW) 0.50 0.55 0.56 0.66
100 50 Outdoorairfilm 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04

10 110
lntem
H insulatiocr Reflective airspace 50-mm ventilated 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55
NO Reflective airspace 100-mm with RR 0.61 0.61 0.61 0.61
YES
lndoorairfilm 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12
Outdoorairfiim 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04

Airspace 50-mm ventilated 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14
Internal masonry leaf 90-mm hollow block 0.12 0.17 0.14 0.22
lndoorairfilm 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12
TOTALTHERMALRESISTANCE.R(m2.K/W) 0.56 0.66 0.64 0.82
110 50 Outdoorairfilm 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04

ri" 110
Internal
station Airspace 50-mm ventilated 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14
NO Intemalmasonryleaf 110-mmhollowblock 0.14 0.19 0.20 0.30
Indoorairfllm 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12
THERMAL RESISTANCE OF CONCRETE MASONRY WALLS 140 and 190-mm
I Internal insulation in masonry units:

Net density of masonry units (kg/rn3)
NO
>2100 18OO
YES
>2100 18O0
Wall detail (Not to scale) Component Specification Thermal resistance (rn2.K/W)
ç- 140
iU_ internal
insulation Outdoorairfilm 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04
I Ii NO External masonry leaf 140-mm hollow block 0.16 0.21 0.27 0.40
YES
lndoorairfllm 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12
TOTALTHERMALRESISTANCE,R(rn2.K/W) 0.32 0.37 0.43 0.56
75
io [140 50 Outdoorairfilm
External masonry leaf 140-mm hollow block
0.04
0.16
0.04
0.21
0.04
0.27
0.04
0.40
I Internal
YES
lndoorairfilm 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12

4
TOTALTHERMALRESISTANCE,R(m2.K/W) 1.82 1.57 1.63 1.76
100 50 Outdoorairfllm 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04

10
Internal
insulation Reflective airspace 50-mm ventilated 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55
NO Reflective airspace 100-mm with RFI 0.61 0.61 0.61 0.61
lndoorairfilm 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12
i- 190
Internal
insulation Outdoorairfilm 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04
NO Extemalmasonryleaf 190-mmhollowblock 0.18 0.23 0.38 0.54
YES
lndoorairfllrn 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12
io] [igo
75 50 Outdoor airfilm
External masonryleaf 190-mm hollow block
0.04
0.18
0.04
0.23
0.04
0.38
0.04
0.54
Internal
insulation Airspace 50-mmventilated 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14
YES
lndoorairfllm 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12
TOTAL THERMAL RESISTANCE, R (m2.KJW) 0.54 0.59 0.74 0.90
100 50 Outdoor airfilm 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04

10 190
External masonryleaf 190-mm hollow block 0.18 0.23 0.38 0.54
internal
insulation Reflective airspace 50-mm ventilated 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55
INO Reflective airspace 100-mm with RFI 0.61 0.61 0.61 0.61
lndoorairfilm 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12
0 IA
WORKED EXAMPLE

demonstrate the steps to be followed when performing
The worked example also serve the purpose of
The worked example is not intended to analyze or
design all parts of the particular structure; it deals only
with enough to demonstrate the design method.
Set out in the worked example are calculations
demonstrating the derivation of R values for hollow
concrete masonry, with or without added insulation and
making allowance for thermal bridging.
requirements of AS 3700 and the state building
regulations.
Masonry properties
Height 190 nun
Length 390 mm
Face-shell bedded
Average face-shell thickness,
av = 28 mm for 90-mm, 110-mm and 14-mm units
Material density as noted in the example.
Mortar joints
DESIGN BRIEF Web thickness (average)
w1 = 30 mm
For 190-mm hollow concrete blocks of =40 mm
density 2000 kg/rn3 with internal mineral = 30 mm
wool insulation, calculate the thermal
resistance (R). Web rebate
r = 0 mm
Joint thickness
390 j = 10 mm
30) 145 145 30

(
AREA RATIOS AT WEBS AND CORES
Assume face-shell bedding of hollow blocks.
124 190
There will be an air space above and at the end
_33 of each block.

Mineral wool packed into cores of blocks
190-mm hollow concrete block (390 x 190 x 190)
h
SECTION OF INSULATED CONCRETE MASONRY BLOCK
Note on Basis of Calculations w3

The following calculations are based on the )
recommendations of the paper by H.A. Trethowen
R Values that are made-to-measure Web area ratio
Building Research Association of New Zealand Aw(W, +w2+w3)(h-r)
(Reprinted from ASHRAE Transactions At - (l+j)(h+j)
Vol. 91 Part 2 1986), with or without added (30 + 40 + 30) (190 - 0)
insulation and making allowance for - (390 + 10) (190 + 10)
thermal bridging. = 0.238
DIMENSIONS Core area ratio

Block length Ac (1 - w1 - w2 - w3) (h - r)
= 390 mm At - (I +j) (h +j)
(390- 30-40-30)(190-0)
Block height - (390 + 10) (190 + 10)
h=l9Omm =0.689
Block thickness Web rebate ratio

= 190 mm Ar (w1 + w2 + w3) r
At - (l+j)(h+j)
Face-shell thickness (30 + 40 + 30) 0
si 33 mm = (390 + l0)(190 + 10)
= 33 mm =0
Joint air space ratio Resistance of web rebates (air gap)
(l+h+j)j Rr = 0.14 m2.K/W
At (1+j)(h+j)
(390 + 190 + 10) 10 Resistance of joints (air gap)
= (390 + 10) (190 10) Rj = 0.14 m2.KIW
= 0.074
Effective resistance of webs/cores/rebates/joints
Re =
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY Aw/A Ac/At Ar/At Aj/
Density of concrete R Rc Rr Rj
Pconc = 2000 kg/rn3
= 0.238 + 0.689 0 0.074
Thermal conductivity of concrete 0.127 2.75 0.14 0.14
= 0.374 m2.KIW
r2400 - 20001
(1.44-0.515)
S k =
ioo- 1600]
Resistance of outer face-shell

= 0.978 W/m.K
si
Ri =
33
0
- 0.978 x 1000 C
= 0.034 m2.K/W
1600 2400
Density (kg/rn3) Resistance of inner face-shell
S2
cL
s2= Ct5
p-cone
33
Thermal conductivity of mineral wool insulation - 0.978 x 1000
= 0.034 m2.K/W
F-
= 0.045 W/m.K
Total thermal resistance of concrete block

THERMAL RESISTANCE R = Ri + Re + RS2
Resistance of webs = 0.034 + 0.374 + 0.034
(t - si - s2) = 0.45 m2.K/W
R
cone
(190- 33 - 33)
- 0.978 x 1000
=0127 m2.K/W
Resistance of core insulation

(t-s1-s2)
R-
fl S
(190- 33 - 33)
- 0.045 x 1000
= 2.75 m2.K/W
9.17
Thermal Resistivity (1/k)
Thermal resistivity is the reciprocal of thermal
This glossary of technical terms relevant to Thermal
conductivity. It is resistance to heat flow per unit
Performance is in addition to the general Glossary given
temperature difference and thickness. The unit of
in Part B: Chapter 1. Where appropriate, the definitions
measurement is metres kelvin per watt ([m.K1/W).
have been expanded to give more information.
Thermal properties of actual components may be
Thermal Conduction calculated from these figures by multiplying them by
The heat transfer mechanism whereby heat energy their thickness.
travels through matter. Heat moves in the direction of
Thermal Resistance (R)
decreasing temperature.
Thermal resistance is the reciprocal of thermal
Thermal Convection conductance and is designated R. It is a measure of the
Heat transfer by fluid flow in liquids and gases resulting resistance to heat flow per unit temperature difference
from density gradients caused by temperature variations. of the full thickness of the heat barrier. The unit of
In this context, convection in gases is significant where resistance is metres2 kelvin per watt (Im2K]/W).
air can move through openings in structures
Thermal Transmittance (U)
Thermal Radiation Thermal transmittance is the heat energy transmitted in
A form of electro-magnetic radiation which does not unit time through unit area of a given composite
depend on the presence of matter to transfer heat structure (eg a wall consisting of concrete masonry
energy. It can operate just as effectively in a total blocks, air films, cavities, etc) per unit temperature
vacuum. Opaque materials interposed between a heat difference between the air films on the two sides of the
radiation source and its object prevent heat transfer by structure. The unit of thermal transmittance is the same
radiation. Glass and other translucent materials offer as the Unit of thermal conductance (W/Im2K]). It is an
little resistance to radiated heat from the sun, its major overall measure of heat transfer from the air film on the
source. warmer side of a wall or other structure to the air film
Thermal Conductivity (k) on the cooler side. Thermal conductance on the other
The thermal conductivtty of a material is defined as the hand is a measure only of heat transfer through an
thermal energy transmitted in unit time through unit individual homogeneous element of the structure, from
area of a slab of a homogeneous material of unit surface to surface, not taking into account the effect of
thickness when unit temperature difference is main- air films or cavities. The property is commonly referred
tained between its surfaces, The unit of thermal to as the 'U-factor of a construction.
conductivity is watts per metre per kelvin (W/[m.K]). Thermal Mass
Temperature (K) Thermal mass (also known as thermal inertia or thermal
In thermal conductivity calculations, the temperature capacitance) is a measure of a material's ability to retain
unit adopted is the kelvin. The kelvin scale is known as its current level of heat energy when sublected to an
the thermodynamic temperature scale. Its zero point is external temperature differential.
- 273.15°C, absolute zero temperature. The freezing point
of water, 0°C, is equivalent to 273.15 K and a
temperature change of I K is the same as 1°C.
The conversion equation is K = °C + 273.15.
Thermal Conductance (C)
The thermal conductance of a structural component or a
structure is defined as the thermal energy transmitted in
unit time through unit area of a uniform structural
component or structure of particular thickness, per unit
temperature difference between surfaces. The unit of
thermal conductance is watts per square metre per kel-
vin (W/(m2K]).
Film or Surface Conductance (f and f0)
Film or surface conductance is the conductance of the
air film at the inner () or outer (f0) surface of a wall or
barrier. Its unit of measurement is W/(m2K).
Film conductance values thus apply to inner and outer
wall surfaces.
Air Space Conductance (a)
Air space conductance is the conductance of an
enclosed air space such as wall cavity or ceiling space
0
-I
m
()
Thermal Performance
S
S
Footings Contents
This chapter provides guidance on the design of 10.1 BASIS OF DESIGN
masonry systems and the associated slabs and
footings used in houses and small- to medium- 10.2 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
sized low-rise commercial, industrial and
residential buildings. The emphasis is on 10.3 STANDARD DESIGNS
minimising cracking when the building is
subject to soil movement. 10.4 WORKED EXAMPLE
10.5 GLOSSARY
10.1
BASIS OF DESIGN
aesthetics of a building as demonstrated by the
following examples:
101.1 GENERAL Reinforced concrete slabs and reinforced concrete
Soil Movement masonry walls crack under load, but the steel
When houses and other small buildings are constructed reinforcing bars provide tensile strength to the
on clay or similar soils, moisture movements in the soils cracked sections and control the width of the cracks
will lead to expansion and contraction of the soil, once they have formed.
causing the building to either cantilever beyond a
A relatively flexible paint may bridge small
shrinking soil mound or sag between an expanded
discontinuous cracks in mortar or masonry units,
soil rim.
thus ensuring that these cracks do not detract
Footing Systems for Unreinforced Brickwork aesthetically.
The most common form of new housing in Australia is
unreinforced brick walls (either cavity or brick veneer) The first task is to define permissible crack widths in
supported by reinforced concrete strip footings or various combinations of masonry wall and coating type.
stiffened raft slabs. As the supporting soil contracts or The second is to predict what foundation
expands, the cantilevering or spanning concrete footings movement can be tolerated before cracks exceeding
or rafts are forced by the mass of the supported those permissible limits will form.
building to deflect. Any unreinforced brickwork may AS 2870 Table Cl Classification of Damage with
crack, moving sympathetically with the deflected Reference to Walls assesses the degree of damage
concrete supporting structures. The design solutions
associated with cracks of certain widths. AS 2860

adopted in AS 2870 Figure 3.1 cater for this scenario by Clause A1.3 Performance Requirements states:
ensuring that the internal and external concrete beams
The footing systems complying with this Standard are
or footings have sufficient depth to minimize the
intended to achieve acceptable probabilities of
deflection, and articulating the masonry wall serviceability and safety of the building during its design
at points of weakness so that indiscriminate cracking is life. Buildings supported by footing systems designed and
minimised. For relatively stable soils, these systems constructed in accordance with this Standard on a
will provide effective and economical solutions. normal site which is not subject to abnormal
Integrated Reinforced Masonry/Footing Systems environmental factors and which is maintained in
There is a second practical approach which is common accordance with Appendix B are expected to experience
throughout northern Australia. Walls consisting of strong usually no damage, a low incidence of damage
panels of reinforced hollow concrete blockwork are tied Category 1 and an occasional incidence of damage
monolithically to the concrete footings or slabs. The Category 2.
strong stiff combination of wall and slab/footing span The fundamental design questions are:
discrete distances over expanding or shrinking Should the building be designed as a series of
foundations, without cracking or showing distress. Such
discrete unreinforced masonry panels which move
integrated footing/wall deep-beam systems in which
independently in sympathy with the sagging or
the reinforced concrete slab or footing and the concrete
masonry wall are structurally connected may be hogging footings? ie Unreinforced Brickwork;
considered to act compositely to resist the loads when or
soil movement occurs. The concrete ground beams or Should the building be designed as a rigid rein-
footings may be poured integrally with reinforced forced masonry box (or series of rigid elements)
concrete floor slabs. Alternatively, they may be separate which spans over dishing or doming foundations'? ie
from the floor. Integrated Reinforced Masonry/Footing Systems.
10.1,2 THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS

Unreinforced Brickwork
Unreinforced brickwork does not possess great strength
The purpose of a footing system is for: or resistance to cracking and it is impractical to require
the prevention of excessive movement of building it to span great distances. Unreinforced masonry must
components relative to each other; and therefore be divided into discrete panels using
articulation. This will minimise the formation of cracks
the prevention of unsightly or structurally damaging
although movements of the panels relative to each other
cracks in masonry walls. could present some problems, The following questions
To some extent, these two criteria place different arise:
requirements on the footing system While both will At what combination of span and load do
be satisfied by strong stiff footings, this is not always unreinforced masonry walls cease to behave as
practical. The footings alone often do not have sufficient
uncracked cantilevers (or beams), crack and follow
stiffness and the designer must either find some means
of enhancing their stiffness, or arrange the walls in such the defected shape of the footing?
a way that any movement does not lead to cracks or Does the inclusion of joint reinforcement (consisting
excessive differential movement. A crack differs from a of two 3-mm galvanized wires) at strategic locations
movement joint in that it is unintentional and its exact make the wall stronger, delaying the onset of initial
location is often unpredictable. However, not all cracks cracking and does it make the final cracking pattern
significantly diminish the structural integrity or less severe?
Do veneers such as plasterboard or renders Integrated Reinforced Masonry/Footing Systems
strengthen a wall? Reinforced hollow concrete blockwork is capable of
What is the difference between the requirements for spanning significant distances without cracking and the
need for articulation is not so great as for unreinforced
the various wall types and finishes? For example, the
masonry. By making construction rigid, there will be
current rules require a much stiffer footing for a fewer problems with differential movements and the
plasterboard wall supported by full masonry than for structure will be more able to resist wind and
a plasterboard wall supported by a timber frame. earthquake loads as well as the soil movement.
These questions were the subject of a research project However, the designer must be certain that the
at the University of South Australia and are discussed in structure is able to remain intact when spanning the
the following paper: dishing or doming foundation. Otherwise, cracking and
differential movement could be more severe than in the
Symons, MG, Amey, DJ and Johnston, RK case of an articulated building, Care must also be taken
In -plane Bending of Single-Leaf Block Walls
to ensure that cross walls are suitably isolated by
Pacific Concrete Conference, New Zealand, Nov 1988.
articulation, or reinforced to provide sufficient strength.
Ten full-scale masonry walls (with and without joint
The research prolect listed below deals with the
reinforcement, plasterboard, hard plaster and
question: How do reinforced concrete blockwork walls
compressible materials under the walls) and one clad, (vertical reinforcement with a horizontal bond beam)
timber-framed wall were constructed in a frame with
acting compositely with integrated slabs or footings,
a retractable segmented base to simulate a deflecting
behave as deep beams to resist movement?
footing. The walls were loaded at the top to simulate
a roof load and the base segments were progressively Symons, MG

withdrawn, causing the loaded wall to cantilever over Strength of Masonry Wall Panels
progressively increasing lengths. Measurements of the University of South Australia Business Development
loads, spans, deflections and crack widths have enabled Services Pro]ect No 4508 23rd March, 1995
the following conclusions to be drawn: The report on this prolect includes the following:
A reinforced masonry wall has the ability to span This report describes the testing of two reinforced
lengths in excess of its height, and satisfactorily concrete block walls, one 190 mm thick and the other
maintain acceptable serviceability limits for full working 140 mm thick. Both walls were tested in in-plane
loads. bending by the displacement of the wall to simulate
Reinforcement can be in the form of wires in the movement of a footing. Both were tested im' tially as solid
mortar joints, plasterboard adhered to the surface of the walls without openings. After reaching a predetermined
blocks at regular and specified intervals, and hard (I)
limit for footing displacement, the walls had openings cut
plaster. Further testing is necessary to quantifli the
in them and were retested. C
contribution of each of these methods to the reinforcing 4-J
0
of solid walls. It is also of significance that reinforced Suggested Design Methodology 0
masonry walls, while maintaining their structural For the correct operation of doors and windows, it is
Integrity, do not simply reflect the profile of the footing suggested that a limit be placed on the amount of
movements Only on application of overloads did the test distortion experienced through an opening. In the
walls develop severe cracldng accompanied by absence of any other data, 10 mm differential
deflections more in keeping with those of the footing. movement is suggested.
The clad timber frame distorted more than reinforced
With a knowledge of the soil type and geometry of
masonry walls under normal design loads and footing
the house, predict the soil profile under the wall.
movements. Crack growth in the clad frame wall followed
the footing movement, whereas cracking of reinforced Assume a can til ever length. Calculate the deflection
masonry walls was limited to very narrow cracks, taking of the wall at the unsupported jamb. If this deflection
into account comparable design factors of loads, exceeds 10 mm, then:
unsupported span lengths, and level of reinforcement. - the opening should be reduced, or
The authors acknowledge that only one timber frame - the opening should be moved to a location which
has been tested to date. However, the behaviour of that reduces the deflection, or
frame indicates the necessity for a comprehensive series - the footing and/or bond beam should be made
of tests and a review of the design requirements for stiffer
frame construction.
The research has revealed that solid masonry walling
designed to engineering standards has better
serviceability properties than clad timber framing.
Throughout the tests a distinction between deflection
ratios for different forms of wailing bore no relevance to
the properties and behaviour of the walls.
It is recommended that codes of practice relating to
wall and footing design state acceptable maximum crack
widths for ALL types of wall construction and surface
finish.
10.1.3 DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR CONCRETE
SLABS FOR USE WITH REINFORCED
CONCRETE MASONRY HOUSING
Incorporation of Reinforced Masonry Walls
Where possible, reinforced masonry walls should be
incorporated, including continuous bond beams around
the top of the walls. The order of preference is as
follows:
190-mm reinforced blockwork without openings
140-mm reinforced blockwork without openings
190-mm reinforced blockwork with window openings,
without door openings
140-mm reinforced blockwork with window openings,
without door openings
190-mm reinforced blockwork with door openings
140-mm reinforced blockwork with door openings
Vertical wall reinforcement should consist of either N12
or N16 bars at up to 2.0-metre centres, depending on the
severity of soil movement and intensity of wind loading.

These bars should be placed centrally within the cores
of hollow concrete blockwork and lapped with starter
bars previously cast into the footings or slab. The bars
should be bent into a top bond beam continuous around
the top of the walls. The reinforced cores and the bond
beams are grouted with 20-MPa concrete grout.
Transverse Walls
It is common for the external wall to consist of
reinforced blockwork. Where possible, the side walls
should be without any openings, or at least without
door openings. Where possible, some internal walls
running across the slab should be without openings, or
at least with no large openings. These walls should run
the whole width of the slab. For example, the internal
wall between a connected garage and the habitable part
of the house should be continuous without openings.
Similarly, the internal wall between bedrooms and the
lounge/kitchen area should be continuous, if possible,
except for one doorway to the bedroom area.
Longitudinal Walls
Where possible, some internal walls running along the
slab should be without openings, or at least with no
large openings, Although this is difficult, these walls
should run the whole way along the slab. For example,
the longitudinal internal wall in the bedroom area
should align with any dividing wall in the lounge/kitch-
en area and should be connected with a continuous
bond beam.
L-Shaped and T-Shaped Houses
Narrow protruding rooms should be avoided unless a
central wall is included. If this is not possible, it may be
necessary to include a central beam under the slab
Open Plan
I-louses with large open plan areas may exhibit large
relative deflections, particularly in the case of soil
expansion. This could damage brittle floor coverings and
non-structural partitions. To avoid this problem, it may
be necessary to retain sub-floor beams in these areas.
IA A
DESIGN
REQUIREMENTS
10.2.3 INTEGRATED REINFORCED
The typical wall/footing systems illustrated in this MASONRY/FOOTING SYSTEMS -
manual are based on AS 2870 and AS 3700, and are DEEMED-TO-COMPLY CONSTRUCTION
supported by research listed in the Bibliography in USING FIGURE 3.1 NOTE 12
Part B:Chapter 1 and discussed herein. The beam sizes in AS 2870 Figure 3.1 (Figure 10.1)
provide adequate stiffness to ensure that non-structural
10.2.1 DESIGN OPTIONS wall systems placed on the slab are not subjected to
AS 2870 makes several design options available to the excessive deflection. However, Note 12 (Table 10.1)
designer: permits a reduction in these beam sizes to 300-mm x
300-mm with 3-L8TM reinforcement, if reinforced hollow
Deemed-to-comply design using AS 2870 Section 3
concrete blockwork walls are structurally connected to
Raft slabs or strip footings for unreinforced the beams and act with them to resist movement.
brickwork superstructures designed to Figure 3.1 or In this case, the walls should be 190-mm or 140-mm
Figure 3.2 (Clause 10.2.2 this manual). single-leaf hollow concrete blockwork, reinforced with at
Raft slabs for integrated reinforced masonry/ least N12 bars at not more than 2.0-metre centres, tied
footing systems designed to Figure 3.1 including to the footings with starter bars and incorporate a
Note 12 (Clause 10.2.3 this manual). continuous bond beam (with at least two N12 bars)
around the top of the wall. The walls should be
Design by engineering principles using AS 2870 adequately waterproofed.
Section 4 and Appendix F
This construction behaves as a stiff box and articula-

Modification using Clause 4.5 of standard rafts tion of the bond beams should not be included since
derived from Section 3 for both reinforced and it destroys the continuity, When using this detail, care
I
unreinforced superstructures (Clause 10.2.4 this must be taken to ensure the adequacy and continuity of
manual). internal beams, particularly at re-entrant corners where
Design of raft systems for unreinforced an internal beam is deeper than the external beams.
superstructures using Clause 4.4 (Clause 10.2.5 this AS 2870.1 Figure C3.4 shows a typical section and detail
at re-entrant corners.
manual).
Design of integrated wall/slab or footing sys-
Method:
tems for reinforced superstructures using Clause 4.7 Using AS 2870 Section 2, determine the Site
(Clause 10.2.6 this manual). Classification
Using AS 2870 Table 3.1, determine the equivalent
10.2.2 UNREINFORCED BRICKWORK - construction.
DEEMED-TO-COMPLY CONSTRUCTION
Using AS 2870 Figure 3.1 or Figure 3.2 determine the
USING AS 2870 FIGURE 3.1
required depth of internal beams or footings, their
AS 2870 Figure 3.1 (Figure 10.1) sets out the require- maximum spacing and the required slab
ments for concrete slabs and beams under particular reinforcement.
superstructures for various Site Classifications. Figure 3.2
provides alternative designs for strip footings.
Method:
Using AS 2870 Figure 3.1 Note 12, design the
external beams as 300-mm x 300-mm with 3-L8TM. LL!
Detail the connection to the internal beams, paying
Using AS 2870 Section 2, determine the Site particular attention to re-entrant corners.
Classification
Detail the structure in accordance with AS 2870
Using AS 2870 Figure 3.1 or Figure 3.2 determine the Section 5.
required depth of beams or footings, their maximum
spacing and the required slab reinforcement.
Detail the structure, including any required
articulation, in accordance with AS 2870 Section 5.
Other internal walls Loadbearrng
150
Slab internal walls Slab Fitment
mm.
fabric 1000 max. fabric
100 150
D
200
k 500 mm.
Same fabric
Reinforcement asforslab- Reinforcement
300 50mm. 50 mm. " 300

See also AS 2870 Figure 3.3
Spacing. S ano roie oeiow
EDGE BEAM lFffERNAL BEAM SLAB ThICKENING ALTERNATiVE EDGE DETAIL
Figure 10.1 Deemed-to-comply Stiffened Raft (Based on AS 2870 Figure 3.1)
Table 10.1 Values and Notes forDeemed-to-comply Stiffened Raft (Based on AS 2870 Figure 3.1)
Edge and internal beams(1) direction satisfies the requirements for the maximum
Slab(2 & 11)

spacing given above, the spacing between individual
Site Depth Reinforce- Spacing beams can be varied, provided that the spacing
Class D (mm) ment S (m) fabric between any two beams does not exceed the spacing
Articulated masonry veneer construction in Figure 10.1 by 25%.
A 300 3-L8TM SL72 4 Beam layouts shall satisby the requirements of
Clause 5.3.9
S 300 3-L8TM SL82
5 Where external beams are wider than 300 mm, an
M 400 3-L11TM SL72
extra bottom bar (or equivalent) of the same size is
M-D 400 3-Li 1IM SL72 required for each 100 mm of additional width.
H 500 3-L12TM 4.0 SL82 6 For a particular Class or site, if a beam depth greater
H-D 600
I 3-L12TM I4.0 4.0 SL92 than that given for the type of construction is select-
ed, the bottom reinforcement specified for the deeper
Masonry veneer construction
beam is to be used
A 300 3-L8TM SL72
7 Except on site Classes M-D and H-D, a horizontal
S 300 3-L11TM Si SL82 construction joint is permitted in the edge of the
M 400 3-Li 1TM SL72 internal beams, provided the concrete-to-concrete joint
M-D 500 3-L12TM SL82
is at least 150 mm wide and traversed by RIO fitments
I at 600-mm centres or equivalent (see
H 700 3-Ni6 p4.0 SL92 Alternative Edge Detail, Figure 10.1)
Articulated full masonry construction 8 Construction details are given in Clauses 6.4 and 6.6
A 400 3-L8TM SL72 9 Where reinforcement is required to be accurately
S 400 3-L11TM SL82 located, llgatures shall be provided.
M 500 3-L12TM 4.0 SL82 10 If shrinkage crack control is a design consideration,
M-D 625 3-L12TM 4.0 SL82
refer to Clause 5.3.Z
H 1000 4-N 16 4.0 SL1O2
11 Alternative reinforcement shown in the table below
may be used in lleu of the slab fabric specified in the
H-D(8) 1200 4-N 16 4.0 SLiO2 table at left.
Full masonry construction
Alternative Additional reinforcement at top of beams
A 400 3-L8TM SL82
if alternative slab fabric is used in lieu of:
slab
S 450 3-1 1TM p 5.0(e) SL82
fabric SL1O2 SL92 SL82
M 800 3-N 16 4.0 SL92
SL92 3-L11TM
NOTES: SL82 3-N 16 3-L11TM
1 Internal and external edge beams shall form an SL72 4-N 16 4-L12TM 2-L12TM
integral structural grid in accordance with Clauses
5.3.8 and 5.3.9. 12 Where a reinforced single-leaf masonry wall is
2 For slabs of length equal to or greater than 18 m, slab constructed directly above and structurally connected
fabric shall not be less than SL82. For Class A and to a concrete edge beam, the beam may be reduced
Class S sites, where the slab length is less than 18 m, to 300 mm wide by 300 mm deep and reinforced with
wherever SL82 fabric is specified, the fabric can be 3-L8TM reinforcement.
reduced to SL72. Internal beam details and spacings shall comply with
Figure 10.1. At a re-entrant corner where an exter-
3 A 10% increase in these spacings is permitted where nal beam continues as an internal beam, the internal
the spacing in the other direction is 20% less than beam details shall be continued for a length of I m
specified. Where the number of beams in a particular into the external beam.
'in c
10.2.4 UNREINFORCED BRICKWORK OR Method:
INTEGRATED REINFORCED Using AS 2870 Section 2, determine the characteristic
MASONRY/FOOTING SYSTEMS - surface movement, y for the particular soil.
MODIFICATION OF STANDARD RAFT
Using AS 2870 Table 4.1 and engineering judgment,
DESIGNS USING AS 2879 CLAUSE 4.5
determine the maximum differential footing
AS 2870 Clause 4.5 provides for the modification of movement, A, which the particular superstructure is
standard raft designs for unreinforced or reinforced able to tolerate before substantial cracking becomes
superstructures. This situation could arise where the a problem. See suggested values in Clause 10.2.4
geometry of the building dictates that the internal
beams be spaced at centres closer than the maximum Enter the structure geometry and capacities into a
permitted by AS 2870 Table 3.1 (Figure 10.1) grillage program with spring supports (to simulate a
compressible soil mound) and shortening or
Method:
lengthening vertical supports (to simulate expanding
Using AS 2870 Section 2, determine the characteristic or shrinking soil at the rim).
surface movement, Y for the particular soil.
Perform a non-linear analysis to calculate the
Using AS 2870 Table 4.1 and engineering judgment, cantilever lengths and the corresponding moments,
determine the maximum differential footing shears and deflections. These calculations should be
movement, A, which the particular superstructure is done twice, once for a shrinking soil and once for an
able to tolerate. before substantial cracking becomes expanding soil.
a problem. The following values are suggested:

Check the moment capacity and the stiffness of the
A (mm) Superstructure slab and beams to cantilever or span without
30 Articulated masonry veneer; Reinforced deflections exceeding the permissible.
single leaf masonry external walls with Detail the structure in accordance with AS 2870
articulated masonry internal walls on Section 5.
Class A or S sites.
20 Masonry veneer; Reinforced single-leaf 5.0
masonry external walls with articulated
Normal profile, H3
masonry or reinforced single leaf masonry
Deep-seated
internal walls movement profile,
15 Articulated full masonry; Reinforced single- H5 >3 (M-D or H-D)
leaf masonry external walls with masonry

internal walls 3.5
Using AS 2870 Figure 3.1 determine the deemed-to-
comply depth of beams, their maximum spacing and
the required slab reinforcement.
Calculate the ratio of soil movement to structure
tolerance, y5/A. A high value is a sign of high soil
movement or a sensitive structure and will require
more-substantial beams.
Using AS 2870 Figure 4.1, determine the required
value of section modulus of beams. Vary depth to
suit the required spacing, keeping the width
l.0
constant.
Adjust the quantity of reinforcement in each beam 0.5
where appropriate.
Ys
Detail the structure in accordance with AS 2870
Section 5. 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0 10.5
E(BD3)
10.2.5 UNREINFORCED BRICKWORK - 12W
DESIGN OF RAFT FOOTING SYSTEMS

USING AS 2870 CLAUSE 4.4
AS 2870 Clause 4.4 makes provision for the engineering
design of raft slabs supporting unreinforced masonry
superstructures. Methods of assessing the soil mound
shape developed by both Walsh and Mitchell are given
in AS 2870 Appendix F Figure 10.2 Movement Ratio versus Unit Stiffness
(Based on AS 2870 Figure 4.1)
10.7
Table 10.2 Moment-Correction Coefficients (Extract from Mitchell - Bibliography, Part B:Chapter 1, Clause 1.13.8)
Moment Correction Factors (ut) for Sagging Condition with a Uniformly-distributed Load
I
m
ys/'x W/ky 2.1 3 5 6 10 15 20

00 >0.50 * * * * * *
0.30 0.46 0.67 * * * *
0.20 0.35 0.33 0.57 0.89 * * *
0.10 0.23 0.20 0.19 0.18 0.17 0.17 P0.17 0.33 0.83 *
0.05 0.16 0.14 0.12 0.11 0.11 0.10 0.10 0.09 0.09 0.18
0.01 0.07 0.06 n 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.04, 0.03 0.03 0.03
2.50 >0.30 * * * * * * * * * *
0.20 0.56 0.99 * * * * * * *
0.10 0.31 0.27 0.56 0.89 * * * * *
0.05 0.20 0.17 0.15 0.13 0.20 0.48 0.98 * *
10.70
:,
0.01 0.09 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.03
1.25 >0.10 * * * *
0.05 0.39 * *
* I
0.01 0.14 0.09 0.13 0.70 *
Moment Correction Factors (c) for Hogging Condition with a Uniformly-distributed Load
m
W/ky 2.1 3 4 5 7 8 9 10 15 20
0O >1.00 * * * *
0.50 0.69 0.72 0.76 0.79 0.81 0.83 0.84 0.86 0.87 0.90 0.93
0.10 0.41 0.48 0.55 0.60 0.64 0.68 0.71 0.73 0.75 0.82 0.86
0.01 0.19 0.27 0.35 0.41 0.46 0.51 0.54 0.58 0.61 071 0.77
2.50 >1.00 * * * * * *
0.50 * 0.87 0.90 0.92 0.94 0.96 0.97 0.98 *

C 0.30 0.69 0.75 0.81 0.86 0.90 0.93 0.95 0.98 0.99 *
*
0 0.10 0.49 0.61 0.73 0.82 0.91 0.97
0
U- 0.01 0.24 0.45 0.85 * * *
1.25 >0.30 * * * *
0.20 * 0.92 * * :
* * *
I
0.10 0.70 0.98
0.01 0.37 * * * *
* Use minimum footings with check for bearing capacity considerations
Notations used by Mitchell in Table 10.2 Formulae used by Mitchell in Table 10.2
B = Width of footing area Moment and stiffness for sagging condition
E = Young's Modulus of footing material with a uniformly-distributed load:
= Moment of inertia of footing
+
1 El=
L = Length of footing or covered area 8 12A
M Moment of superstructure loads about footing centre
Y = Maximum differential soil movement
Moment and stiffness for hogging condition
k = Swelling stiffness
with a uniformly-distributed load:
m = Power of polynomial defining soil surface under covered
area, or shape factor M
wLB(1) El=
12 A
w = Superstructure loads per unit area of footing
A = Maximum differential footing movement
In Q
10.2.6 INTEGRATED REINFORCED 10.2.7 DETAILING AND CONSTRUCTION
MASONRY/FOOTING SYSTEM - GUIDELINES
DESIGN USING AS 2870 CLAUSE 4.7 This section provides explanations of AS 2870 Sections 5
If the designer wishes to achieve more economical and 6 for detailing and construction of the earthworks,
designs for houses with reinforced superstructures than slabs, footings and concrete masonry superstructure.
are given in the deemedto-comply provisions of Fig 3.1 Clause 5.1 General
including Note 12, the following design approach can be
taken. Clause 5.2 Drainage
Clause 5.2.1 places requirements on floor levels, pointing
Method: out the need to consider plumbing, run-off, excavation,
Using AS 2870 Section 2, determine the characteristic filling, flooding, landscaping, stormwater discharge and
surface movement, for the particular soil. termite management.
Determine the required house geometry Clause 5.2.2 permits the 150-mm freeboard to be
wall layout, etc. reduced in certain circumstances, such as sandy well
drained soils (100-mm) and where external paved areas
Determine the moment capacity, shear capacity,
slope away (50-mm).
bending stiffness and shear stiffness of various
combinations of: Clause 5.3 Requirements for rafts and slabs
walls + slab + beams at continuous walls
Clause 5.3.1 requires concrete to be not less than
Grade N20 with a 20-mm maximum aggregate size.
walls + slab (no beams) at continuous wails
The slump is not specified, but a slump of 80 mm
walls + slab + beams with openings would be normal.

walls slab (no beams) with openings
beams + slabs (no walls) Clause 5.3.2 gives the requirements for reinforcement
cover, laps, positioning and details.
slabs (no beams or walls).
Clause 5.3.3 gives the requirements for vapour barriers
4 Using Appendix F, determine the edge distance over
and damp-proofing membranes. Adjacent sheets are to
which the soil shrinkage or expansion will occur.
be lapped, but there is no requirement for taping these
Enter the structure geometry, capacities and edge laps except at plumbing penetrations, In South Australia
distances into a grillage program with spring and other areas prone to salt-damp, a high impact
supports (to simulate a compressible soil mound). resistance barrier will be required
Shortening or lengthening vertical supports around Clause 5.3.4 provides specification for edge rebates,
the edge of the structure simulate shrinking or which should be detailed by the engineer.
expanding soil at the rim. Alternatively, a simpler Paragraph (t) of Clause 5.3.4, states that single-leaf
solution can be achieved by assuming that parts of masonry does not require an edge rebate. This is
the structure cantilever or span distances because this type of construction would incorporate
corresponding to the calculated edge distances. reinforcement to minimise cracking and continuous
Perform an analysis to calculate moments, shears and weatherproofing paint system over the exposed surface
deflections. These calculations should be done twice, of wall and beam.
once for a shrinking soil and once for an expanding Clause 5.3.5 provides specification for recesses.
S soil.
Check the shear and moment capacities of each wall!
Clause 5.3.6 provides specification for heating cables
and pipes.
slab/beam combination to span without Clause 5.3.7 provides details for brittle floor coverings.
cracking, particularly at door and window openings.
Clause 5.3.8 sets out the requirements for beam
Check the deflections at all openings and other stra- continuity in rafts. The exact locations of beams should
tegic points to ensure that doors and windows can be determined by the engineer with reference to
still open, plasterboard and cladding does not crack. Figure 5.4 and Table 3.1. Once this is done the structure
Detail the structure such that rotation and twisting should be examined to determine whether the size of
of walls does not occur. For very long structures, it the beams can be reduced using Clause 4.5.
may be prudent to provide some articulation joints at Clause 5.3.9 requires the first internal beam to be within
suitable centres such that the ability to span is not 4.0 metres of the external beam for Class M and H
impeded whilst the structure is not forced to span sites, thus ensuring additional stiffness at the location
lengths in excess of those values dictated by the where the beam/slab system could be suspended when
the soil shrinks.
wall/footing strength
Clause 5.4 Requirements for pad and strip footings
Clauses 5.4.1 and 5.4.2 set out the requirements for
concrete and reinforcement similar to the case for slabs.
Clause 5.4.3 limits the slope of footings to I in 10 and
provides details of how steps may be achieved.
Clause 5.5 Additional requirements for Class H and Clause 6.4.8 states that for durability in known
Class E Sites salt-damp areas, the concrete shall be vibrated and
Clause 5.5.1 requires architectural solutions to reduce cured for at least three days. Commentary C6.1 further
the effects of movement in Class H or E sites, including expands this and explains that curing is related to
detailing masonry, isolation and articulation. moisture penetration.
Clause 5.5.2 requires continuity of slabs over rock. Clause 6.5 Construction of strip and pad footings
Clause 5.5.3 requires enhanced drainage. Clause 6 5 provides details of strip and pad footings
Clause 5.5.4 requires enhanced plumbing. Alternatively, for a Class A or S site, strip or pad
footings may be founded on controlled sand fill.
Clause 6.1 General
See also Clause 6.4.7 for placing and compacting Clause 6.6 Additional requirements for Class H and
concrete, E Sites
Clause 6.2 Permanent excavations The following additional requirements are detailed for
Clause 6.2 restricts excavations over 600 mm deep. Class H and E sites.
Clause 6.3 Temporary excavations Detailing.

Clause 6.3 restricts the location of service trenches. Sleeving of penetrations to avoid rupture due to
Clause 6.4 Construction of slabs differential movement.
Clause 6.4.1 notes that land slip may need to be Collection and channelling of run-off.
considered separately.
Avoidance of back-filling with porous material.

Clause 6.4.2 provides rules for filling. Avoidance of water ponding in trenches.
Clause 6.4.3 and Commentary C6.4.3 provides guidance (1) Articulation of pipe joints within 3 metres of the
on:
building.
Stripping Top Soil (g) Vibration of concrete and fixing of reinforcement.
Avoiding Erosion. On sloping sites liable to erosion
by surface water, edge beams are to be protected by:
- Grading the ground surface to limit the
catchment area adjacent to the building to
less than 100 square metres; or
(I) - Providing a drainage system which prevents
C run-off near the building; or
0 - Providing a 600-mm-wide concrete path around
0 the building; or
Founding the edge beam at least 300 mm below
the finished ground level.
Allowable Bearing Pressures
Slope of Beams. A maximum slope of I in 10 is
permitted This would be determined by the designer.
Blinding Layer. It is not a requirement to place a
sand layer under the slab, although it may be
desirable in order to reduce concrete use and avoid
rupturing the membrane.
Clause 6.4.4 gives three alternatives for sloping sites.
Clause 6.4.5 gives the methods of retaining fill for
Class A, S or M sites.
Clause 6.4.6 states the need for fixing reinforcement
Clause 6.4.7 states that concrete shall be placed and
compacted in accordance with good building practice.
Commentary C6.1 further expands this and explains that
vibration is a requirement only on Class H and E sites.
However, it is of the opinion of the Concrete Masonry
Association of Australia that both vibration and curing
are beneficial and have therefore been included m the
Specification in this manual.
Ifl Ifl
STANDARD DESIGNS
Design charts contain data for Design By Engineering
10.3.1 GENERAL Principles. The data may be used in manual or
Design and detailing computer analyses used to design by engineering
All design and detailing shall comply with the require- principles in accordance with AS 2870 Section 4.
ments of AS 2870 for concrete slabs and footings, and List of Charts
AS 3700 for concrete masonry.
DESCRIPTION PAGE
Typical Edge Distances for
Slabs on Reactive Soils 10.12
supports, in addition to normal considerations of loads Reinforced Masonry - Section Properties 10.13
Masonry properties
The standard designs in this chapter are based on
noted on the standard design chart and as noted below.

Height 190 mm
Length 390 mm
Face-shell bedded
= 25 mm for 90-mm, 110-mm and 140-mm units
t = 30 mm for 190-mm units
f' =15 MPa
f' = 0.8 MPa
Width 110 mm
Height 76 mm
Length 230 mm
Fully bedded
S Minimum characteristic compressive strength,
1'uc =10 MPa
= 0.8 MPa
Mortar joints
Concrete grout
= 20 MPa
Minimum cement content 300 kg/m3
Steel reinforcement
N12, or N16 as noted. Fabric and trench mesh as noted.
Concrete slabs-on-ground and footings
Strength grade N20
Maximum slump 80-mm
Maximum aggregate size 20-mm
TYPICAL EDGE DISTANCES FOR SLABS ON REACTIVE SOILS
BASIS 0FTABLES'
Calculated in accordance with AS 2870 Clauses F4 (a), (b) and (C)
Differential mound movement (mm), y = 0.7 Ys
Edge distance from centre-heave (m), e

= +--
Ym
Edge distance from edge-heave (m), e = 0.2 L 0.6 +
0.025
Allowable beang pressure:

Centre-heave (shnking soil) -5000 kPa/m (except at edges where a very low value is used)
Edge-heave (swelling soil) - 1000 kpa/m under edge beams (Zero assumed elsewhere)
EDGE DISTANCE FOR CENrRE-HEAVE EDGE DISTANCE FOR EDGE-HEAVE
Surface Mound Depth of Minimum Surface Mound Slab Minimum

movement movement suction edge distance movement movement length edge distance
SiteClass Ys(mm) Ym(mm) H5(m) e(m) Ys(mm) Ym(mm) L(m) e(m)
S 0 0 1.2 0.15 0 0 6.0 0.60*

1.5 0.19 7.5 0.60*
9.0 0.60*
10 7 1.2 0.34 10 7 6.0 0.88*

1.5 0.38 7.5 0.88*
9.0 0.88*
20 14 1.2 0.54 20 14 6.0 1.16*

1.5 0.58 7.5 1.16*
9.0 1.16*
30 21 1.5 0.77 30 21 6.0 1.20

1.8 0.81 7.5 1.44*
9.0 1.44*
40 28 1.5 0.97 40 28 6.0 1.20

1.8 1.00 7.5 1.50
9.0 1.72*
H 50 35 1.8 1.20 50 35 6.0 1.20

2.1 1.23 7.5 1.50
9.0 1.80
60 42 1.8 1.39 60 42 6.0 1.20

2.1 1.43 7.5 1.50
9.0 1.80
70 49 1.8 1.59 70 49 6.0 1.20

2.1 1.62 7.5 1.50
9.0 1.80
Ym
* Limitvalues apply (0.6
+ 0.025
Ifl 1')
REINFORCED MASONRY - Section Properties
U - -
Area
Moment
of inertia
Footing
condition
H = hogging
Shear
capacity
Moment
capacity
Description Variables A (m2) 1(m4) S sagging Vcap (kN) Meap (kN.m)
Concrete slab T= 100 mm 0.100 0.000 045

B=1000 mm
Concrete beam 0 = 300mm 0.090 0.000 226 H 38 36

S 27 14
0 = 400mm 0.120 0.000 601 H 44 50

S 38 36
D = 500mm 0.150 0.001 270 H 47 63

S 41 46
D 600mm 0.180 0.002 300 H 48 77

S 45 67
0=700mm 0.210 0.003 740 H 48 91

S 55 141
No openings in wall, W= 190 mm

plus 300 x 300 beam R1=4-N12 0.546 0.150000 HandS 125 210
290 t Bond beam

reinforcement.
W= 190 mm
R14-N16 0.546 0.150000 HandS 142 372
2400
Masonry wall
W= 140 mm
R1-2-N12 0.426 0.111000 HandS 97 105 pn
W= 140 mm
300 = 2-N16 0.426 0.111 000 H and S 108 187
- 3-L8TM
I
Door opening in wall, W= 190 mm
plus 300x300 beam R1 =4-N12 0.145 0.000 285 HandS 39 296
29 Bond beam W= 190 mm

S reinforcement, R1=4-N16 0.145 0.000285 HandS 41 529
2400 W140mm
R1= 2-N 12 0.131 0.000270 HandS 35 148
Door opening
W= 140 mm
300
R1=2-N16 0.131 0.000270 HandS 36 265
3-L8TM
Window opening in wall, W= 190 mm

plus 300 x 300 beam R1 = 4-N 12 0.354 0.021 400 H and S 57 296
290 Bond beam W= 190 mm

reinforcement, R1 = 4-N16 0.354 0.021 400 H and S 59 539
1300 R1
Window W= 140 mm
opening R1=2-N12 0.285 0.015800 HandS 45 148
1100
W= 140 mm
300 R1=2-N16 0.285 0.015 800 HandS 46 269
3-L8TM
WORKED EXAMPLE
Mortar joints
demonstrating the origin of the Standard Designs which Minimum cement content 300 kg/m3
Although comprehensive in its treatment of AS 2870, the N12, or N16 as noted Fabric and trench mesh as noted.
worked example is not intended to analyze or design Concrete slabs-on-ground and footings
Strength grade N20
Maximum slump 80 mm
All design and detailing shall comply with the require- Maximum aggregate size 20 mm.
ments of AS 2870 and, where appropriate, AS 3700.

Masonry properties
Height 190 mm
cn
C Length 390 mm
0 Face-shell bedded
0
LL Minimum face-shell thickness,
= 25 mm for 90-mm, 110-mm and 140-mm units
iii Minimum characteristic compressive strength,

'uc =15 MPa
= 0.8 MPa
Width 110 mm
Height 76 mm
Length 230 mm
Fully bedded
t'uc =10 MPa
= 0.8 MPa
DESIGN BRIEF BEARING CALCULATIONS
For the house plan shown below, design the slabs Internal slabs without walls
and beams for alternative types of superstructures, P 1.OPLslab+O.SIL
using different methods, as follows: = (1.0 x 25 x 0.1 x 1.3) + (0.5 x 1.5)
= 4.0 kN/m2
I Design for unreinforced masonry superstructure
using deemed-to-comply provisions of AS 2870 External walls
Figure 3.1 P = 1.0 PLslab + wall + footing + roof 0.5 IL
= 1.0[(25 x 0.1 x 0.5) + (2.5 x 1.72) +
2 Design for reinforced masonry superstructure
(0.3x0.3x25)+( 1.0 x 8.0
using deemed-to-comply provisions of AS 2870 2
Figure 3.1 Note 12 (0.5 x 1.5 x 0.5)
= 12.2 kN/m
3 Design for reinforced or unreinforced super-
structure by modifying standard designs using Internal walls

AS 2870 Clause 4.5 P = 1.0 PL slab + wall + footing + 0.5 IL
= l.0[(25 x 0.1 x 0.7) + (2.5 x 1.39) +
4 Design for unreinforced masonry superstructure (0.3 x 0.3 x 25)] + (0.5 x 1.5 x 0.7)
using AS 2870 Clause 4.4 = 8.0 kN/m
5 Design for reinforced masonry superstructure Total factored loads

using AS 2870 Clause 4.7 Pt = (40 x 12.2) + (33 x 8.0) + (187 x 4.0)
= l500kN
rem vm Average bearing pressure

Bed 3 WC Bath Family Kitchen Wshop 1500
qua=
13.0x7.0
Q
= 16.5 kPa
Dining 0
I N-
Bearing pressure under external walls

Bed 2 Bed 1 Lounge Garage 12.2
que- l.OxO.3
Note: Only reinforced masonry internal walls shown
= 40.7 kPa
HOUSE PLAN
Bearing pressure under internal walls

8.0
- 1.0 x 0.3
= 27.7 kPa
Minimum permissible bearing 6.4.3

strength at working loads, under
slabs and beams, is 50 kPa OK
NOTE:
References are to AS 2870, unless stated otherwise
in i
SITE CLASSIFICATION
Using Site Classification Form
Visual Assessment of Site

What are the site dimensions and layout? S How much does the site slope? 300 mm
Are there existing buildings on site? No Are existing buildings cracked? NA
Are there buildings adjacent to the Site? Yes Are adjacent buildings cracked? No
Are there existing trees? Yes Is it intended to remove any trees? No
Is it intended to plant any trees? No Will removal or planting of trees affect moisture content? No
Is there any existing fill? No Is it intended to bench the site with cut and fill? Cut only
Required Number of Test Bore Holes

Is deep-seated foundation movement expected? ie H > 3.0
Yes Use three bore holes per site Clause 2.2.3(b)
Is the site part of a subdivision with uniform soil strata which can be determined from soil maps?
Yes Use reduced number of bore holes per site. Number of holes required? Clause 2.2.3(b)
Use one bore hole per site Clause 2.2.3(a)
Required Depth of Test Bore Holes

Is depth of design suction change, H > 2.0 m?

(In(Sydney)Gosford, Newcastle and Hunter Valley UiITh Table 2.4)
Yei Use hole depth, d = 0.75 H5
Has rock been encountered?
Yes Use hole depth, d = depth to rock
Is the classifiers opinion that further drilling is unnecessary to identify the profile?
Yes Use hole depth, d = de th specified by classifier
Use hole depth,5m
Determination of Soil Shrinkage Index, 'PS
Are laboratory tests to AS 1289.7.1.1,2 and 3 available?
Use Ips from tests Clause 2.2.3(a)
(I) No Are correlations between shrinkage index, 1p, and other clay index tests available?
C Yes Use Ips from the correlations Clause 2.2.3(b)
No Use visual tactile identification by an engineer or engineering geologist having appropriate
00 expertise and local experience to estimate soil shrinkage index, Ips Clause 2.2.3(c)
Determination of Characteristic Surface Movement, y5

Depth of crack zone: 0.33H5 to I-Is Table 2.4
In Adelaide and Melbourne = 0.75H5 or to water table
In dney Gosford, Newcastle and Hunter Valley = 0.5H5 or to water table = 0.5 x 1.5 m =
In the crac ed zone, alphj,.Q)
In thencracked zone. al,/5000 (Where z is in mm)
Instability Index. Ipc = alpha x Ips
Change in suction at soil surface, du = pF (For Sydney, du = I .5pF)
Hole Number 1:
Soil Type Depth, z Interval, Alpha Soil shrinkage Instability Suction, Ipt du dz
mm dz index, 1p index, Ipt du pF
sand 0-800
Light clay with 800 1.0 0.020 0.020 1.5 24
Heavy brown clay 800-1000 300 1.8 0.016 0.029 1.6 13
Sandy soil 1100-1500 400 - - - - -
Characteristic Surface Movement. y5 37
Determination of Site Class

Table 2.3
600 < clay (1100) < 2500 .. Class M
Omm<ys<=2Omm S
2Omm<y5<=4Omm EJ
40 mm < y < = 70 mm H Alternatively, y5 = 37 .. Class M
ys<=7Omm E
DESIGN FOR UNREINFORCED MASONRY DESIGN FOR REINFORCED MASONRY
SUPERSTRUCTURE USING DEEMED-TO-COMPLY SUPERSTRUCTURE USING DEEMED-TO-COMPLY
PROVISIONS OF AS 2870 FIGURE 3.1 PROVISIONS OF AS 2870 FIGURE 3.1 NOTE 12
Site Classification: M Site Classification: M

Walls: Articulated masonry veneer External walls: Reinforced single-leaf masonry
Internal walls: Reinforced single-leaf masonry
From AS 2870 Figure 3.1... Equivalent construction: Masonry veneer
Edge and internal beam depth Table 3.1
D = 400 mm
From AS 2870 Figure 3.1...
Bottom reinforcement Internal beams
3-Ll ITM Depth, D1 = 400 mm
Reinforcement, 3-LI 1TM
Maximum beam spacing Maximum spacing. 5.0 m
6.0 m (see also Note 3)

Slabs
Slab fabric Depth, D = 100 mm
SL72 (see also Note 2) Reinforcement, SL72
External beams
SL72
Using Figure 3.1 Note 12, external beams
may be reduced to 300 x 300 with 3-L8TM
400
reinforcement.
3-L11TM
Provide continuity at re-entrant corners and
lap internal beam reinforcement into external
k 300 300 beams
Reinforced 190-mm concrete

masonry superstructure
N12 bars @2000 crs

N20 grout
400
3-L8TM
300 300
10.17
DESIGN FOR REINFORCED OR UNREINFORCED Longitudinal Beams
MASONRY SUPERSTRUCTURE BY MODIFYING Width of beam
STANDARD DESIGNS USING AS 2870 B = 300 mm
CLAUSE 4.5
Width of slab
Check Design Parameters 4.5.1 W = 7.0
H=1.5m <3.0
Number of beams
y5=37mm OK (lOto8Omm) n=3
A=2Omm OK (5to50mm) Depthofbeam

r300 D13 x 31
8.59 = log i
Span = 13 m OK (5.0 to 25.0 m) L 12 x 7.0
D1 = 329 mm
Beam spacing = 3.0 m OK
(< 1.25 Figure 3.1)

Transverse Beams
Beam depth = 400 mm OK Width of beam
(250 to 1000 mm) B = 300 mm
Mm. depth of any beam = 400 mm x 0.7 Width of slab

= 280 mm W= 13.Om
Beam width = 300 mm OK Number of beams

(110 to 400 mm) n=5
Average load = 16.5 kPa (Just outside Depth of beam

limit of 15 kPa) r300 D13 x 51
8.59 =lo
12x 13.0]
Edge line load = 12.2 kN/m OK = 341 mm
(< 15 kNIm)
Make all beams 350 mm deep.
For Equivalent Masonry Veneer No change to reinforcement
A =20mm Table 4.1
Ys_37
A 20
= 1.85
Using Figure 4.1
log
r(B D3)
I = 8.59
12W
This value can be calculated for H < 3
using the following formula, then checked
visually from Figure 4.1
r(B D3) j (YS/A - 0.67)

lo 18.0
12W ] 2
= 8.59
DESIGN FOR UNREINFORCED MASONRY Shape factor
SUPERSTRUCTURE USING AS 2870 CLAUSE 4.4 gL
m=
a
Soil Movement/Structure Sensitivity 0.75 x 7000
Length of transverse beams 1200
L = 7000 mm = 4.4
Equivalent construction
Masonry veneer Moments and Required Stiffness
Using Mitchells tables
Permissible deflection
L For sagging, use the minimum footing specified
- 600 in AS 2870
7000 ie 300 mm x 380 mm deep with
- 600 3-L11TM and SL72 fabric
= 11.7
<20 OK Table 4.1 For hogging
( =0.89
Ys_ 37
A - 11.7 w L2 B
= 3.2
M
8n
(i-cc)
_16.5 x7.02x 13 (1-0.89)
- 8x5
Bearing Pressure Ratio = 28.9 kNm
Swell stiffness
k = 1000 kPalm wLB
2n
(i-a)
Average factored bearing pressure 16.5 x 7.0 x 13 (1 - 0.89)
w = 16.5 kPa 2x5
= 16.5 kN
Bearing pressure ratio
w 16.5 ML2
El req
ky 1000 xO.037 12A
= 0.45 28.9 x 7.02
12 xO.0117
= 10,096 kN.m2
Footing Exposure
Depth of design suction change
= 1500mm Beam Moment and Shear Capacities
Concrete cover
Depth of footing below ground CT =20 mm (To top of slab)
D 300 mm CB = 30 mm (To membrane)
Ground around the house is impermeable Beam effective width

g = 0.75 beff = 2.0 maximum for edge beams
a=H-D or 4.0 maximum for internal beams
= 1500 - 300 or half way to adjacent beams
= 1200 mm
10.19
For hogging of an edge beam FOR BENDING MOMENT:
C =20 mm Capacity reduction factor
3.5 0=0.8 AS 3600 Table 2.3
beff
= 1750 mm Area of tensile steel (8 bars)

8x3.1416x72
A
Effective depth
dia = 308 mm2
d = D - C - Transverse bars -
2
7 Yield strength of steel

= 380 - 20 -
2 fy = 500 MPa
= 349 mm 5.3.1
Characteristic strength of concrete
Effective moment of inertia = 20 MPa
I 0.045 beffd3 (0.7 + 0.3

beff Moment capacity
fA
= 0.045 x 1750 x 3493 (0.7 + 0.3 McapøfyAsd(1 _0.6fYb)
= 1.42 x mm4 308 x 349
=0.8x500x x
= 0.00142 m4 4.4(c) also 106
AS 3600 8.5.3.1
(i 0.6x500x308
20 x 300 x 349
Elastic modulus of concrete = 41.1 kNm
E = 15000 MPa > 1.2 Mcr
U)
= 15 x 106 kN/m2 = 1.2x 14.6
=17.5kNm OK
0 >28.9kNm OK
0
LL
Stiffness parameter
El 15 x 106 x 0.00142
= 21,300 kN.m2 FOR SHEAR:
> 10,096 kN.m2 OK Capacity reduction factor
0 = 0.7 AS 3600 Table 2.3
'eff
Zeff=
0.5d d0 349 AS 3600 8.2.7
0.00142 D - 380
- 0.5 x 349 = 0.92
= 0.00814m3 >0.8 OK
Tensile strength of concrete d0

13i=1.1(1.6
ft = 1.8 MPa for hogging 4.4(f)
349
=1.1(1.6
Cracking moment
Mcr = Zeff = 1.38
= 1.8 x x 0.00814 >1.1 OK
= 14.6 kNm
132 = 1.0
133 = 1.0
in )fl
V0 =0 DESIGN FOR REINFORCED MASONRY
SUPERSTRUCTURE USING AS 2870 CLAUSE 4.7
=0
Section Properties at Door Openings
)1/3
= 2 b d0 (Ast c + V0 + P
1
b d0 (i) Bond beam
Area of tensile steel
=1.38x1.Oxl.Ox 300 x 349 x
190
10 A = 2 x 110
1/3
308 x 20 = 220 mm2
190
'300 x 349 290
= 56.3 kN Effective depth 100
d= 190 mm
vus = 0 4-N 12 bars
Width
Shear capacity b = 190 mm
Vcap = 0 V AS 3600 8.2.2

= 0 (V + V) Effective moment of inertia
= 0.7 (56.3 + 0) = 0.045 b d3
=39.4kN 190
= 0.045 x 190 x
>16.5kN OK 1012
= 0.0000586 m4
= 58.6 x 10-6 m4
Elastic modulus
E = 15 000 MPa
= 15 x 106 kN/m2 4.4(c)
Stiffness parameter
El = 15 x 106 x 58.6 x 106
= 879 kNm2
100
(ii) Footing
Area of tensile steel
As = 150 mm2 300
Effective depths
k 300
db0t=300-30--- 10
= 256 mm
d0 = 300 - 20 - 7 -
= 269 mm
use 256 mm
Width
b = 300 mm
10.21
290
Effective moment of inertia
= 0.045 b d3
= 0.045 x 300 x
T
2400
= 0.000226 m4 Lever arm

= 226 x 10-6 m4 290
h = 2400 + 3200
300
Elastic modulus = 2405 mm

E = 15000 MPa
= 15 x 106 kN/m2 4.4(c) Moment capacity
M OfAth
Stiffness parameter 0.75 x 500 x 440 x 2405
EI=15x 106x226x 10-6 106
= 3396 kNm2 =396kNm
(iii) Combined stiffness

Elcom = 879 + 3396 (v) For shear
= 4275 kNm2 FOOTING:
NOTE: If the opening coincides with the = 0.7 AS 3600 Table 2.3
point of support for a cantilevering wall,
some modification of the stiffness may be Effective depth
required. See Report by Symons, MG - d0 256 mm
Strength of Masonry Wall Panels
(I)
256 AS 3600 8.2.7
D - 300
00 (iv) For bending = 0.85
U-
Capacity reduction factor >0.8 OK
0=0.75 AS3700 Table 4.1
0 NOTE: This is a little more conservative

than using AS 3600
13i=l.l(l.6
=1.1(1.6
Steel strength = 1.48

f = 500 MPa for bars in beam (and mesh) >1.1 OK
Area of tensile steel 132= 1.0

A=4x 110
= 440 mm2 33 = 1.0
NOTE: Combined reinforcement in slab V0 =0

and footing will exceed beam steel
use 440 mm2 Pv = 0
In 99
)1f3 Computer Runs
= 1 2 b d0 (Ast c + v0 + p
b d0 Site Classification: M
= 1.48 i.o i.o 300 x 256
103 Characteristic surface movement
( l50x20'/3 Ys 37 mm
'300 x 256'
=39kN Differential mound movement
Ym = 0.7 Ys F4(a)
=0
Edge distance for centre heave
Shear capacity of footing
Vcap = 0 vu AS 3600 8.2.2
e=- + -
H5
8
y
36
(y in mm)
= 0 (vuc + V) 1.5 26
+
=
= 0.7 (39 + 0) 8 36
27.3 kN =0.91 m
use 1.0 m
BOND BEAM:
Capacity reduction factor Edge distance for edge heave
=0.75 AS 3700 4.6.1
e=0.2L
2
Characteristic shear strength 26
=(0.2x 13.0) 0.6+
ms = 0.35 MPa AS 3700 4.5.4 or (0.2 x 7.0) 25
=1.4 1.64
Shear capacity of bond beam .. use 1.5 m
Vd = 0 (fms b d + A5t + fsy A8

Four computer runs using Microstran V 5.5
1035 x 190 x 190) + (17.5 x 220 have been done
=°75L 1000
= 12.4 kN Run 1
Slabs and beams complying with AS 2870
S COMBINED SHEAR STRENGTH:

Vcom = 27.3 + 12.4
Figure 3.1
External beams: 300 x 400
= 39.7 kN Internal beams: 300 x 400
NOTE: Calculations of I, M and V at Maximum deflection: 15.5 mm

wall without openings, wall with windows Differential deflection: 15.3 mm
and wall without footings would all be
similar.
Run 2
Slabs and beams complying with AS 2870
Figure 3.1 and Note 12
Reinforced masonry external walls
External beams: 300 x 300
Internal beams: 300 x 400
Maximum deflection: 3.3 mm

Differential deflection: 0.8 mm
1O.7
Run 3 Permissible deflection for masonry veneer
Same as Run 2, but with reinforced masonry (which is the equivalent of reinforced external
internal walls and internal walls) Table 3.1
L Table 4.1
L\=20 or
Maximum deflection: 3.2 mm 600
Differential deflection: 0.6 mm 7000
=20 or
600
= 117mm
Run 4
Same as Run 3, but without any internal beams All of the cases with reinforced masonry
superstructures exhibit deflections
Maximum deflection: 3.4 mm considerably less than this limit!
Differential deflection: 1.1 mm
Considerable structural advantage
Computer run samples

RAXIMUM CONDITION RINSER: 4.6380003 IT NODE: 037 DOER; 3
CASE 1: Gravity Loads
--NODE ISPLACEMUN1S--
CASE 1: Gravstv Loads
NODE X DOS? I lISP Z 01SF 0 ROTE Y ROTH Z ROTH
m a ID rod rod rod
1 .0000 .0000 -.0033 .00000 00000 .00000
2 .0000 .0000 -.0033 .00000 .00000 .00000
3 .0000. .0000 -.0033 .00000 .00000 .00000
4 .0000 .0000 -.0033 .00000 .00000 .00000
5 .0000 .0000 -.0033 .00000 .00000 .00000
6 .0000 .0000 -.0032 .00000 .00000 .00000
7 .0000 .0000 -.0032 .00000 .00000 .00000
8 .0000 .0000 - .0032 .00000 .00000 .00000
9 .0000 .0000 -.0032 .00000 .06000 .00000
16 .0000 .0000 - .0032 .00000 .00000 .00000
11 .0000 .0000 -.0032 .00000 .00000 .00000
12 .0000 .0000 -.0032 .00000 .00000 .00000
Of) 13 .0000 .0000 -.0032 .00000 .00000 .00000
04 .0000 .0000 - .0033 .00000 .00000 .00000
C Micrnsttao 5.5 Jan95 File 07.P1 Page: 1
(C) Engineering Systens 1995 Printed 16:47:02 23-JAN-97
0
0
U-
Displaced shape
Run 4 - Deflections cros Slat
IOU IM LOU 1 IOU IHI SRI
526 3,C(2L UI
10 ')fl
Crack
An unintentional plane of weakness in the structure
This glossary of technical terms relevant to Footings
which opens when subjected to the stresses
is in addition to the general Glossary given in Part B:
caused by thermal or soil movement, shrinkage,
Chapter 1. Where appropriate, the definitions have been
permanent, imposed, fire or earthquake loads. In some
expanded to give more information.
circumstances cracks may lead to unacceptable loss of
Foundation structural integrity and/or appearance.
The ground that supports the building.
Footing
The construction that transfers the loads from the
building to the foundation. The footings referred to in
this handbook are:
reinforced strip footings (independent of wall and
slab);
reinforced concrete slabs stiffened with beams;
reinforced concrete strip footings or slabs and beams
connected monolithically with reinforced hollow
concrete blockwork walls.
Articulation
Construction in which masonry walls are divided into

discrete panels to permit wall movement to take place
without the formation of cracks.
Structurally Independent Wall/Footing System
Concrete footings and masonry walls that are
structurally independent of each other. As the soil
moves, the footings cantilever (or span), resisting forces
imposed by the structurally independent walls above.
Unable to tolerate any appreciable movement, the walls
may crack. The design approach is to limit the footing
deflection and limit the deflection ratio so that any
cracks that form in the walls remain at an acceptable
width. Articulation of the walls may assist in confining
movement to areas within the wall where it is less
noticeable.
Structurally Integrated Footing/Wall Deep Beam
System
Concrete footings structurally connected to reinforced
hollow concrete blockwork walls to form a deep beam
system. As the soil moves, the footing/wall deep beams LL!
cantilever (or span), resisting the forces imposed by their
own self weight, permanent and imposed loads from
floors and roofs. The design approach is to provide
sufficient strength and stiffness in the footing/wall deep
beams to ensure that they do not crack when required
to cantilever (or span). In large buildings, articulation
of the walls may assist in confining movement to areas
within the walls where it is least noticeable. Care must
be taken to ensure that articulation does not diminish
the strength of the footing/wall deep beams in those
areas where it is required.
Movement Joint
An intentional plane of weakness built into the
structure to permit one element to move relative to
another without diminishing the structural integrity or
the aesthetics of the structure.
ifl 7
U-
(I)
C
0
0
NOTES
lfl ')Q
1077
hapter 1
Overview Contents
This chapter provides an overview of the building 1.1 INTRODUCTION
design and detailing process, using Part B (Design)
and Part C (Detailing). 1.2 DESIGN AND DETAILING PROCESS
INTRODUCTION a t12 AUSTRALIAN STANDARDS
With the increasing complexity of Australian Standards Australian Standards cover a wide number of
and Building Regulations, designers, builders and applications, including providing design rules for the
tradespeople aie either being swamped with too much structural design of masonry and masonry components.
unnecessary information or being denied the important For example, AS 3700 Masonry structures is 'deemed-
information necessary for building to-satisfy" the performance requirements set out in
the BCA. The design rules of an Australian Standard
Competitive design fees are generally too low to permit
(including AS 3700) must be comprehensive, covering
the time for thoughtful and comprehensive detailing
all common construction cases, eg unreinforced and
and specification to be performed. Too often architects
reinforced brickwork and blockwork, in all sorts of
and structural engineers provide only the overall
exposures, subject to permanent, imposed, wind and
building dimensions of a building and its components
earthquake loads. Despite a desire to make Australian
on the contract drawings, omitting the details of how
Standards "user-friendly", the requirement that they
the various components are intended to "fit together".
These drawings are often accompanied by the briefest be both comprehensive and precise mitigates against
simplicity of use.
of specifications, indicating only the principal Australian
Standards, but failing to specify even the simplest of
material property requirements. 1.1.3 DESIGN AIDS
At the other end of the building process, builders While the Building Regulations (based on the BCA)
and tradespeople, accustomed to meaningless or provide the performance requirements and the
Australian Standards provide a comprehensive means
impractical detailing expectations, simply ignore any

details or specification that are provided in the contract of satisfying those requirements, there is a need for
documents. simple, practical details and specifications that can be
used quickly and easily by designers to transfer generic
Thus it is timely for the publication of simple-to-read information into project documentation. Such design
manuals accompanied by builder-friendly details. aids may include manuals or technical notes, generic
details and specifications, design software and other
1.1.1 BUILDING REGULATIONS software. They may be available as hard copy manuals
It is the responsibility of the State Governments to or technical notes, on disk or on the internet.
determine the local policies in regards health, It is most important that these documents comply fully
amenity and safety, with the requirements of the Building Regulations and
the Australian Standards. It there are any deviations or
to enact building legislation, and controversial interpretations, they must be highlighted,
prepare associated building regulations. together with the reasons and circumstances.
The building acts and building regulations of each The origin and application of the design aids must also
state are prepared by state BCCs (Building Control be transparent.
Commissions) using a model, the BCA (Building Code
of Australia), prepared by the ABCB (Australian Building
Codes Board). Historically, state BCCs have been
effective in health and amenity issues, but have lacked
the requisite experience to tackle structural safety issues
effectively. For example, the concepts of "return period",
"probability of failure", "limit states" and "reliability
index", have not generally been within the expertise of
state policy makers. Thus structural safety issues have
devolved to Australian Standards. However, recent trends
indicate that this tendency is being reversed.
The Building Acts and Building Regulations are legal
documents, and must meet "legalistic" requirements.
Although there have been attempts at writing
"user-friendly" regulations, they are not able to
comprehensively cover the diverse range of products
and practices in use in Australia. For example, BCA
Volume 2 for domestic houses provides many 'deemed-
to-satisfy" construction details that fulfil the purpose of
the regulations, but there are many other products and
practices that are not covered.
1.1.4 PROJECT DOCUMENTATION
The principal method for communicating information
from a designer to a builder is via contract drawings
and specifications which should set out the overall
dimensions and material of the structure, together
with details showing how the various components fit
together, detailed specifications and quality control
check lists for critical elements.
1.1.5 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN BUILDING

REGULATIONS, AUSTRALIAN
STANDARDS, DESIGN AIDS AND PROJECT
DOCUM ENTATION
In general, the relationships may be summarised as
follows.
Building Regulations spell out the building
performance requirements in a general form.
Australian Standaids provide design rules, capable
of satisfying the performance requirements for the
Building Regulations.
Design and detailing aids translate the design rules
of the Australian Standards into practical generic
designs, details and specifications.
Project drawings, details and specifications (should)
provide the information necessary for all aspects
of the construction, and may draw on the generic
design and detailing aids to provide information in
an "easy-to-use" format.
DESIGN AND DETAILING
PROCESS
Step 9 - Thermal Performance
If the building is required to have a particular level of
Set out below are the design and detailing steps for the
thermal performance, design and detail using Part B:
masonry components of typical low and medium rise
Chapter 9 and detail using Part C:Chapter 3.
buildings.
Step I - Building Arrangement and Loads Step 10 - Footings and Supporting Structures
Determine the building layout, number of floors and Design and detail the supporting structures using
principal dimensions. This manual does not detail AS 3700 Concrete structures, AS 4100 Steel structures,
the steps required for determining loads, analysing a AS 2870 Residential slabs and footings and similar
structure for overall stability or designing for strength standards. Part B : Chapter 9 gives particular guidance
and serviceability of the other components, although for masonry and footings in residential buildings
some guidance is given in Part B:Chapter 1. designed to AS 2870.
Determine the required function of the masonry
components, eg:
Most masonry components are walls. Are there also
isolated piers and masonry lintels?
Are internal and external walls single-leaf masonry,
masonry veneer or cavity masonry? Are they
loadbearing or non-loadbearing? Can they be
reinforced?
Are walls require to resist out-of-plane wind loads,
earthquake loads and/or fire acting on the wall?
Are walls require to provide in-plane shear resistance
and load paths for wind loads or earthquake loads
acting on the whole building?
How are external walls to be weather-proofed?
Step 2 - Acoustics
Select the thickness of walls for acoustic considerations
using Part B: Chapter 2.
Step 3 - Robustness
Check the thickness of walls and piers for robustness
considerations using Part B:Chapter 3.
Step 4 - Fire
Design all walls and piers for fire load using Part B:
Chapter 4.
Step 5 - Vertical Loads

If the masonry is required to support vertical loads
as loadbearing walls or lintels, design using Part B:
Chapter 5 and detail using Part C: Chapter 3.
Step 6 - Horizontal Loads

Design all walls and piers for out-of-plane and in-plane
wind and earthquake loads using Part B: Chapter 6
and detail using Part C:Chapter 3. This covers masonry
walls with vertical reinforcement, mullions, bond beams,
shear walls and cormections.
Step 7 - Movement
Detail and specify control and articulation joints for
building movement using Part B:Chapter 7 and
> Part C:Chapters 2 and 3.
> Step 8 - Durability

0 Detail and specify masonry units, mortar, reinforcement,
grout and other components for the durability
requirements using Part B: Chapter 8 and Part C:
Chapters 2 and 3.
I
ILl
I
Specification Contents
This chapter provides a detailed materials and 2.1 INTRODUCTION
construction specification for concrete masonry
structures. 2.2 SPECIFICATION - MASONRY 0
4-
0
INTRODUCTION
2.1.2 BASIS OF THE SPECIFICATION
In the preparation of this specification, the following
2.1.1 BACKGROUND convention has been adopted.
Set out below is a pro-forma specification which is Overall compliance with the requirements of the BCA
intended to give guidance to designers and specifiers is required.
who wish to specify masonry and its components.
Specifications based principally on AS 3700 have
i All building construction must comply with the been drafted to provide this compliance.
relevant State Building Regulations, which are set out in
Where there is no particular AS 3700 provision and
the Building Code of Australia (BCA), Volumes I and 2
the BCA does provide an Acceptable Construction
The BCA provides for compliance to be achieved Practice solution, this has been included.
through:
Where neither AS 3700 nor BCA Acceptable
Alternative Solutions, or
Construction Practice provide solutions, reliance has
Deemed-to-Satisfy Provisions, which may
been made on a combination of current practice,
include:
engineering judgement and supplier's information.
o Acceptable Construction Manuals
(eg AS 3700), and/or 2.1.3 HOW TO USE THE SPECIFICATION
o Acceptable Construction Practice
(eg Details included within the BCA document)
The shaded notes or items indicated by a hash symbol
(e.g. # or Use exposure Table 51) should
The BCA states that compliance with Australian be considered by the specifier and then, if appropriate,
Standard AS 3700 Masonry structures is deemed to deleted from the specification, making amendments as
satisfy the requirements of the BCA. required.
The BCA Volume 2 also provides Acceptable
Construction Practice for some masonry applications.
In some cases, these differ from the details provided
in AS 3700.
For example, at the time of preparation of
this specification (September 2004), the steel
lintels permitted in BCA Volume 2 Figure 3.3.3.5
(Acceptable Construction Practice) differ from
those given in AS 3700-2001 Table 12.8.
There are other details which comply with the
requirements of AS 3700 (and therefore meet the
requirement of the BCA), but are not published in
either document.
For example, at the time of preparation of
this specification (September 2004), draft
Australian Standard AS 4773 provides lintel
tables that have been prepared in accordance
with the design requirements of AS 3700, but
extend beyond range provided in AS 3700-2001
Table 12.8. Various suppliers also provide lintel
tables complying with the design requirements
of AS 3700, but not published in that document.
There are other details that are beyond the scope
of AS 3700 and the BCA Acceptable Construction
Practice, which may meet the requirements of the
BCA through the Alternative Solutions options.
For example, some suppliers offer lintels whose
design is not based on AS 3700, but instead are
based on test results.
0')
SPECIFICATION - .0
4, MASONRY
Masonry units intended for face applications and
exposed to the weather shall have:
SCOPE - Permeability not more than 2 mm/minute
This specification covers unreinforced and reinforced - Efflorescence Potential of Nil or Slight
masonry used in the walls and piers of the building. - Colour and texture within an agreed range.
Masonry units intended for exposure to lateral loads
AUSTRALIAN STANDARDS in excess of 0.5 kPa shall have a Characteristic
All components and installation shall comply with Lateral Modulus of Rupture not less than 0.8 MPa.
the Building Code of Australia (BCA) and the relevant Concrete masonry units shall have a Mean
Australian Standards, including AS 3700 and the Coefficient of Residual Drying Contraction not more
standards referred to therein.
than 0.6 mm/rn.
MATER IALS Clay masonry units shall have a Mean Coefficient of

Expansion not more than 0.8 mm/m.
Masonry Units
Unless specified elsewhere in the documents, masonry Mortar
units shall be concrete units complying with Cement shall be Type GP portland cement or GB
AS/NZS 4455 and the following requirements. blended cement complying with AS 3972.
Masonry units shall comply with Dimensional Lime shall be hydrated building lime complying with
S AS 1672.1 unless specified otherwise.
Category DWI (determined using AS/NZS 4456.3

Method A), except that split or irregular faces may Water thickener shall be methyl cellulose based.
be DWO Sand shall be well graded and free from salts, vegetable
# Concrete units usually comply with Dimensional matter and impurities. Sand shall not contain more
Category DW4 (determined using AS/NZS 4456.3 than 10% of the material passing the 75 micron sieve.
Method B), which is more stringent than for DWI. Sand within the following grading limits complies with
Masonry units shall meet General Purpose Salt this requirement and is deemed suitable for concrete
masonry.
Attack Resistance Grade, except for applications
requiring Exposure Grade in accordance with Sieve Percent Passing
AS 3700 Table 5.1 or Table 12.2. 4.76 mm 100
Applications requiring Exposure Grade are:
2.36 mm 95- 100
saline wetting or drying,
aggressive soils, 1.18 mm 60-100
severe marine environments, 600 pm 30- 100
saline or contaminated water including tidal or
splash zones, or within 1 km of a industry 300 pm 10-50
producing chemical pollutants. 150 pm 0-10
Masonry units shall have a Characteristic 75 pm 0-4
Compressive Strength not less than a value specified
by the Engineer. In the absence of such specification,
masonry units shall have Characteristic Compressive
Strengths not less than the following values.
Minimum Characteristic Compressive Strength of
Masonry Units1
Solid, cored Notes

Hollow
Application or horizontally 1 Values of minimum characteristic compressive strength
units2
cored units3 specified by the Engineer over-ride the values given in
this table. Designers and specifiers should check with the
Reinforced masonry 15.0 MPa4 - manufacturers the availability of particular strength grades.
2 For hollow units, compressive strength is measured using
Loadbearing masonry 15.0 MPa4 10.0 MPa face shell bedding.
3 For solid, cored or horizontally cored units, compressive
Non-loadbearing masonry 4.5 MPa 3.0 MPa
strength is measured using full bedding.
except as listed below
4 AS 3700 Section 12 permits the use of 12 MPa units for
Non-Ioadbearing masonry 3.0 MPa 2.0 MPa5 reinforced hollow masonry in small buildings. However,
15 MPa units are commonly available and form the basis of
for internal walls (subject
many design charts in common use.
only to lateral loads less
5 AS 3700 Section 12 requires solid, cored and horizontally-
than 0.5 kPa) and built
cored units for use in small buildings to have a minimum
on stiff concrete slabs characteristic strength of 3.0 MPa. Therefore units with a
with deflection less than strength of 2.0 MPa do not meet this requirement and may
spa n/ 1000 not be used in small buildings as defined in AS 3700
Section 12
For general applications (except as listed for M4 or M2), Joint Material
Type M3 mortar shall be used. Type M3 mortar shall Backing rod for control joints, expansion joints and
consist by volume of: articulation loints shall be expanded polystyrene tube or
1 part GP or GB cement, 1 part lime, 6 parts sand bead.
(water thickener optional) Expansion material shall be compressible.
1 GP or GB cement, 5 parts sand plus Joint sealant shall be gun-grade, multi-purpose
water thickener polyurethane sealant
For the applications listed below, Type M4 mortar shall # Intumescent seals shall be acrylic co-polymer
be used. Type M4 mortar shall consist by volume of: sealant capable of providing the requisite fire
I part GP or GB cement, 0.5 part lime, 4.5 parts sand performance as specified in the drawings of BCA
(water thickener optional) as appropriate.
1 part GP or GB cement, 4 parts sand plus Control joints and articulation joints shall incorporate
water thickener de-bonding tape.
1 part GP or GB cement, 0-0.25 parts lime, Damp Proof Course
3 parts sand (water thickener optional)
Metal and metal-cored damp-proof courses (DPC5) shall
Elements in interior environments subject to saline not be used in locations with saline ground water or
wetting and drying subject to rising salt damp.
Elements below a damp-proof course or in contact Damp-proof-courses (DPCs) shall consist of one of the
with ground in aggressive soils following options.

Elements in severe marine environments a material complying with AS/NZS 2904
Elements in saline or contaminated water embossed black polyethylene film of high-impact
including tidal splash zones resistance and low-slip, with a nominal thickness
Elements within 1 km of an industry producing of 0.5 mm prior to embossing, and meeting the
chemical pollutants. requirements of Clause 7.6 of AS/NZS 2904
For clay masonry only in the applications listed below, polyethylene-coated metal, that has an aluminium
Type M2 mortal may be used. Type M2 mortar shall core, not less than 0.1 mm thick, is coated both sides
consist by volume of: with bitumen adhesive enclosed in polyethylene film
I part GP or GB cement, 2 parts lime, 9 parts sand not less than 0.1 mm thick on each face, and has a
Elements in a mild environment nominal total thickness of not less than 0.5 mm prior
to embossing
Elements in an interior environments above a
damp-proof course and enclosed within a building bitumen-impregnated materials of not less than
except during construction, 2.5 mm thickness, that meet the requirements of
Clause 7.5 of AS/NZS 2904, when used in walls that
Elements above the damp-proof course in non
marine exterior environments, are not higher than 7.8 m above the level of the DPC
Elements above the damp-proof course in other termite shields (with no penetrations) continuous
exterior environments, with a waterproof coating, throughout the wall or pier.
properly flashed junctions with other building Note:
elements and a top covering (roof or coping) Refer BCA Vol 2 Clause 3.3.4.4.
protecting masonry.
In South Australia, damp-proof courses and flashings
Elements below a damp-proof course or in contact shall consist of:
with ground, that are protected from water ingress
embossed black polyethylene film meeting the
by an impermeable membrane
requirements of Clause 7.6 of AS/NZS 2904
Note:
polyethylene-coated metal meeting the requirements
BCA Volume 2 Clause 3.3.1.6 and Table 3.3.1.2 is more
restrictive than the AS 3700 requirements llsted above. of Clause 7,4 of AS/NZS 2904
In particular,
bitumen-impregnated materials of not less than
2.5 mm thickness, meeting the requirements of
the exposure conditions are less descriptive, Clause 7.5 of AS/NZS 2904, when used in walls that
I part GP or GB cement, 0-0.25 parts lime, 3 parts are not higher than 7.8 m above the level of the DPC.
sand is not listed, and
Note:
mortars containing methyl cellulose water thickener Refer BCA Vol 2 Clause SA 3.3.4.4.
are listed only for concrete masonry.
Flashings Wall Ties
Flashings shall comply with AS/NZS 2904. Wall ties shall comply with AS/NZS 2669.1 and the
Metal flashings shall not be used in locations that are following schedule.
subject to rising salt damp. For the applications listed below, ties shall be
Metal flashings shall be compatible with the materials galvanised steel or polymer designated R2 or greater.
with which they are in contact, and shall not give rise Elements in a mild environment
to electrolytic action. If there is potential for electrolytic Elements in an interior environments above a damp-
action to occur, flashings shall be isolated by inert proof course and enclosed within a building except
materials.
during construction
Flashings intended to hold their Shape shall be
Elements above the damp-proof course in non-marine
manufactured from rigid material. (e.g. metal-cored
exterior environments,
material)
Elements above the damp-proof course in other
Flashing in Concealed Locations (e.g. cavity flashings)
shall be: exterior environments, with a waterproof coating,
properly flashed junctions with other building
Uncoated annealed lead having a mass not less than
elements and a top covering (roof or coping)
10 kg/rn2 in lengths not exceeding 1.5 m, but shall
protecting masonry
not be used on any roof that is used to catch potable
water; Elements below a damp-proof course or in contact
S with ground, that are protected from water ingress by

Uncoated copper having a mass not less than

an impermeable membrane.
2.8 kg/rn2 and having a thickness of 0.3 to 0.5 mm;
In this application, the BOA Vol 2 Clause Table
Bitumen-coated metal (normally aluminium) with a 3.3.3.1 permits the use of ties manufactured
total coated thickness of 0.6 mm to 1.0 mm; from Z600 galvanised sheet steel, or sheet-steel ties
Zinc-coated steel with a thickness not less than 0.6 galvanised after manufacture with 300 g/m2 of zinc
mm; or on each side.
Embossed/quilted polyethylene sheet with an average For the applications listed below, ties shall be stalnless
thickness not less than 0.5 mm steel or polymer ties designated R3 or greater.
Flashings in Exposed Locations (e.g. flashings from the Elements in interior environments that are subject to
roof to masonry wall) shall be: non-saline wetting and drying
Uncoated annealed lead having a mass not less than Elements below the damp-proof course in contact
20 kg/rn2 in lengths not exceeding 1.5 m, but shall with non-aggressive soils
not be used on any roof that is used to catch potable Elements in marine environments
water:
Elements in fresh water.
Uncoated copper having a mass not less than
In a marine environment (1 km or more but less than
2.8 kg/rn2 and having a thickness of 0.3 to 0.5 mm; 10 km from breaking surf; or 100 m or more but less
Bitumen-coated metal (normally aluminium) with a than 1 km from salt water not breaking surf) the
total coated thickness of 0.6 m.m to 1.0 mm; or BCA Vol 2 Clause Table 3.3.3.1 permits the use of
sheet-steel ties galvanised after manufacture with
Zinc-coated steel of thickness not less than 0.6 mm.
470 g/m2 of zinc on each side, or galvanised-wire ties
Note: with 470 g/m2 of zinc coating. The other applications
Refer BCA Vol 2 Clause SA 3.3,4.6 and Table 3.3.4.1. are not specifically mentioned in the BOA Volume 2.
Termite Barrier For the applications listed below, ties shall be stainless
Termite barriers shall comply with the requirements of steel or polymer ties designated R4 or greater.
AS 3660.1.
Elements in interior environments subject to saline
Slip-joint material wetting and drying
Slip-joint material shall comply with the following
Elements below a damp-proof course or in contact
requirements. Metal slip-joint materials shall not be
used in locations that are subject to rising salt damp. with ground in aggressive soils
Bitumen-coated aluminium Elements in severe marine environments.
Embossed polyethylene In a severe marine environment (less than 1 km

from breaking surf; or less than 100 m from salt
Polyethylene- and bitumen-coated aluminium. water not breaking surf) the BOA Vol 2 Clause
Table 3.3.3.1 permits the use of ties manufactured
from 316 or 316L stainless steel, or ties manufactured
from engineered polymer. The other applications are
not specifically mentioned in the BOA Volume 2.
For the applications listed below, ties shall be stainless Extendible masonry ties for control joints and
steel or polymer ties designated R5. articulation joints shall restrain the wall against
Elements in saline or contaminated water including out-of-plane movement, but permit in-plane movement
tidal splash zones such as expansion and contraction. Extendible masonry
ties shall be capable of correct operation, even when
Elements within 1 km of an industry producing misaligned by up to 10 mm over the length of the tie.
chemical pollutants.
Within heavy industrial areas the BCA Vol 2 Clause
Table 3.3.3.1 permits the use of ties manufactured
from 316 or 316L stainless steel, or ties manufactured
from engineered polymer. The other application is not
specifically mentioned in the BCA Volume 2.
Wall ties shall comply with the following schedule from
AS 3700 based on the classifications set out in
AS 2699.1.
Type A cavity ties Type A veneer ties

Vertical spacing, 600 mm max Vertical spacing, 600 mm max
Type of loading Any wall height Wall height 2.4 m Wall height 3.0 m
Horizontal spacing, mm Horizontal spacing, mm Horizontal spacing, mm
Wind Earthquake
classification design category 300 450 600 450 600 450 600
Ni Hi L1 L1 M2 L2 L2 L2 L2
N2 Hi, H2, H3 L1 M2 L2 L2 [2 M3
N3 Hi, H2, H3 M3 H3 L1 M2 M2
Cl Hi, H2, H3 M M H M M M M
N4 Hi, H2, H3 M H H M M M H
C2 Hi, H2, H3 M H H M H H H
N5, C3 Hi, H2, H3 H H H H H H H
N6, C4 Hi, H2, H3 H H H H H H H
L = Light duty Type A ties M = Medium duty Type A ties H = Heavy duty Type A ties
Notes:
i Not permitted under ECA Vol 2 Clause 3.3.3.2 and Figure 3.3.3.1. Although permitted by AS 3700 Section 12, the use of these
ties may not be appropriate.
2 Permitted under BOA Vol 2 Clause 3.3.3.2 and Figure 3.3.3.1.
3 Heavier duty than required by BCA Vol 2 Clause 3.3.3.2 and Figure 3.3.3.1.
4 Ties that are not marked 1, 2 or 3 are beyond the scope of BOA Vol 2 Clause 3.3.3.2 and Figure 3.3.3.1.
Acoustic Isolation Ties

Acoustic isolation ties, intended to acoustically isolate
one leaf of masonry from another, shall comply with
AS 2699.1 and AS 3700 as noted above, in addition to
providing the specified sound attenuation.
Joint Reinforcement
For external walls, for applications requiring structural
enhancement of wall strength or for significant crack
control, joint reinforcement shall be Grade 316 austenitic
stainless steel, 6 mm diameter (or 8 mm or 10 mm for
heavy duty applications in wide joints).
For non-structural applications in protected internal
walls, external walls, joint reinforcement shall be
stainless steel (as per external / structural applications)
or two 3.0 mm galvanised wires joined at intervals by
cross wires.
Steel Lintels and Arch Bars For the applications listed below, steel lintels and arch
Steel lintels and arch bars shall comply with AS 3700 bars shall be designated R4 or greater.
Tables 5.2, 12.8 and 12.9 and AS/NZS 2669.3 as defined Elements in interior environments subject to saline
in the following schedule.
wetting and drying
Note:
Although most lintels are not below a damp-proof
with ground in aggressive soils
course or "in contact with ground', these cases have
been included in the schedule for completeness and Elements in severe marine environments.
because it is possible for them to occur. For the applications listed below, steel lintels and arch
For the applications listed below, steel lintels and arch bars shall be designated R5.
bars shall be designated R2 or greater. Elements in saline or contaminated water including
Elements in a mild environment tidal splash zones
Elements in an interior environments above a damp- Elements within 1 km of an industry producing
proof course and enclosed within a building except chemical pollutants.
during construction In External applications in heavy industrial areas
Elements above the damp-proof course in non-marine (Classified "Severe"), BCA Vol 2 Clause Table
exterior environments, 3.4.4.2 permits the use of lintels that are hot-dip
galvanised to 600 g/m2. The other application is
Elements above the damp-proof course in other
not specifically mentioned in the BCA Volume 2.
exterior environments, with a waterproof coating,

properly flashed junctions with other building
elements and a top covering (roof or coping)
protecting masonry
with ground, that are protected from water ingress by
an impermeable membrane.
In Internal applications 1 km or more from
breaking surf or 100 m or more from salt water
not subject to breaking surf; or non-heavy
industrial areas (Classified 'Moderate"), BOA
Vol 2 Clause Table 3.4.4.2 permits the use of
lintels without specific protection.
For the applications listed below, steel lintels and arch
bars shall be designated R3 or greater.
Elements in interior environments that are subject to
non-saline wetting and drying
Elements below the damp-proof course in contact
S with non-aggressive soils
Elements in marine environments
Elements in fresh water.
In External applications 1 km or more from
breaking surf or 100 m or more from salt water
not subject to breaking surf (Classified "Moderate"),
BOA Vol 2 Clause Table 3.4.4.2 permits the
following protection:
2 coats alkyd primer, or
2 coats alkyd gloss, or
Hot dip galvanised to 300 g/m2, or
Hot dip galvanised to 100 g/m2 plus 1 coat
solvent-based vinyl primer or I coat vinyl gloss
or alkyd.
Maximum Opening for Steel Lintels and Arch Bars (mm)1'2
Load Type E1°
Load Type A6 Load Type B7 Load Type C8 Load Type D9 Supporting
Arch bar/lintel Supporting Supporting Tiled Supporting Supporting Brickwork Only
size masonry only Roof Metal Roof Timber Floor (up to 3.0 m)
75x8FMS 640 or 490 250 640

100x 10 EMS 820 or 610 250 250 250k 820
90x90x6 EA 3060 or 3010k 1550 or 2050 t930 or 2050 1680 or 1570 2640
90x90x8 EA 3310 or 3010 1670 or 2170 2100 or 2170 1820 or 1810k 2800
lOOx 100x6 EA 3400 or 3130 1730 or 2290 2160 or 2290 1870 or 1810 2870
lOOx 100x8EA 3660 or 3370 1870 or 2410 2340 or 2410 2020 or 1930 304O
l5Ox9Ox8UA 4200 or 4210 2710 or 337Q4 3380 or 3370 2840 or 2770 3920
150x 100x 10 hA 433Q4 3490 3610 3010k

150 UB 14.0 4200 3140 3840 3270 4200
150 UB 18.0 4200 3480 4140 3590 4200

180 (JB 22.2 4200 4000 4200 4050 4200
Notes:
I The spans tabulated are clear opening widths, To determme the overall length of a lintel, add at least 300 mm to the clear
opening, thus providing at least 150 mm bearing length at each end.
2 For openings up to 1000 mm, the required bearing length may be reduced to 100 mm at each end,
3 Opening widths marked '' are from AS 3700 Table 12.8.
4 Opening widths marked " are from BCA Volume 2 Figure 3.3.3.5.
S Opening widths marked are additional to those from AS 3700 Section 12 and are calculated in accordance with AS 3700.
They are contained in draft Australian Standard AS 4773.
6 Load Type A applies to a lintel supporting a masonry leaf up to 600 mm high without roof or floor loads.
7 Load Type B applies to a lintel supporting up to 600 mm of masonry and a tiled roof up to 6.6 metres load width.
8 Load Type C applies to a lmtel supporting up to 600 mm of masonry and a metal roof up to 6.6 metres load width.
9 Load Type D applies to a lintel supporting a masonry leaf over 2100 loin high with or without tiled roof or metal roof up to
6.6 metres load width and/or timber floor up to 3.0 metres load width.
10 Load Type E applies to a lintel supporting a masonry leaf up to 3000 mm high without roof or floor loads.
11 The BCA Volume 2 Figure 3.3.3.5 values are limited to maximum roof span of 10.0 m and N3 fW4l) wind classification rather
than the limits imposed by AS 3700.
Reinforced Concrete Lintels Steel Mullions

Reinforced concrete lintels shall comply with AS 3600 Steel mullions used to provide resistance to wind and
and the design criteria set out in AS 3700 Appendix J. earthquake loads in masonry walls shall comply with
Reinforced Masonry Lintels the following standards:
Reinforced masonry lintels shall comply with AS 3700, Strength requirements:
including Section 8 and Appendix J. For applications AS 3700 Table 12.6 for loads specified in AS 4055
in external walls, reinforcement shall be Grade 316 and AS 1170.4; or
austenitic stainless steel, 6 mm diameter (or B mm or AS 4100 for loads specified in AS/NZS 1170.2 and
10 mm for heavy-duty applications in wide joints). AS 1170.4
Anchorages Durability requirements:
Anchorages shall comply with the requirement of AS 2699.2 and AS 3700 Table 12.2 or 5.1 as
the BCA Clause 3.3.3.3 and AS 2699.2. Mechanical
appropriate.
expansion shall not be used where the expansion action
is likely to damage the masonry.
CONSTRUCTION Mortar joints in solid or cored backup or non-face
masonry shall be fully-bedded and flush-jointed.
Unreinforced Masonry Construction
The following shall be built into the masonry in Mortar joints in hollow blockwork, shall be face-shell-
accordance with the drawings. bedded and shall be ironed, unless a flush joint is
specified for aesthetic reasons.
Damp-proof-course shall:
be placed under walls to provide a continuous damp- Weep holes shall be built into the external leaf of
cavity walls or veneer walls at centres not exceeding
proof barrier around the building
1.2 metres in the course immediately above a DPC or
be lapped not less than 150 mm at joints flashing, except where the head or sill opening is less
project through the entire width of the masonry and than 1 0 metre wide
project beyond the external face of the masonry In masonry veneer construction, a gap, in accordance
be stepped at changes of floor level with schedule below, shall be left between the timber
frame and the top of the masonry, and at window sills,
be positioned (if if applicable) under the coping of to accommodate timber shrinkage.
any parapet more than 300 mm above adjoining roof
cladding Minimum Clearances (mm)
Location in
be positioned (if if applicable) in any chimney stacks, timber- framed Unseasoned Other timber
150 mm to 300 mm above the highest junction of the buildings hardwood frame frame
roof and chimney Sills of lower or
be at least 75 mm above finished surface level of single-storey windows 10 5

adjacent paved, concreted or landscaped areas that
Roof overhangs of
slope away from the wall if
single-storey buildings 16 8
be at least 50 mm above finished paved or concreted
Sills of second-storey
areas sloping at least 50 mm over the first 1 m from
windows 20 10
the building and protected from the direct effects of
the weather by a carport, verandah or similar if Roof overhangs of
two-storey buildings 24 12
be at least 150 mm above the adlacent finished
ground in all other cases.
Flashings shall Control Joints and Articulation Joints
be fixed with clouts to timber studs or built into an Vertical control joints or articulation loints at least
inner leaf of masonry as applicable 10 mm wide shall be built into unreinforced masonry at
the following locations:
be built into the external leaf of walls exposed to
centres not exceeding the following in straight
weather, extending across the cavity,
continuous walls without openings:
be turned up 150 mm and nailed tc the frame or For Class A and S sites - Articulation is not required
built 30 mm into an inner leaf of masonry, For Class M, H, M-D and H-D sites -
extend 100 mm past the end of openings unless they External masonry face finish,
are protected by an overhang. rendered or painted 7.0 m
preferably have the ends of flashings turned up to Internal masonry sheeted
prevent leakage. and/or face finished 6.0 m
Termite barriers shall be installed in accordance with Internal masonry rendered
AS/NZS 3660.1 and/or painted 5.0 m
Slip joint material shall be placed between unreinforced at not more than 5 metre centres in a wall with
masonry walls and any concrete slab. openings more than 900 mm x 900 mm, and
Wall ties shall be installed in accordance with AS 3700 positioned in line with one edge of the opening
One layer of joint reinforcement shall be incorporated at the position where a wall changes height by more
into concrete or calcium silicate masonry at points of than 20%
potential cracking such as at the corners of door or at a change in thickness of a wall
window openings.
at control joints or construction joints in supporting
Lintels and arch bars shall be built in over openings in slabs
excess of 1.0 metre
at the junctions of walls constructed of different
Anchorages shall be installed at locations specified on masonry materials
the drawings and in accordance with the BCA Vol 2
Clause 3.3.3.3. at deep rebates
Mortar joints shall be 10 mm thick. at a distance from all corners not less than 500 mm
and not greater than 3000 mm.
Mortar loints in solid or cored face masonry shall
be fully-bedded. Joints shall be as specified on the
drawings.
At the time of publication, these were the ADDITIONAL REQUIREMENTS FOR REINFORCED
requirements of AS 3700. However, draft AS 4773 MASONRY CONSTRUCTION (EXCLUDING
includes the following provision....not less than RETAINING WALLS)
470 mm for cavity walls or 230 mm for veneer
walls and not greater than 4500 mm, The designer MATERIALS
should check whether these requirements have been Additional Requirements for Reinforced Concrete
amended. Blocks
For control joints or articulation joints in cavity walls Concrete blocks for reinforced masonry shall have a
(ie not in veneer walls), extendible masonry ties shall be minimum characteristic compressive strength of 15 MPa
built into every fourth course. based on the face-shell width.
Where an articulation joint is adjacent to a door or Note: AS 3700 Section 12 permits the use of 12 MPa
window frame, a 10-mm gap shall be provided between units for reinforced hollow masonry in small buildings.
the edge of the frame and the masonry to allow for However, 15 MPa units are commonly available and form
movement. the basis of many design charts in common use.
Control joints and articulation joints, shall be 10 mm Reinforcement
wide and shall consist of a polystyrene backing rod and Reinforcement shall comply with AS/NZS 4671 and shall
a polyurethane material gunned into the joint to form a be:
10 mm x 10 mm flexible seal. The backing rod shall be Deformed bars - 500 MPa, normal ductility (N)
placed into the masonry at a depth, which permits the
Square fabric, rectangular fabric and trench mesh -

finish of the control joints to match the mortar joints
500 MPa, low (L) or normal (N) ductility ribbed wires
Articulation and control joints shall not be placed
Fitments - 500 MPa, low (L) or normal (N) ductility
adjacent to arches. Control joints in concrete masonry
arches shall be saw cut to half the depth of the ribbed wires
masonry unit and positioned at the centre of the arch. Round bar (eq R250 N10 dowels) - 250 MPa round
Concrete Grout
Concrete grout shall have:
a minimum portland cement content of 300 kg/m3;
a maximum aggregate size of 10 mm;
sufficient slump to completely fill the cores; and
a minimum compressive cylinder strength of 20 MPa.
Accessories
Accessories for reinforced concrete masonry shall comply
with the BCA and AS 3700.
CONSTRUCTION
All construction of reinforced concrete masonry shall
comply with AS 3700.
Vertical steel reinforcement shall be tied using tie wire
to steel starter bars through clean-out holes in each
reinforced core and fixed in position at the top of the
wall by plastic clips or template. Starter bars shall be
tied into position to provide the specified lap above the
top surface of the footing. The starter bars shall be held
in position on the centre line of a reinforced blockwork
wall by a timber member or template and controlled
within a tolerance of +,- 5 mm through the wall and
--, 50 mm along the wall.
Horizontal steel may be laid in contact with rebated

webs of Double U or H blocks. It shall be held in
position by steel ties or plastic clips. Cover to horizontal
steel in lintel blocks shall be maintained by the use of
wheel type plastic clips.
The minimum cover to the inside face of the block shall
be 20 mm, except where specified otherwise or 30 mm
is required by AS 3700 Tables 5.1 or 12.2.
.,) 1r
In severe marine environments, saline or contaminated INSPECTIONS AND TESTS
water including tidal and splash zones, and within I
All new work shall remain open until it has been
km of an industry in which chemical pollutants are
inspected and approved by the Builder. The following
produced, the minimum cover to the inside face of the
inspections shall be performed.
block shall be 30 mm.
Note:
AS 3700 Tables 5.1 and 12.2 and Clauses 10.7.2.5 and
12.2 permit lesser cover in some applications.
However, covers less than 20 mm are generally less
practical and could lead to honey-combing of the
grout.
Control joints shall be built into reinforced concrete
masonry at all points of potential cracking and at the
locations shown on the drawings. The spacing of control
joints should not exceed 16 metre.
The spacing of control joints may be increased in
reinforced masonry walls meeting the following criteria
Consisting of at least 190 mm hollow concrete units,
and
Built less than 3 metres high, and

Incorporating a top reinforced bond beam, and
Incorporating N16 horizontal reinforcement at not
greater than 400 mm centres
On a soil of type A or S Site Classifications in
accordance with AS 2870, and
With a reinforced concrete footing of adequate
stiffness.
No control joints are required for single-leaf, partially-
reinforced masonry for houses as defined in AS 3700
Section 12.
Item or Product Inspection Required Accept Criteria Hold/Witness

Masonry units
Type and Grade Spot check * As specified Hold
Dimensions Spot check * As specified Hold
Strength Spot check * As specified Hold
Mortar
Mix Spot check As specified Hold
Bond strength Not required unless mix suspect As per AS 3700 (0.2 MPa) Witness
Termite barrier Visual In position Hold
Flashings and DPCs Visual spot check In position Hold
Control Joints Visual spot check As specified Hold
Joint reinforcement Visual spot check In position Witness
Ties Visual spot check As specified Witness
Lintels Visual spot check As specified Witness
HD Bolts and straps Visual spot check As specified Witness
Cleaning Visual As specified Witness
Reinforcement (if applicable)

Type and diameter Spot check As specified Hold
Position Visual As specified Hold
Laps Spot check As specified Hold
* Delivery docket
Note:
This specification is available in RTF format on the enclosed CD-ROM (Part C:Appendix A) as:
2-Speciuication(Chapter2)/SpecText.rtf
S
Contents
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 LINTELS
Reinforced masonry lintels
Steel Iintels and arch bars
3.3 VERTICAL REINFORCEMENT AND

MULLIONS
Vertically-reinforced masonry
Galvanised steel mullions
Composite masonry mullions
3.4 BOND BEAMS
3.5
SHEAR WALLS AND CONNECTIONS

Reinforced shear walls
Anchorage at the masonry/concrete
interface
3.6 CONTROL JOINTS
3.7 THERMAL PERFORMANCE
3.8 ANCILLARY DETAILS

Ties
Slip joints
Window frames in different materials
Footings
Corner details for various block
combinations
Intersection details for various block
combinations
Engaged piers
Built-in columns
Flexible wall-to-column connections
Installation of services.
Detailing
This chapter provides detailing requirements
for typical building components and is a visual
reference to the CAD Details contained on the
CD-ROM in the Appendix.
INTRODUCTION LI NTELS
Standard Details 3.2.1 REINFORCED-MASONRY LINTELS

Typical details are shown, along with explanatory notes
Lintel Construction
where necessary, for the following components.
Reinforced-masonry lintels can be constructed using
Lintels, including reinforced-masonry lintels, steel U-shaped lintel blocks (eg 2012, 2013, 1512 or 1513
lintels and arch bars. blocks).
Vertical reinforcement and mullions, covering A two-block-high lintel can be constructed using
vertically-reinforced masonry, galvanised steel double-U blocks (eg 2091 or 1591) or H blocks (eg 2048
mullions and composite masonry mullions. or 1548) as the top course.
Bond beams of reinforced masonry If knock-out bond-beam blocks (eg 2020 or 1520) are
Shear walls and connections covering reinforced used as the top course, provision must be made for
supporting the horizontal reinforcement off the webs.
masonry shear walls and anchorage at the masonry/
concrete interface. Number of Reinforcing Bars
In 190-mm blockwork, it is possible to use either one
Control joints for crack control in buildings
bar, set in the centre of the wall, or two bars, one in
Thermal performance showing typical wall details each face.
equivalent to the thermal information in the Design In 140-mm blockwork, only one horizontal bar should be
Section of this Manual (Part B: Chapter 9). used.
Ancillary details including window and door frames Care must be taken to avoid bar congestion, particularly
in a variety of materials, corner and intersection if the masonry also includes a combination of horizontal
details, piers, services etc. and vertical reinforcement.
CD-ROM of CAD Details Support of Reinforcement
This chapter also acts as a visual reference for the CAD Reinforcement should be positioned by using plastic
details supplied on the accompaning CD-ROM which is wheel-type reinforcement spacers, galvanised wire
located in Part C:Appendix A. hangers or reinforcing ligatures as shown.
Each of the details in this chapter has a note below Cover and Mortar Type
them indicating the file format type and file name for All drawings are based on 20 mm cover to reinforcement
easy retrival from the CD-ROM. and M3 mortar. However, designers must select an
appropriate cover and mortar from AS 3700 and amend
the drawings accordingly. See Part B: Chapter 6.
Details
The following drawings show common details for
horizontally-reinforced masonry lintels. For load capacity
information, see Part B:Chaters 5 and 6.
S
Detail Al
Notes:
Concrete blocks f15 MPa
Mortar M3 (1:5 + methyl cellulose water thickener)
Concrete grout N20 (minimum cement 300 kg/rn3, maximum aggregate 10 mm)
Reinforcement shall be held in position by
- steel ligatures; or
- steel hangers; or
- plastic wheel type support
1 N16 (minimum cover, c = 20, effective depth, d = 70)

positioned on the webs of concrete blocks and held in position
by plastic wheel type supports
C 390 x 190 x 140

C concrete H block (15.48) or double U block (15.91)
Co
390 x 190 x 140

concrete lintel block (15.12)

held in position by plastic wheel type supports
/
140
Reinforced Concrete Masonry Lintel
Scale 1:10
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: LintelsMasonry/A1.dxf
Detail A2
Notes:
Concrete blocks f1 5 MPa
- steel hangers; or
C 390 x 190 x 140

C concrete lintel block (15.12)

/70 /
140

Scale 1:10
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Linteis_Masonry/A2.dxf
Notes:
Concrete grout N20 (minimum cement 300 kg/m3, maximum aggregate 10 mm)
- steel hangers; or

390 x 190 x 190

0
0 concrete H block (20.48) or double U block (20.91)
390 x 190 x 190


95
190
Scale 1:10
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Lintels_Masonry/A3.dxf
Detail A4
Notes:
- steel hangers; or

positioned on the webs of concrete blocks and held apart by
plastic wheel type supports
390 x 190 x 190

0
Co
-a 390 x 190 x 190

1
/ 125
/ 190
Scale 1:10
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Lint els_Masonry/A4dxf
Detail A5
Notes:
steel hangers; or
0
0
390 x 190 x 190
2 N20 (minimum cover, c = 20, effective depth, d 125)

/190
125

Scale 1:10
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Lintels_Masonry/A5. dxl
etailA6
Notes:
S - steel ligatures; or
- steel hangers; or
0
0
390 x 190 x 190
1 N20 (minimum cover, c = 20, efective depth, d = 95)

/ 95
190

S Scale 1:10
NOTE: This detaii is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Linte]s_Masonry/A6.dxf
Detail Al
0
0 100 dia Fastlock column spacer
N clipped onto reinforcement bar
Steel Positioning Detail - Column Spacers

Scale 1:10
o R8 hangers 0
0
N-
c'J 302 long C,,
0 R8 hangers 0
0C,,
N-
302 long
Steel Positioning Detail - Galvanised Wire Hangers

Scale 1:10
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Lintels_Masonry/A7.dxf
3.2.2 STEEL LINTELS AND ARCH BARS Steel lintels with a duplex coating, hot-dip galvanised
Loads on Lintels in accordance with AS/NZS 4680 with a coating
Masonry constructed in stretcher bond will arch over mass of 600 g/m2 and a coating of at least
an opening, provided there are sufficient number of 50 microns of two-pack non-inhibitive epoxy primer to
masonry courses above and sufficient strength at the AS/NZS 3750.13 and at least 200 microns of two-pack
supports. AS 3700 Commentary suggests that the load high-build epoxy micaceous iron oxide to AS 3750.14.
exerted on the lintel can be assumed to be exerted by a R5 - For applications in saline or contaminated water
triangle of masonry above the opening including tidal splash zones and within 1 km of an
End Support industry producing chemical pollutants.
AS 3700 Clause 4.12 requires that lintels be supported Details
on the masonry abutments for a distance of at least The following drawings show common details of
100 mm.
galvanised steel lintels. For information on capacities,
Corrosion Resistance including maximum spans, see Part B:Chapter 5
Steel lintels and arch bars must comply with the
durability requirements of AS 3700 Table 5.1 for the
particular exposure classification. AS 3700 Clause 5.2.2
makes it clear that lintels or arch bars supporting
the external leaf of a cavity wall or veneer wall are
considered to be in an exterior environment.
S
Corrosion protection requirements in AS/NZS 2699.3

are as follows:
RO, Ri, R2, R3 - For all applications except as listed
for R4 and R5.
Steel lintels, hot dip galvanised in accordance with
AS/NZS 4680 or AS/NZS 4791, except that the
minimum coating mass shall be 300 g/m2 for RO, Ri
and R2 and be 600 g/m2 for R3.
Steel lintels with an inorganic zinc coating, abrasive
blast cleaned to a minimum of AS 1627.4 Class 2.5,
and a coating of at least 75 microns of inorganic zinc
silicate in compliance with AS/NZS 3750.15 Type 3
or Type 4, except that for R3 the average coating
thickness shall be not less than 100 microns.
Steel lintels with a duplex coating, hot-dip galvanised
in accordance with AS/NZS 4680 or AS/NZS 4791,
except that hot-dip galvanising to be at least
300 g/m2 and a coating to be at least 50 microns of
two pack non-inhibitive epoxy primer to
AS/NZS 3750.13 and at least 125 microns of two-pack
high-build epoxy micaceous iron oxide to AS 3750.14.
R4 - For applications subject to saline wetting
and drying, in aggressive soils, in severe marine
environments.
v Stainless steel lintels manufactured to AS 1449
Grade 316 or AS 1449 Grade 316L (UNS S31600 and
UNS S31603 respectively)
Steel lintels with an inorganic zinc coating, abrasive
blast cleaned to a minimum of AS 1627.4 Class 2.5,
and a coating of at least 75 microns of inorganic zinc
silicate in compliance with AS/NZS 3750.15 Type 3,
Type 4 or Type 6, plus at least 125 microns of two-
pack high-build epoxy micaceous iron oxide to
AS 3750.14
Steel lintels with a mastic coating, abrasive blast
cleaned to a minimum of AS 1627.4 Class 2.5, and a
coating of at least 400 microns of two-part high-build
epoxy mastic to AS 3750.11
Detail Bi.
100
/ // Maximum
clear span
100
75
75 x 8 flat (4.71 kg/rn)

See notes on Corrosion Resistance Of Lintels And Arch Bars
75 x 8 FMS Arch Bar

Scale 1:10
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Lintels_Steel/B1.dxf
Detail B2
/,
100 Maximum
clear span
//
100
75
75 x 10 flat (5.89 kg/rn)

75 x 10 FMS Arch Bar

Scale 1:10
S
-=
100 for spans less than 1000 mm 100 or

150 for spans greater than 1000 mm 150
V ,"
Maximum clear span
0
0)
90
90 x 90 x 6 equal angle (8.22 kg/rn)

90 x 90 x 6 L Lintel
Scale 1:10
Detail B4

S Maximum clear span
0
C)
4= 90

Scale 1:10
S
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Lintels_Steel/B4dxf
Detail B5

150 for spans greater than 1000 rnrn 150
Maximum clear span
0
0
// 100


Scale 1:10
Detail B6
100 for spans less than 1 000 mm 100 or

Maximum clear span

t
0
0
/ 100
lOOx lOOx8equal angle (11.8 kg/rn)


Scale 1:10
NOTE. This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Lintels_Stee]/B6.dxf
n
Detail B7
150 Maxirnurn clear span 50
0
IC)
90 /
150 x 90 x 8 unequal angle (14.3 kg/rn)

Scale 1:10
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Lintels_Steel/B7.dx[
Detail B8
15 Maximurn clear span 150
N
0
IC)
/100
150 x 100 x 10 unequal angle (18.0 kg/rn)

150 x 100 xlO L Lintel

Scale 1:10
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Lintels_Steel/B8. dxl
r!AL REINFORCEMENT
AND MULLIONS - Although there is s slight increase in the amount
of reinforcement used, there is a reduction in the
3.3.1 VERTICALLY-REINFORCED MASONRY
amount of grout and the number of grouted cores.
Spacing of Reinforcement Depending on the relative costs of each component,
Vertical reinforcement placed in the cores of hollow this can lead to a net reduction in the total cost of
concrete blockwork spans vertically between horizontal the wall.
supports and provides strength enhancement to large
wall panels. The wall is more ductile and will perform better
under cyclical earthquake loading.
Tithe reinforcement is spaced at 800 mm or less,
the masonry is regarded as 'close-spaced reinforced The wall will exhibit reduced cracking and deflection
masonry, and may be considered ductile. This will when subjected to lateral loads.
have advantages in respect of earthquake loads. Support of Reinforcement
If the reinforcement is spaced at 2.0 m centres Reinforcement should be positioned by tying to starters
or less, (but wider than 800 mm), the masonry is
at the base and should be fixed at the top by plastic
spacers The position of the steel should be closely
regarded as 'wide-spaced reinforced masonry', with
controlled at the region of maximum moment, eg at
some advantages in respect of robustness. the mid-height of a wall. This may be achieved by
If the reinforcement is spaced further apart than breaking construction at this point and lapping the bars.
2.0 m, the masonry is regarded as 'mixed Care must be taken to ensure ccntinuity of moment
construction', consisting of unreinforced masonry resistance at laps.
supported between the vertically-reinforced masonry Details

elements. The following drawings show common details of
Wall Construction vertically-reinforced masonry elements. Moment and
The designer should give consideration to how the shear capacities are available in Part B : Chapter 6.
masonry is to be constructed and the reinforcement
placed. One of the following options must be used:
Provided there are no obstructions such as slabs
or beams above, the reinforcement is placed in the
finished masonry from the top. Grouting from the top
is also feasible.
If there is restricted access from the top, the
reinforcement is placed into open ended masonry
units such as 'H'- or 'A-shaped blocks, during
construction of the masonry.
Starter Bars and Anchorage
It is common to lap the vertical bars with starter
bars set in the slab or footings below, thus providing
increased shear resistance and perhaps some moment
resistance at the base. If the masonry supports a
concrete slab, it may also be preferable to continue
the wall reinforcement into the slab above (see Clause
3.5.2).
Number of Reinforcing Bars in Each Core
bar set in the centre of the wall or two bars - one in
each face. Care must be taken to avoid bar congestion.
The advantages of one vertical bar per core are:
The starter bars and reinforcement are simpler to
place, requiring less site control.
There can be greater confidence in achieving the
specified cover.
The cores are less congested, making grout filling
simpler and more effective.
The advantages of two vertical bars per core are:
Fewer grouted cores and fewer starter bars are
required.
Q 1')
Detail Cl
Notes:
Reinforcement shall be held in position by plastic wheel type support

tied to starter bars at the base of the wall and held
in position at the top by plastic wheel type spacers
fixed after grouting, but while grout is still fluid
U,
cJ
N
390 x 190 x 190

concrete block (20.01)
Block at the base of the pour to incorporate clean-out opening
Reinforced Concrete Masonry Wall

Scale 1:10
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Vert_Reinf_Masonry/C1.dxf
Notes:

C)
390 x 190 x 190


Scale 1:10
Notes:

U,
/ in position at the top by plastic wheel type spacers
I
N
.
S..
390 x 190 x 190


Scale 1:10
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Vert_Reinf._Masonry/C3.dxf
Detail C4
Notes:
Mortar M3 (1:5 methyl cellulose water thickener)

5,
390 x 190 x 190


Scale 1:10
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Vert_Reinf_Masonry/C4. dxl
2 IA
1lC5
Notes:
Mortar M3 (1:5 methyl cellulose water thickener)

0
N- I
0
1 .1
390x 190x 140


Scale 1:10
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Vert_Reinf_Masonry/C5, dxf
Detail C6
Notes:

0 I
N
N I
390 x 190 x 140


Scale 1:10
NOTE This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Vert_Reinf_Masonry/C6.dx[
Detail C7
a-
E
0
0
N
50.31 filler unit
Cleanout unit
N
N
Height of first grout pour
3000 max above floor
Detail At Mid Height

a-
N16 vertical bar E

0
0
N
50.31 filler unit
Cleanout unit
N16 starter bar

Footing
190
Detail At Footing
Single N16 Reinforced Masonry

Scale 1:10
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Vert_Reinf_Masonry/C7. dxl
21
Detail C8
C
E
0
0
N-
50.31 filler unit
Cleanout unit

=1
C
E
0
0
Ni6 vertical bars N-
50.31 filler unit
Cleanout unit
Ni 6 starter bar
Footing
190
Detail At Footing
2 N16 Bar Reinforced Masonry
S Scale i:10
3.17
Detail C9
0.
E
0
0
0
50.31 filler unit
Cleanout unit

3000 max above floor N20 vertical bar
0
E
0
0
50.31 filler unit
20.96 cleanout unit
N16 starter bar

Footing
190
Detail At Footing
Single N20 Reinforced Masonry

Scale 1:10
NOTE; This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as; Vert_Reinf_Masonry/C9.dxf
21
Detail C1.O
S
= =
50.31 filler unit-

Cleanout unit -'
:o:c N20 vertical bars
.-' Th
E
0
0
N.
50.31 filler unit

Wire tie to starters
Cleanout unit
N16 starter bar

Footing
/ 190
Detail At Footing
2 N20 Bar Reinforced Masonry

Scale 1:10
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Vert_Reinf_Masonry/C1O.dxf
Detail CII.
110
zt'704
N 2 holes, 3mm larger
05,
+ than bar size
If the pouring of grout is closely

supervised, the vertical reinforcement
may be adjusted while the grout is
still wet. Otherwise, temporary steel
spacers should be used.
Temporary Steel Spacers

For Positioning Reinforcement In 190 mm Blockwork
Scale 1:5
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Vert_Reint_Masonry/Cil. dx!
2 ')fl
3.3.2 GALVANISED STEEL MULLIONS Anchorage
Strength and Stiffness Steel mullions must be anchored to the supports top
and bottom. The following shear capacities assume
It is increasingly the practice in southern Australia
to provide lateral support to unreinforced masonry bolts set into concrete slabs. There should be provision
for relative vertical movement between the supporting
subject to lateral earthquake, wind or fire loads by
building in galvanised steel mullions. Although this is structure and the masonry wall/mullion combination.
a convenient practice, it is significantly more expensive Fire Separation
than reinforced masonry. Furthermore, the stiffness of If required, intumescent seals may be placed on top of
the mullion is considerably less than the stiffness of the the wall, either side of the steel spigot, to provide fire
masonry, which will possthly experience some cracking resistance.
under extreme load. Details
Wall Construction The following drawings show common details of
Steel mullions must be placed into open-ended galvanised steel mullions, Moment and shear capacities
masonry units such as "H' or "A" shaped blocks, during are given in PartB:Chapter 6
construction of the masonry or between the leaves of
cavity masonry.
DETAILS OF STEEL MULLIONS
S
Grade (2) Orientation (3)

Section (1) MPa (depth through wall) End connection type (4)
150 x 50 x 5.0 RHS C450L0 150 2-M12, 8

150 x 50 x 4.0 RHS C450L0 150 2-M12, 8
125 x 75 x 6.0 RHS C450L0 75 2-M12, 8

125x75x5.ORHS C450L0 75 2-M12, 8
75 x 75 x 6.0 SHS C450L0 75 2-Mb, 8

75 x 75 x 5.0 SHS C450L0 75 2-Mb, 8
75 x 75 x 4.0 SHS C450L0 75 2-Mb, 8
100 x 50 x 6.0 RHS C450L0 50 2-Mb, 8
100 x 50 x 5.0 RHS C450L0 50 2-Mb, 8
100 x 50 x 4.0 RHS C450L0 50 2-Mb, 8
100 x 50 x 3.5 RHS C450L0 50 2-Mb, 8
100 x 50 x 3.0 RHS C450L0 50 2-Mb, 8
100 x 50 x 2.5 RHS C450L0 50 2-Mb, 8
50x50x5.OSHS C450L0 50 2-M10,8
170x 10 EMS 250 170 Nil
S 120 x 10 EMS
90 x 10 EMS
250
250
120
90
Nil
Nil
70x 10 EMS 250 70 Nil
Notes:
I All hollow sections are BHP Duraga].
2 Capacities of all hollow sections are based on Grade C450L0 in accordance with AS 1163. All other sections are based on
Grade 250 in accordance with AS 3679.
3 The orientation shows the dimension of the steel section when measured through the wall. For square hollow sections, this
value is the same as the side of the section. For rectangular hollow sections, this value is the same as the smaller of the two
sides of the section. It is important to ensure that the steel section will fit into the cores of the blocks.
4 The end connections indicated are the ones most likely to lead to efficient design and construction, although other end
connections can be used with each section. The nomenclature is as follows:
Designation Number of Anchors Anchor type Plate thickness (mm)
2-M12, 8 2 M12 Dynabolts 8
5 Blocks must be of a type and size to enable the rnullions to be built into the masonry and the cores packed with mortar.
Detail Dl
varies to suit situation
20 max, 5 mm Spigot
Knock out block

75 x 75 x 5.0 SHS (20.20) or A block
0
\
0
(\1 \ (:::::
0
0)
\
Block cores grout or mortar filled
2 holes 12 diameter
75 x 75 x 5.0 SHS
Mullion base
plate (8 1?.)
ILl
/ // 175 x 95 x 8
2/M10 Dynabolts 50 50 6 cfw to SHS
//
175
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Steel _Mullions/Dl.dxf
Detail D2
- varies to suit situation
20 max, 5 mm
Knock out block (20.20)

125 x 75 x 5.0 RHS or A block
125 x 75 x 5.0 RHS 2 holes 14 dia
-- Mullion base
H
plate (8 F) 225 x 85 x 8
0 /50 6 cfw to RHS
2/ M12 Dynabolts
225
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Steel _Mullions/D2.dxf
,y)
20 max, 5 mm Spigot

50 x 50 x 5.0 SHS
or A block (15.49)
0
0 \ (::::
c'.J
0
_1 ' d
L_
Block cores grout or mortar tilled
2 holes @ 12 diameter
50 x 50 x 5.0 SHS
S
0
Mullion base
plate (8 F) 150 x 70 x 8 lE
50( /5 6cfwtoSHS
2/ Ml 0 Dynabolts
//
150
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Steel _Mullions/D3.dxf

20 max, 5 mm Spigot

100 x 50 x 5.0 RHS
S or A block (15.49)
0
0 0
1
L_
2 holes 12 dia
100 x 50 x 5.0 RHS
0
Mullion base
200 x 70 x 8 IE
plate (8 l) 0 0 6 cfw to RHS
2/ M10 Dynabolts 200
S
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Steel _Mullions/D4dxf
Dtail D5
20 max, 5 mm Spigot
L. 100 x 50 x 5.0 RHS
0
0
0 0
c'J
2 holes 12 dia
100 x 50 x 5.0 RHS
N-
200 x 70 x 8 F?_
Mullion base 0 0
plate (8 1) / 6 cfw to RHS
200
IL
2/ M10 Dynabolts
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Steel _Mullions/D5dxf
Detail D6
- varies to suit situation Spigot
20 max, 5 mm
150 x
0\
L.()
Mullion brick tie Plasterboard
2 holes 12 diameter
-150 x50 x 5.0 RHS
Mullion base plate

C
(8 F)
2/ M10 Dynabolts 150 x 170 x 8 ft

6 cfw to RHS
150
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Steel Mullions/D6.dxf
S 3.3.3 COMPOSITE MASONRY MULLIONS Weather Resistance
If the walls containing composite masonry mullions are
Strength and Stiffness
exposed to rainwater, provision to prevent the transfer of
When cavity walls are subject to lateral earthquake,
moisture across the cavity will need to be made.
wind or fire load, the strength of the wall may
be increased by tying the two leaves together Details
monolithically, using ties together with either masonry The following drawings show common details of
units or mortar packrng. This will provide stiffness as composite masonry mullions. Moment and shear
well as strength, but is not considered to be ductile. capacities are given in Part B: Chapter 6
DETAILS OF COMPOSITE MASONRY MULLIONS (7)

Total width, mm (6)
Inner leaf Cavity width Outer leaf Web width Intermediate
mm (1) mm (2) mm (3) mm (4) or End (5) Wall 2700 mm high Wall 3900 mm high
110 50 110 300 I 840 1080
110 50 110 300 E 570 690
90 50 110 300 840 1080

90 50 110 300 E 570 690
90 50 90 300 840 1080

90 50 90 300 E 570 690
Notes:
1 An inner leaf of 110-mm brickwork has been common for many years, although increasingly 90-mm is being used because of
the potential savings in both cost and floor space. Concrete blocks 90 x 119 x 290 mm and 90 x 162 x 290 are available. The
119-mm heights corresponds to 1.5 courses of 76-mm-high brickwork, whilst 162 mm corresponds to two courses of 76-mm-high
brickwork.
2 These tables are based on the most common cavity width of 50 mm. Capacities may be increased by increasing the cavity
width.
3 An outer leaf of 110-mm brickwork is common. However, split, ribbed polished or fair-face 90-mm concrete blockwork is
sometimes used to provide an attractive economical external face.
4 These tables are based on a web width of 300 mm. This can be achieved using a mortar column tied within the leaves by
cavity ties. A similar result could be achieved using masonry umts bonded to form a diaphragm. In both cases, rainwater must
be prevented from crossing the cavity via the diaphragm.
5 End mulhons are placed near the end of a wall and have masonry cavity walls extending on one side only. Intermediate
mullions are placed withm a length of wall and have masonry cavity walls extending on both sides.
6 The calculation of the effective width of the composite mullion (ie the width of each leaf which acts compositely with a web)
is six times the width of the leaf based on AS 3700 Clause 4.5.2. For an end mullion, the effective width is the web width plus
up to six times the minimum leaf width on one side only. For an intermediate mullion, the effective width is the web width
plus six times the minimum leaf width on both sides of the web (ie up to twelve times).
7 Walls higher than the value 3.9 m used in these tables will have shear and moment resistance higher than the tabulated
values.
Detail El
Cavity filled with grout or mortar
0
C
Wir
300
C
C)
0
LC)\
Wire ties
300
A
C
C)
0
A
0
C)
Wire ties
300
A
Composite Masonry Mullions

Scale 1:10
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: MasonryMu]]ions/E1.dxf
2 ')
li REINFORCED MASONRY
BOND BEAMS
Bond Beam Construction

Bond beams are similar in construction to lintels, except
that they are within a wall rather than at an opening
and therefore do not necessarily require U-shaped lintel
blocks. However, except where vertical reinforcement
passes up the cores and through the bond beam from
the underside, U-shaped lintel blocks (eg 2012, 2013,
1512 or 1513 blocks) provide the most effective means of
preventing grout from filling the whole of the wall.
A two-block-high bond beam can be constructed using
H or Double U blocks (eg 2048, 2091, 1548 or 1591) as
the top course.
Number of Reinforcing Bars
bar, set in the centre of the wall, or two bars, one in
each face.
In 140-mm blockwork, only one horizontal bar should be
used
Care must be taken to avoid bar congestion, particularly

if the masonry also includes vertical reinforcement.
Support of Reinforcement
Reinforcement should be positioned by using plastic
wheel-type reinforcement spacers, galvanised wire
hangers or reinforcing ligatures as shown.
Details
The following drawings show common details of
horizontally-reinforced masonry bond beams Moment
and shear capacities are given in Part B : Chapters 5
and 6.
3.27
Notes:
- steel hangers; or
0
0
390 x 190 x 140
concrete lintel block (1512)

//
140
70 /
Reinforced Concrete Masonry Bond Beam
Scale 1:10
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Bond_Beams/F1.dxf
Detail F2

0 390 x 190 x 140

0
CYD
concrete H block (15.48) or double U block (15.91)
390 x 190 x 140


Notes:
Concrete grout N20 (minimum cement 300 kg/rn3,
70 maximum aggregate 10 mm)
/ 140 - steel ligatures; or
- steel hangers; or

Scale 1:10
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Bond_Beams/F2. dx!
Q
Detail F3
Notes:
- steel hangers; or
0 390 x 190 x 190

0 concrete lintel block (20.12)

S
95 /
190
Scale 1:10
NOTE. This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Bond_Beams/F3.dxf
Notes:
- steel hangers; or
0 390 x 190 x 190

0 concrete lintel block (20.12)
2 N20 (minimum cover, c = 20, effective depth, d 125)

125
190 Reinforced Concrete Masonry Bond Beam

Scale 1:10
Detail F5

Q
390 x 190 x 190
0
c) concrete H block (20.48) or double U block (20.91)
390 x 190 x 190

\
Notes:
maximum aggregate 10 mm)

5
190 - steel ligatures; or
- steel hangers; or

Scale 1:10
Detail F6

positioned on the webs of concrete blocks and held apart by
plastic wheel type supports
- 390x190x190
0
390 x 190 x 190


Notes:
maximum aggregate 10 rnrn)
125
190 - steel ligatures; or
- steel hangers; or

Scale 1:10
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Bond_Beams/F6dxf
Detail F7
0
0 100 dia Fastlock column spacer
clipped onto reinforcement bar
Steel Positioning Detail - Column Spacers

Scale 1:10
S
Q R8 hangers 0
0
(J 302 long
0 R8 hangers 0
0
N-
c'J 302 long
Steel Positioning Detail - Galvanised Wire Hangers

Scale 1:10
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Bond_Beams/F 7. dxl
Detail F8
Core plate 20.20 block (ends removed)
1
20.12 lintel unit
Single N20 Reinforced Masonry (At Bond Beam)

Scale 1:10
20.12 lintel unit
2 N20 Bar Reinforced Masonry (At Bond Beam)

Scale 1:10
Notes;
All reinforcing bars to be N20
All concrete grout to be N20
(minimum cement content 300 kg/m3,
maximum aggregate size 10 mm)
Mortar to be 1 part portland
cement to 5 parts clean sand,
plus 0.005 methyl cellulose
water thickner
For partially-grouted walls,
use 20.01 blocks for infill
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as. Bond_Beams/F6.dxf
2 2')
20.12 lintel unit
Single N16 Reinforced Masonry (At Bond Beam)

Scale 1:10
20.12 lintel unit
2 N16 Bar Reinforced Masonry (At Bond Beam)

Scale 1:10
Notes:
All reinforcing bars to be N16
All concrete grout to be N20
(minimum cement content 300 kg/rn3,
maximum aggregate size 10 mm)
Mortar to be 1 part portland
cement to 5 parts clean sand,
plus 0.005 methyl cellulose
water thickner
For partially-grouted walls,
use 20.01 blocks for infill
Detail F1O
20.91 with core plates at reinforced cores

20.12 (lintel unit) elsewhere in bond beam
. U
Set tee bracket in perp joint
20.01 block
Detail At Top Bond Beam Diagonal Brace Plan
Diagonal Brace Detail

Scale 1:10
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Bond_Beams/FlO. dxl
Detail Fli
60
/
All steel 60 x 10 FMS
0
6 continuous fillet weld

0
c'J
1 Bracket
22 mm dia bolt hole for M20 bolt
Bracket For Diagonal Bracing

Scale 1:5
2 2,1
SHEAR WALLS AND
CONNECTIONS
3.5.1 REINFORCED SHEAR WALLS

Purpose
When masonry walls are subjected to horizontal in-
plane shear forces, vertical reinforcement placed in the
cores of hollow concrete blockwork, acting together with
horizontal reinforcement in bond beams, confines the
masonry and enhances sheai capacity. If the vertical
reinforcement is placed at 2.0 m centres or closer and
the horizontal steel at 3.0 metres centres or closer, the
masonry wall is classified as a reinforced masonry shear
wall.
Details
Reinforced masonry shear walls are a combination
of bond beams and vertically-reinforced masonry. All
reinforcement must be correctly anchored to ensure
that the wall remains intact when being subjected to
in-plane shear. At corners of the wall and at openings,
vertical reinforcement should be lapped with starter bars
at the base and cogged into the bond beams and thus
lapped with the bond beam reinforcement at the top
(see Clause 3.5.2).
For information on capacities of reinforced shear walls,
see Part B:Chapter 6.
3.35
Detail GI.
Notes:
Concrete blocks 15 MPa
- steel hangers; or
0 5 db
1 N16
70
0 390 x 190 x 140
0 concrete lintel block (15.12) Standard Hook For N16
1 N16 (cover, c= 15)*

-
/70
/ 140
zI
1 N16 (70 long and 110 OD hook)

/ hooked around vertical bar and angled to
fit inside blockwork (held in position by
plastic wheel type supports and lapped
700 mm with similar bar in the other end of walD*
0
N
190 x 190 x 140 concrete 390 x 190 x 140 concrete

lintel block (15.93) on end lintel block (15.12)
390 x 190 x 140 concrete block (15.01) throughout the

remainder of wall. Block at the base of each grout
pour to incorporate clean-out opening.
* Cores below horizontal reinforcement

must be grouted BEFORE the horizontal
reinforcement is positioned.
140 mm Reinforced Concrete Masonry Shear Wall With 1-N16 Per End Core
Scale 1:10
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Shear_Walls/G1.dxf
Det
Notes:
Concrete blocks 15 MPa
- steel hangers; or
0 Pin 5 d,
1 N20
70
0
0
390 x 190 x 190
concrete lintel block (20.12) Standard Hook For N16
1 N16 (cover, c = 20)*
95 / 1 N20 (minimum cover, c = 20, effective depth, d = 95)

190 in position at the top by plastic wheel type spacers
1 N16 (70 long and 110 OD hook)

hooked around vertical bar and angled to
700 mm with similar bar in the other end of waIl)*
S LI)
0)
190 x 190 x 190 concrete 390 x 190 x 190 concrete



Scale 1:10
NOTE; This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Shear_Walls/02.dxf
Detail G3
a
Notes:
- steel hangers; or
2 N20
/ /
0
0 0 390 x 190 x 190
Standard Hook For N16
It 1 N16 (cover, c = 20)*
5 2 N20 (minimum cover, c = 20, effective Depth, d = 95)

190 in position at the top by plastic wheel type spacers
1 N16(7olongandllOODhook)
hooked around vertical bar and angled to
700 mm with similar bar in the other end of waIl)*
. .
L 190 x 190 x 190 concrete 390 x 190 x 190 concrete



Scale 1:10
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Shear_Wa Ils/G3.dxf
3.5.2 ANCHORAGE AT THE
MASONRY/CONCRETE INTERFACE
The purpose is to provide sufficient shear resistance and
anchorage at the top and bottom of a masonry wall to:
transfer shear to and from shear walls,
provide vertical anchorage against overturning of
shear walls, and
provide shear resistance to out-of-plane lateral loads.
Most commercially-available head ties do not have
sufficient shear resistance to support large wall panels
subject to the out-of-plane and in-plane horizontal loads
experienced in earthquakes.
If enhanced shear capacity is required, the masonry
must be positively tied to the supporting slabs by
grouted starter-bars or similar methods shown in the
following details. For information on capacities of the
details, see Part B:Chapter 6.
i nil:
200
/ 200 /
0
LU
0LU
N
0
LU
0
LU
190
140
N12 Reinforced Starter Bars

Scale 1:20
S
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Starter_Bars/Hi dxf
Detail H2
/ 240 240
0
0 0
0
N-
190
,140/

Scale 1:20
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Starter_Bars/H2. dxl
Detail H3
290 290
//
o\ 0
IC)
N
0
0 0
0
0 0
N
N
140 / 190
//
Scale 1:20
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Starter_Bars/H3.dxf
2 Afl
I CONTROL JOINTS

position and width of cracks. Control joints should
be detailed so as to maintain resistance to moisture
penetration, fire, heat and sound.
Contraction joints are opening joints to cater for
shrinkage of the wall. In a wall exposed to the weather,
contraction joints must be weather-proof with a flexible
sealant at the surface. They may also be filled with a
compressible material if required to serve also as
expansion joints (for thermal movement) or as
articulation joints (for footing or support movement).
Expansion joints are closing joints. They are usually
built into clay masonry to cater for brick growth and
find application in concrete masonry only when there
is the possibility of high thermal movement. Expansion
]oints incorporate a compressible material of sufficient
thickness to cater for the expansion in the walls
adjacent to the joint.
Articulation joints are both opening and closing joints

that cater for movement of the footings or supports,
The strategic positioning of articulation joints at
points of weakness (such as door or window openings)
will minimise cracking as the supports move due to
foundation movement and similar actions. In some
cases, contraction and expansion joints will function as
articulation joints.
The following details cover a variety of these types of
control joints.
3.41.
Detail ii.
Control joint to top of window frame
I
Window / door openhl g
II II II
Control Joints at Lintels
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Control_Joints/J1.dxf
Detail J2
JI IL Window / door openi g
I
H II
Control joint thro ugh sill course

Sill course
Control Joints at Windows
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Control_Joints/J2,dxf
Q A')
Detail J3
Control joint (not through lintel)
Reinforced lintel
UIA VA
Window / door opening
Control Joints at Lintels
Detail J4
Window / door opening
Control joint through sill unit
Sill units
Control joints
Control Joints at Windows
Detail J5
Control joint terminates

Reinforced bond beam
at bond beam
IJJFAP7AFIVAP
Control joint
Control Joints Terminating at Bond Beams

NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Control_Joints/J5.dx[
Detail J6
Control joint through bond beam

20 mm dia dowel with
Reinforced bond beam bond-breaker and
plastic cap one end
Control joint
20 dia dowel with

Bitumen impregnated bond-breaker and
filler board -- plastic cap one end
Sealant
Section
Control Joints Through Bond Beams
S Detail J7
Articulation Joints
Scale 1:10
S
Compressible foam
joint filler Articulation joint tie
Sealant
joint filler Articulation joint tie
Articulation joint tie
Sealant
Articulation Joint Ties

Scale 1:10
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Control _Joints/J7dxf
Detail J8
Golaniud crimpad Z-t. in alt.not. co.,s., 01 unit
01 unit
-01 Unit
01 unit
03 unit
03 unit
01 unit Rak. joint end caulk with fl.nibls joint fill.,
D.t.il appli.. to all wali thickn.00io
CONTROL JOINT WITH WIRE TIE
NOTE: This detail is available, in EPS format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Control Joints/J8.eps
Detail J9
Caulk with flaniblu joint fill.,
Gelv.ni,.d Wi,. ,n.,l. or opand.d .n.t.l Ph v-crimp in

.lt.,n.I. cou,s.o
CONTROL JOINT - WALL INTERSECTION

D.t.il oppli., to .11 wall thickn.u..
NOTE: This detail is available, in EPS format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Control oints/J9eps
Detail J1O
20-01
S
CONTROL JOINT - BONDED PIER

NOTE: This detail is available, in EPS format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Control_Joints/J1Q.eps
,' etail ill

P,..,.,..Id.d j.nt fili. .n4 ..tk
20-0 1
20-01
CONTROL JOINT - ENCASED STEEL COLUMN
NOTE: This detail is available, in EPS format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Control_Joints/J11.eps
3.47
Detail J12
Pr,ns...l4.d .mpisiib4. j..a4 fills, sad slusfic isalsul
20-01
2001
CONTROL JOINT - EXTERIOR STEEL COLUMN

NOTE: This detafl is available, in EPS format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Control _Joints/J12.eps
Detail J13
20-01
P.sn,oaldsd co..p.ssIbl. jOIM lilkr and .latic s..l.at
20.41
CONTROL JOINT - INTERIOR STEEL COLUMN

NOTE: This detail is available, in EPS format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Control _Joints/J13.eps
LI
M AL PER FO R M AN C
Masonry's resistance to the passage of heat (thermal

insulation) and the resistance to gain or loss of
heat (thermal mass) form the basis for maximising
thermal efficiency in buildings with concrete masonry
superstructures.
The following details show typical wall sections
which correspond with the walls used in the thermal
resistance data given in Part B: Chapter 9,
Detail KI
//
90
S
Insulation inside
masonry cores
Uninsulated Insulated
90-mm Concrete Masonry Single-Leaf Wall

Scale 1: 10
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Thermal/K1.dxf
Detail K2
Insulation inside
masonry cores
90-mm Concrete Masonry Veneer Wall

Scale 1:10
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Thermal/K2.dxI
Detail K3
10 100 90 10 100 50 90
7
Insulation inside
masonry cores
Face-fixed tie Face-fixed tie
90-mm Concrete Masonry Veneer Wall with Reflective Foil

Insulation on Frame, 100-mm Airspace and 50-mm Cavity
Scale 1 10
NOTE: This detail is available, in IDXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Thermal/K3.dxf
2 cn
0
-3
-3
CD
CD
CD
CD
CD
CD
CD (0
CD 0 o C Co
2. 0
CD
U) 01
CD
0 (0 C
o
3 CD
3 0 0
0 N
C)
3
S C)
CD 0 0
0
CD -'
D)CD C)
CD
CD
CD
CD
CD G)
0
C/]
(I) 00)
CD 0 Cl)
C) - Co
0
U)
C)
0 0) C) 9.
CD
\0 0) 0.
CD
CD
-L
I
0
0) N 0)
-l-.
Detailing
Detail K6
110
/ 110
Insulation inside
masonry cores

Scale 1: 10
Detail K7
10
// 75/50/ 110 10
/ 75 0
/ 110
Insulation inside
masonry cores

Scale 1: 10
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Therma]/KZ dx!
R')
Det.
10
//
100 50 110 10 100 50
/ 110
Insulation inside
masonry cores

Insullation on Frame and 100-mm Airspace
Scale 1:10
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Thermal/K8. dxl
/ 110 ,P0/ 110 110 110
Insulation inside
masonry cores
110/50/110-mm Concrete Masonry Cavity Wall

Scale 1:10
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Thermal/K9.dxl
140 140
/
Insulation inside
masonry cores

Scale 1:10
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Thermal/K1Odxf
Detail Ku
10,75,p0 140 10
¼2 /'
75 50 140
A/
Insulation inside
masonry cores

Scale 1:10
Det 12
10 100,50/ 140 100 50 140
Insulation inside
masonry cores

Insullation on Frame and 100-mm Airspace
Scale 1: 10
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: TherrnaL/K12.dxf
Detail K13
190 190
Insulation inside
masonry cores

Scale 1: 10
z
0
C
C,
C
E 0
0
E LI)
143
OU)
U)
0LI
C'..
>Q
C
C
- 0
0
C
C,,
wa_ . a)
0
0)0
>
Ii-
0
S S
ANCILLARY DETAILS
Typical details are given for various components

commonly incorporated into concrete masonry buildings.
These include the following
Ties
Slip joints
Window frames in different materials
Footings
Corner details for various block combinations
Intersection details for various block combinations
Engaged piers
Built-in columns
Flexible wall-to-column connections
Installation of services.
3.57
Detail LI
260
110 90 10
/
Brick veneer ties set 50 mm into

brickwork and fixed to timber stud
with one nail. Tie must slope upwards
5 mm (+5-3) to prevent moisture
transfer into the building.
Max. slope 10 mm, mm slope 2 mm.
Veneer Ties
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Andillary/Lieps
Detail L2
250
110 90
Cavity ties set 50mm into

masonry at 600 crs (horizontal)
and at 516 crs (vertical). Tie
must slope upwards 5 mm (+5-3)
to inner leaf to prevent moisture
transfer into the building.
Outer Max slope 10 mm, mm slope 2 mm
leaf
I
Cavity Block Ties
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Ancillary/L2.eps
Concrete slab
2 layers of slip material

DPC material
Concrete slab
Slip Joint Detail

Scale 1:10
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Ancillary/L3.dxf
Detail L4
Flashing
Weep holes
Lintel
E
U,
Caulking
>< 450 eaves
Timber Window Frame Detail Timber Window Frame Detail

At Head (Wall Above) - Brick Veneer At Head (Eaves) - Brick Veneer
Frame sill
Timber sill
E E
CD. -
Caulking
Packing
Brick sill course
Flashing
Weep holes
Timber Window Frame Detail At Sill

Brick Veneer
Timber Window Frame Detail At Jamb

Brick Veneer
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Ancilary/L4.dxf
Detail L5
Flashing
Weep holes
Lintel
Lintels
450 eaves
Caulking
Timber Window Frame Detail Timber Window Frame Detail

At Head (Wall Above) - Cavity Brick At Head (Eaves) - Cavity Brick
Masonry screw
Timber sill
Packing
Brick sill course
Flashing
Timber Window Frame Detail At Sill

Cavity Brick
00CC
Brick ties from window
-- frame @ 344 crs
00CC
000C
Sealant
Timber Window Frame Detail At Jamb

Cavity Brick
S
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CDROM as: Ancillary/L5.dxf
Detail L6
Flashing
Weep holes
Lintel
C C
E E
E
LI) 450 eaves
Caulking
Aluminium Window Frame Detail Aluminium Window Frame Detail

At Head (Wall Above) - Brick Veneer At Head (Eaves) - Brick Veneer
Aluminium window frame

Sill flap
Timber reveal
C
E
(0
Packing
Brick sill course
Flashing
Weep holes
Aluminium Window Frame Detail At Sill

Brick Veneer
Packing
00CC
000C
Caulking
Aluminium Window Frame Detail At Jamb

Brick Veneer
S
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Ancillary/L6.dxf
Flashing
Cut brick Weep holes

Lintel
E Lintels
cc 450 eaves

At Head (Wall Above) - Cavity Brick At Head (Eaves) - Cavity Brick

Masonry screw
Sill flap
Timber reveal
. j
Packing
Brick sill course
Flashing
Weep holes
Aluminium Window Frame Detail At Sill

Cavity Brick
00 C
0 Brick ties from window
frame @ 344 crs
0000
0000
Caulking
Aluminum Window Frame Detail At Jamb

Cavity Brick
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Andi]ary/LZdxf
Detail L8
External coating applied

Reinforced before window is fitted
concrete lintel
Masonry anchor
Sealant
both sides
Aluminium Window Frame Detail

At Head - Single Leaf Reinforced Masonry
Aluminium window frame Aluminium

Sealant
Sill flap window frame
both sides
External coating applied Internal
Masonry before window is fitted sill Sealant
anchor
Sill tile fixed
Sill unit to blockwork
at 15°

At Sill - Reinforced Concrete Masonry At Sill - Reinforced Concrete Masonry
Masonry anchor
Aluminium window frame\

Reinforced
concrete blockwork
Sealant
both sides
External coating applied
before window is fitted
Aluminium Window Frame Detail

At Jamb - Reinforced Concrete Masonry
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Anci]lary/L8.dxf
LI
Detail L9
'C
Termite barrier mesh parged

to surface of slab. Mesh trimmed
around reinforcement and folded Starter bar
up into grouted core.
0
C) 2020 block with webs
and inside face knocked out
Underlay membrane-7
0 Footing
0
Co
300
Detail at Footing
Scale 1:10
NOTE: This detail is available, in DXF format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Anciilary/L9.dxf
Detail L1O
10-25
90 mm -90 mm CORNERS
NOTE: This detail is available, in EPS format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Ancillary/L1O.eps
Detail LII
15-22
140 mm - 140 mm CORNERS
NOTE: This detail is available, in EPS format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Ancillary/Lileps
Detail L12
20-01
190 mm - 190 mm CORNER
NOTE: This detail is available, in EPS format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Ancillary/L12.eps
Detail L13
290 mm -290 mm CORNER
NOTE: This detail is available, in EPS format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Ancillary/L13eps
Detail L14
10-142 or 10-139
rp,ci.I corn., 290 long

10-142 or 10-13
sp.ciol cornlr 290 bug IIIIf11llh1iI
90 mm PLAIN RIB BLOCK CORNER
90 mm SPLIT RIB BLOCK CORNER
NOTE: This detail is available, in EPS format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Anci]Jary/L14.eps
p'c
10-101 or 10-10 Sr 10-113 or 10-117 10-101 r 1O-10 or 10-113 or 10-117
QUARTER-STRETCHER BOND HALF-STRETCHER BOND
Detail L16
50-33
NOTE: This detail is available, in EPS format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Anci]]ary/L16.eps
Detail L17
Detail U.S
Detail L19
50-33 cit to 40 10n9
15-01
20-01
71
Detail L20
15-03
13.0I
15 01
30-01
'D 7')
Detail L21
20-0
30-01
S
Detail L22
20-01
3001
NOTE: This detail is available, in EPS format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Anci]lary/L22.eps
Notes on Intersecting Walls (Details L23 to L32)
To prevent the formation of cracks, the length of the
intersecting wall should be limited to a maximum of
1.2 m. This can be done by means either of a control
joint or an opening, such as a door or full-height wall.
The Detail, L23, is recommended only in cases where
the appearance of headers in alternate courses in the
intersected wall is acceptable.
Detail L23
10-01
90 mm -90 mm INTERSECTION
7,1
Detail L24
)5-01
10-01
90 mm - 140 mm INTERSECTION
20-01
10-01
20-01
90 mm -190mm INTERSECTION
NOTE: This detail is available, in EPS format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Ancil]ary/L25.eps
Detail L26
Detail L27
10-03
15 01 15-01
NOTE: This detail is available, in EPS format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Anci]lary/L2Zeps
S Detail L28
20-01 o 50-31
15-02
35-01
Detail L29
10-01 30-01
20-03
30 01
50-33
15-01
15 01
30-0 1
30-01 15-01
Detail L30
190 mm -190 mm INTERSECTION
Detail L31.
2 7R
Detail L32
30-01
30-0
30-01
Notes on Unbonded Intersections (Details L33

and L34)
To prevent the formation of cracks, the length of the
intersecting wall should be limited to a maximum of
1.2 m. This can be done by means either of a control
joint or an opening, such as a full-height door or other
opening.
Detail L33 is recommended, in preference to bonding,
for loadbearing wall intersections, in walls of all
thicknesses.
Detail L34 is recommended, in preference to bonding,
for non-loadbearing wall intersections, in walls of all
thicknesses.
Each detail produces a stronger joint capable of
accommodating a degree of differential movement,
does not break bond on the intersected wall and avoids
complex solutions involving small units.
3.79
C..., IIU.d ,.vt Sr malt.,
Mail. I. ralala c.i'iffll

TI. 700i 32 x I.cIudI.g 50mm c.,a

.t Urn ,utIcaU si.ch.
UNBONDED INTERSECTION - LOADBEARING WALL

Dai.lI epplI.. I. all f$,Icke.a...
Detail L34
UNBONDED INTERSECTION - NON-LOADBEARING WALL

De..Il .ppII.s I. all lI,Ickumasai
Detail L35
10.01
S
10-01
390 mm x 190 mm ENGAGED PIER
NOTE: This detail is available, in EPS format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Anciiiary/L35,eps
15 01 10-01
390 mm x 240 mm ENGAGED PIERS
NOTE: This detail s available, in EPS format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Ancil]ary/L36.eps
LI-
10-0 1
10-0 7
10-0 1
20-0 1
20-01
20-01
20 07
390 mm x 290 mm ENGAGED PIERS
NOTE: This detail is available, in EPS format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Ancillary/L3Zeps
Q Q')
Detail L38
390 mm x 340 mm ENGAGED PIER
Detail L39
20-01
390 mm x390 mm ENGAGED PIER
Notes on Column Details (Details L40 to L42)
The design of columns, which may include the use of
steel reinforcement and grout, should be undertaken by
a qualified and experienced person
Detail L40
20-61
COLUMN - CORNER
NOTE: This detail is available, in EPS format, on the enclosed CD-ROM as: Anci]lary/L40.eps
au L41.
20.61
20-61
COLUMN - END OF WALL
2OI
COLUMN - WITHIN WALL

S
Detail LU
FLEXIBLE WALL TO COLUMN CONNECTIONS
Detail L44
-01 mit with webs partly removed
Same principles apply to oth.r services

Hot400nt.l conduit hi lintel wilts D...iI applies to .11 thicknesses
INSTALLATION OF SERVICES IN HOLLOW

BLOCK WALLS
29
Note to Detail L44
The cutting of chases in hollow concrete block walls
should be avoided. Cut chases weaken walls and do not
permit the use of fair-face finishes.
Wherever possible, services should be located in the
cores of hollow block walls as suggested in Detail L44.
Although electrical services only have been illustrated,
similar principles may be applied to other services
capable of fitting within the cores.
To make this technique work, careful planning and
co-ordination is needed during the design and
construction stages.
3.87
Estimating Contents
This chapter provides guidance on calculating the 4.1 BASIS OF TABLE
quantities of masonry units, mortar and grout for
particular projects. 4.2 WORKED EXAMPLE
BASIS OF TABLE
DENSITY OF MATERIALS
There are slight variations in face shell widths, core The following densities can be used to calculate wall
tapers, core dimensions and web rebates of hollow mass, for purposes of determining vertical gravity loads
concrete blocks throughout Australia. When calculating on supporting structures, earthquake loads and sound
mortar and grout quantities, exact dimensions should attenuation.
be sought from the manufacturer and adjustments Density
should be made to account for the peculiarities of the Material (kg/rn3)
particular units.
Dense-weight concrete masonry units 2180
NUMBERS OF BLOCKS Lightweight concrete masonry units 1800
When calculating the number of blocks required for a Mortar 2100

particular wall area, it is necessary to know the effective Grout 2400
face area of one masonry unit and the mortar associated
with it. Since mortar joints are 10 mm thick, the Plasterboard 800
effective face area is given by (length of unit + 10 mm)
x (height of unit + 10 mm)
MO RTAR
The mortar volume tables are based on the following
assumptions:
u 90-mm- and 110-mm-wide Units are fully bedded
(considered to be solid or cored units) and have full
perpendicular joints. All joints are 10 mm thick and
an allowance of 10% for frogs, cores and wastage. If
a higher wastage is expected, the estimator should
make the appropriate allowance.
140-mm- and 190-mm-wide units are face-shell bedded
(considered as hollow units) and have face-shell
bedded perpendicular joints. Minimum face shell
widths of 25 mm and 30 mm have been allowed for
140-mm and 190-mm units respectively. All joints are
10 mm thick and an allowance of 50% for overflow
into cores and for wastage. If a higher wastage is
expected, the estimator should make the appropriate
allowance.
GROUT
The tabulated grout quantities are based on the
percentage solid for the most common core sizes, as set
out below. An allowance of 10% for wastage has also
been included.
Width of unit Percentage solid
(mm) (%)
90 68 (cannot be grouted)
110 100 (carmot be grouted)
140 55
190 51
Table 4.1 Block, Mortar and Grout Quantities
Volume of grout (m3) per

Volume of mortar
Number of
Unit dimensions (m3) per 100 m2 1000 100 m2 1000 100 m2 1000
units per
ofwall units ofwall units of wall units
Length Height Width % 100 m2 100 m2 1000
(mm) (mm) (mm) solid of wall of wall units Every core filled Grouted @800 crs Grouted @2000 crs
390 190 90 68 1250 0.73 0.58 - - - - - -

- 110 100 1250 0.89 0.71 - - - - -
140 55 1250 0.55 0.44 6.8 5.4 1.7 1.4 0.7 0.5
190 51 1250 0.66 0.53 10.0 8.0 2.5 2.0 1.0 0.8
390 140 90 68 1667 0.89 0.53 -

110 100 1667 1.09 0.65 -
140 55 1667 0.68 0.41 6.8 4.1 1.7 1.0 0.7 0.4
190 51 1667 0.81 0.49 10.0 6.0 2.5 1.5 1.0 0.6
390 90 90 68 2500 1.21 0.49 - - - -

110 100 2500 1.48 0.59 - - - - - -
140 55 2500 0.92 0.37 6.8 2.7 1.7 0.7 0.7 0.3
190 51 2500 1.10 0.44 10.0 4.0 2.5 1.0 1.0 0.4
290 162 90 68 1938 0.89 0.46

110 100 1938 1.08 0.56 - - - -
140 55 1938 0.67 0.35 6.7 3.5 1.7 0.9 0.7 0.3
190 51 1938 0.81 0,42 9.9 5.1 2.5 1.3 1.0 0.5
290 119 90 68 2584 1.07 0.41 - - - - - -

110 100 2584 1.31 0.51 - - - - - -
140 55 2584 0.81 0.31 6.7 2.6 1.7 0.6 0.7 0.3
190 51 2584 0.97 0.38 9.9 3.8 2.5 1.0 1.0 0.4
290 90 90 68 3333 1.29 0.39 -

110 100 3333 1.57 0.47 -
140 55 3333 0.98 0.29 6.7 2.0 1.7 0.5 0.7 0.2
190 51 3333 1.17 0.35 9.9 3.0 2.5 0.7 1.0 0.3
290 76 90 68 3876 1.44 0.37 - - - - -

110100 3876 1.76 0.45 - - - - - -
P
230 76
140
190
90
55
51
68
3876
3876
4845
1.09
1.31
1.52
0.28
0.34
0.31
6.7
9.9
1.7
2.6
1.7
2.5
0.4
0.6
0.7
1.0
0.2
0.3
110 100 4845 1.85 0.38 - - -

140 55 4845 1.15 0.24 6.6 1.4 1.7 0.3 0.7 0.1
190 51 4845 1.38 0.28 9.8 2.0 2.5 0.5 1.0 0.2
See Figure 4.1 for an estimating sheet to calculate

block, mortar and grout quantities using Table 4.1.
4
L1
CALCULATION OF NUMBER OF UNITS REQUIRED
Gross area of wall m2
Deduct openings m2
Net area of wall m2
n -Numberofcorners Deductcorners:
H = Heightofwall(m) n x H xt
=Thickness of wall (mm) 1000 m2
- Net masonry area m2
Face dimensions of units

(length x height) mm
From Table 4.1 Number of units

per 100 m2 of wall
Total number of units
Deduct special units: Full Half Three quarter

Number of corner units
Number of lintel units
Number of sash/jamb units
Number of control joint units I
Number of other units
Total number of special units
Total deduction in stretcher units

I
Net number of stretcher units
CALCULATION OF QUANTITY OF MORTAR REQUIRED
Netarea of masonry m2
Dimensions of units
(length x heightx width) mm
From Table 4.1 Volume of mortar

per 100 m2 of wall m3/100 m2
Total volume of mortar required - m3
CALCULATION OF QUANTITY OF GROUT REQUIRED
acing of grouted cores mm

imensionsofunits]
ength x heightx width) mm
From Table 4.1 Volume ofgrout

per 100 m2 of wall m3/100 m2
Total volume of grout required m3
Figure 4.1 Estimating Sheet

F.
WORKED EXAMPLE
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this worked example is to demonstrate the derivation of Table 4.1 and
to enable similar calculations to be carried out.
AIM
To find the number of blocks, volume of mortar and volume of grout required for the wall illustrated.
42 000
3600 15.01 blocks

k Grouted cores @800 centres k 200
DATA
Face area of wall: A = 3.6 x 42.0
= 151 m2
Unit length: L = 390 mm
Unit height: H0 = 190 mm
Unit width: W = 140 mm
Percentage solid: p = 55%

= 0.55
Thickness of mortar: tm = 10 mm
Grouted core spacing: S = 800 mm
Face shell width: t = 25 mm

CALCULATIONS
Number of units per 100 m2 of wall:
100,000,000
N100 -
(L + tm) (H + tm)
100,000,000
- (390+l0)(l90+l0)
1250 units per 100 m2 of wall
Number of units in wall:
N = N100
100
1250x 151 NOTE:
N
- 100 When ordering, make allowance
= 1890 units say for halves, fittings and breakage
Volume of mortar per 100 m2 of wall, allowing for 50% wastage:
v nhloo - Nioo(Lu+Hu+tm)tm2tsX 1.5

1,000,000.000
1250(390+l90+10)lOx2x2Sxl.5
- 1,000,000,000
= 0.55 m3 per 100 m2 of wall
Volume of mortar in wall:

A
Vm - V mloo
100
0.55 x 151
100
= 0.83 m3
Volume of grout per 100 m2 of wall, allowing for 10% wastage:

N100( 1 - p) L W (H + tm) 1.1 200
v x
I ,000,000,000 S
l250(1-0.55)x390x140x(l90+10)xl.l 200
- 1,000.000,000 800
6.8x200
800
= 1.7 m3 per 100 m2 of wall
C
Volume of grout in wall:
E Vg = V100
100
C,)
uJ l.7x 151
100
= 2.6 m3
A
. S
II
Estimating
1: Li
S
Construction Contents
This chapter provides information on the 5.1 TYPES OF WALLS
procedures for constructing concrete masonry
5.2 CONSTRUCTING WALLS
structures.
TYPES OF WALLS
TYPES OF WALLS
Veneer walls (Figure 5.lc) are usually constructed
as the outer walls of buildings and rely on a structural
member of steel or timber to support the masonry
veneer, to which it is tied by wall ties.
Cavity walls and diaphragm walls (Figure
5.ld,e,f,g) are generally constructed to serve as
exterior walls where weather resistance is required,
without resort to protective coatings. Such walls may
be constructed of hollow or solid blocks, or standard
or modular bricks. Both leaves may be built of the
same type of unit, or one leaf may be hollow and one
solid. One unit may be brick and one block, provided
the heights of the units are such that at least every
seventh bed joint of standard brickwork aligns with a
bed joint of the blockwork (Seven courses of standard
height brickwork represent a height of 600 mm, ie
the recommended cavity tie spacing.) Blocks 162 mm
high with a 10-mm joint correspond to two standard

bnck courses (76 mm with a 10 mm joint), Blocks 119
mm high with a 10-mm loint correspond to one-and-a-
half standard brick courses. The coincidence of course
heights facilitates the installation of wall ties.
Single-leaf walls of hollow or solid blocks
(Figure 5.la,b) are used extensively as exterior and
interior walls. If used externally, measures are needed to
protect against weather penetration.
Reinforced and grouted hollow block walls
(Figure 5.lb,e) are used as exterior and interior
loadbearing walls in highly stressed situations, such
as those encountered in multi-storey buildings of
loadbearing wall construction and in structures
subjected to high out-of-plane wind or earthquake
loading. Unless such exterior walls form one leaf
of a cavity wall, similar measures to those applied
to unreinforced walls are required to resist weather
penetration. Walls of this type are used frequently for
retaining walls and as walls of swimming pools, water
tanks and hydraulic structures. In such cases, special
surface treatments will be needed, depending on the
conditions of service.
S
IS
Solid or hollow concrete masonry Hollow concrete blockwork
F
Vertical steel
reinforcement
walls Horizontal steel

coated reinforcement
-ble pa to bond beams
m or
Bed-joint - Reinforcement
reinforcement. may consist of vertical,
horizontal or bed-joint, or
any combination of these
(a) Unreinforced Single-leaf (b) Reinforced Single-leaf
Masonry-veneerties
Solid or hollow concrete

masonry outer leaf
Structural
backing
Flashing
Weepholes
Unreinforced Veneer
Vertical steel
reinforcement
I Outer leaf
Inner leaf
Outer leaf
Cavity ties
Horizontal steel
reinforcement
Cavity ties
Inner leaf
Open perpends
as weepholes
for drainage
of cavity Inner leaf or
outer leaf or both
Flashing Flashing -y itnforted
fri Unreinforced Leaves Reinforced Leaves
Vertical steel reinforcement

Headers bonded to the in mortar-filled cavity
internal and external
leaves with ties Outer leaf
Cavity ties
Horizontal steel
reinforcement
in cavity
IC',
-J
Inner leaf
(f) Diaphragm
Inner leaf
Ii!
(g) Reinforced-cavity
Inner leaf or
outer leaf may be
solid or hollow concrete masonry
S Figure 5.1 Masonry Wa/I Types

CONSTRUCTING
WALLS4
Most laying procedures for hollow single-leaf walls,
as set out below, apply also to walls of other types.
Supplementary recommendations and illustrations are
provided to cover the special requirements of cavity and
reinforced and grouted block walls.
SETTING OUT
The accuracy of the line and level of the first course is
most important, because inaccuracies will be magnified
in successive courses (Figure 5.2 and Figure 5.3), If
the first course is wrong, it will be difficult to build the
wall correctly. The first course should, therefore, be set
out and laid with the greatest care.
The bricklayer should first locate the corners or ends
of the wall and any openings, and fix the level of the
first course Profile boards and string lines are used
commonly for this purpose (Figure 5.4).
Figure 5.2
The bricklayer should then set out the first course 'dry',
or, more commonly, check measure all dimensions using

a tape to make sure that they 'work' to masonry bond
and that they agree with the dimensions given in the
drawings. The bricklayer should then mark the outer
face of the wall on the footing with a chalk line or a
trowel.
Any errors or inadequacies in the line or level of the
footings or errors in drawings should be corrected.
Footings should be cleaned before work starts.
THE FIRST COURSE

Having mixed the mortar to the correct specifications
(Figure 5.5), a full mortar bed should be spread on the
footing. (Figure 5.6) Mortar should not be spread too
far ahead of the blocklaymg, or it will dry out and lose
plasticity,
The corner units should be laid first and positioned
accurately (Figure 5.7). A string line is stretched
between the corners at the level of the top of the first
course (Figure 5.8). Figure 5.3
Blocks should be laid with the widest parts of the
shells and webs uppermost, as this facilitates the
spreading of the mortar bed. Double-U blocks and
H blocks are the correct blocks to use in retaining walls.
If blocks with rebated webs are used with horizontal
reinforcement, it will be necessary to lay alternate
courses upside-down so that the rebates match, creating
larger openings - holes through which the horizontal
reinforcement passes.
Any adjustments to the position of blocks should be
made while the mortar is plastic and before any more
blocks are laid. Each unit is levelled and aligned to the
string line by light tapping with the trowel or a hammer
(Figures 5.9 and 5.10).
Figure 5.4
cu
OFigure 5.6
Figure 5.5
Figure 5.9
Figure 5.8
Figure 5.10
As each block is laid, excess mortar extruded from the
joints should be cut of f with the trowel and returned to
the mortar board, to be reworked with the fresh mortar
(Figure 5.11).
When laying hollow blocks, mortar should be applied
only to the face shells and their vertical projections
on the head joints (Figure 5.12). Unless specified
otherwise, mortar is not applied to the cross webs or
to full head joints. This procedure helps to isolate the
faces of the wall from leakage paths through mortal
joints, so reducing the tendency for capillary leakage
caused by weather. In fully grouted reinforced block
walls, the unfilled sections of Joints are filled during
grouting, providing an additional 'key' for the grout.
The ends of units should be 'buttered' with mortar
(Figure 5.13) for face-shell bedding. Several units can
be placed on end so that the bricklayer can butter their
head joints or perpendicular joints in a single operation,
thus saving time.
Figure 5.11
SUBSEQUENT COURSES
After laying the first course (Figure 5.14), corners are
usually built up four or five courses (Figure 5.15).
Each course is then checked for level (Figure 5.16),
and corners are checked for plumb and to ensure that
the vertical faces of all blocks are in the same plane
(Figure 5.17).
The course height should be checked at this time, using
a storey or gauge rod with markings corresponding to
the height of each course, including the 10-mm mortar
joints (Figure 5.18).
When building corners, each course should be racked
back half a unit. The horizontal spacing should be
checked by using a spirit level placed diagonally across
the corners of the units (Figure 5.19).
When 'filling in' between corners, the string line should
be stretched between corners, at the level of the top of
each course, to maintain correct line and level
Figure 5.12
(Figure 5.20).
Figure 5.13 Figure 5.14

Figure 5.17
Figure 5.16
Figure 5.15
A
I
¶1
Figure 5.19
Figure 5.20
Figure 5.18
When laying large units overhand, each unit should be
tilted towards the bricklayer to enable the upper edge
of the course below to be seen. This allows the unit
to be placed more accurately. By rolling it to a vertical
position and 'shoving' it towards the adiacent unit, it
can be laid to the string line with minimum adjustment
(Figure 5.21).
When setting the 'closure' unit in each course, all edges
of the gap and one end of the 'closure' unit should
be 'buttered' with mortar. The unit should then be
placed with care to avoid disturbing the adjacent units
(Figures 5.22 and 5.23).
FINISHING JOINTS
Weather-resistant joints and neat appearance depend on
proper finishing. This operation is performed when the
mortar has hardened to the point where it is just plastic
under thumb pressure.
Figure 5.21 To finish the joints, a jointing tool is used. This is a
round bar, 15 mm diameter for concave joints. It is about

6CC mm long, fitted with a handle in the centre and
with its ends turned up like ski tips to prevent gouging
the joint.
The jointing tool should be used to compact and
smooth the joints. This operation is usually referred to
as 'ironing' the joints.
Vertical joints should be finished first (Figure 5.24) to
avoid damaging finished horizontal joints (Figure 5.25).
Alter finishing, surplus mortar is removed with the
trowel (Figure 5.26). Any burrs may be removed after
hardening by rubbing with a flat piece of block of the
same colour as the wall (Figure 5.27).
Raking joints is not permitted in hollow blockwork since
it leads to leakage due to the collection of rainwater in
the water traps formed in raked joints. In loadbearing
walls, the effective cross-section and load capacity of
the wall are reduced by raking the joints.
CLEANING
Figure 5.22
Special care should be taken to prevent mortar smearing
or dropping on the surface of the wall. Embedded
mortar smears can not be removed completely after
hardening, and show through most paints or surface
treatments. Mortar droppings adhering to a wall should
be allowed to dry before they are removed with a
brush or a trowel. When dry and hard, most of the
mortar remaining can be removed by rubbing with a
small piece of concrete block the same colour as the
wall (Figure 5.28). Many cleaning problems can be
avoided, particularly with coloured blocks, by using
coloured mortar that matches the wall. However, the
best treatment is to keep the walls clean while they are
being built.
Figure 5.23
5.9
Figure 5.26
Figure 5.25
Figure 5.24
Figure 5.27
Figure 5.28
I
SUPPLEMENTARY RECOMMENDATIONS a
Cavity Walls
Cavity walls with two leaves separated by a continuous
air space and connected by corrosion-resistant metal or
plastic ties embedded in the mortar joints are generally
used where weather resistance is required without
further treatment. They are built similar to single-leaf
walls except as noted below.
Care should be taken to keep cavities and wall ties
free from mortar droppings. If this is not done, rain will
penetrate the wall and cause dampness problems inside
the building.
After laying the first course, surplus bedding mortar
should be cleaned from the cavity using a timber batten
slightly narrower than the cavity (Figure 5.29).
Wall ties should be placed on the surface of the
masonry units at the specified spacings. Ties should be
laid, sloping down a maximum of 10 mm towards the
exterior leaf of the wall (Figure 5.30). Figure 5.29
The next course should be laid on one leaf of the wall

and a timber cavity batten placed in the cavity, resting
on the wall ties (Figure 5.31). The cavity batten is
used to catch mortar droppings to prevent them falling
into the cavity and adhering to the ties, thus creating
moisture bridges across the cavity. The cavity batten
should beprovided with wires or strings so that it
can be lifted out of the cavity for removal of mortar
droppings, cleaning and relaying at the next level of
ties (Figure 5.32). When the next level of wall ties is
reached, the batten is raised, cleaned and the cycle is
repeated (Figure 5.33).
Another measure required to keep dampness from the
interior leaves of cavity walls is the installation of cavity
flashings and the provision of weep holes. Flashings
aie bent in a reverse sloping Z-shape, and placed so
that the edges of the horizontal surfaces do not quite
reach the outsides of the mortar joints. Where the
cavity flashing is also to act as a damp-proof course,
the flashing shall extend to the external face of the
masonry and be visible. The high side of the flashing Figure 5.30
is laid on the interior leaf of the wall. Both horizontal
surfaces of the flashing are laid on units before mortar
is placed. The mortar beds should be then laid and the
next courses placed above the flashing (Figure 5.34).
Alternate head joints in the exterior leaf immediately
above the flashing course should be left free of mortar
to form weep holes. Any rainwater that penetrates
the outer leaf is collected by the flashing and drains
through the weep holes to the outside of the wall.
Care must be taken to avoid mortar droppings on the
flashing. Such droppings will block weep holes and
retain water, thus causing a damp interior leaf. The use
of cavity battens will avoid this problem.
Figure 5.31
F; ifl
5.11
Figure 5.34
Figure 5.33
Figure 5.32
Reinforced Concrete Block Walls
Reinforced concrete block walls consist of hollow blocks
with vertical and horizontal reinforcement fully encased
in concrete grout.
Except for short starter bars cast in the concrete footing,
the vertical reinforcing bars are usually placed in the
hollow cores after the wall is completed. The horizontal
bars are placed in U-shaped lintel blocks or in the
rebated webs of double-U or H blocks progressively as
the wall is built.
On completion of blocklaying and placing of
reinforcement, the vertical and horizontal bars are
encased completely in grout, placed by pouring or
pumping from the top of the wall or from the level of a
major change in wall thickness.
Blocklaying practice is much the same as for
unreinforced concrete block walls, except as discussed
and illustrated below.
The starter bars for the vertical reinforcement are cast Figure 5.35
in the footing at the specified spacing at the time the

footing is placed. Short starter bars are used instead of
full wall height bars, so that the blocks will not have to
be lifted and threaded over vertical bars (Figure 5.35).
Starter bars must be accurately supported from the
timber formwork of the footing.
The first course consists of special blocks with cleaning
holes (cleanout blocks). These are used to allow the
cores to be cleaned of mortar and rubbish before
grouting (Figure 5.36).
Subsequent courses should consist of H blocks or
double-U blocks, which permit horizontal reinforcement
to be completely encased by concrete grout
(Figure 5.37).
If flush-ended blocks are used, they must incorporate
rebates in the webs, which permit sufficient clearance
around the horizontal bars to enable them to be
supported 20 mm clear of the webs. This may be
assisted by turning blocks in alternate courses upside-
down, thus increasing the clearance.
Figure 5.36
The construction of the wall continues as for an
unreinforced wall except for the placement of horizontal
reinforcement courses at specified intervals.
When the wall is completed to its full height, the
mortar should be allowed to set and cure. The mortar
fins that are extruded into the cores during the laying
process, and which would interfere with the placing of
grout, should be removed by rodding (Figure 5.38). The
pieces of surplus mortar so dislodged are then removed
from the clean-out holes (Figure 5.39).
c0 The main vertical reinforcement should be placed and

tied to the starter bars (Figure 5.40). It is secured at
4-J
0 its upper end to prevent movement relative to the cores
and to maintain it in the correct position.
4-J
(I) The clean-out holes should then be closed to retain
C the grout. This can be done in several ways. Where
0
C) appearance is not important, closure may be by means
of covers which are either attached to the vertical
reinforcing steel by hook bolts or are prevented from
I moving by propped and wedged timbers (Figures 5.41

and 5.42). Figure 5.37
; 19
Figure 5.40
Figure 5.38
Figure 5.39
Figure 5.41
Figure 5.42
Where appearance is important, and both faces of the
wall must maintain bond, the following procedure may
be adopted. Instead of using special cleanout blocks
for the first course, standard hollow blocks (Xci type
units) maybe used. One face shell and part of the
webs on that side are removed by sawing to reduce
the overall thickness of the blocks by approximately 50
mm. After cleaning the cores, the cleanout holes are
blocked by using 390 mm x 190 mm x 40 mm thick
(5031) units, laid to maintain bond (Figure 5.43). These
units are bedded in mortar to the X.01 units. To prevent
movement or damage, they should be restrained and
supported by propping over their full length and height.
Grout should be of such consistency as to give free flow
without segregation. The slump at the time of placing
should be approximately 225 mm. Grout used to protect
reinforcement should have a portland cement content
of at least 300 kg/m3 and a characteristic strength
greater than 12 MPa. A value of at least 20 MPa is
recommended. The recommended maximum aggregate Figure 5.44
size is 10 mm, and should not exceed 20 mm

(Figure 5.44).
The grout may be placed by hand (Figure 5.45) or by
pumping (Figures 5.46 and 5.47). It should be rodded
or mechanically vibrated during the placing process
to complete the filling of the cores Grout will usually
settle in the cores a short time after placing. Cores
should be topped up while the grout is still plastic and
the additional grout rodded into the earlier material.
Core cleanout blocks

(produced by sawing approx.
50mm of the face of
X.01 type units)
Figure 5.45
Closing units (50.31 units)
laid to maintain bond
Figure 5.43
Figure 5.46
1,1
PROTECTION OF MATERIALS AND WORK
DURING CONSTRUCTION
Masonry units should be stored and protected on site in
such a way as to prevent:
damage by chipping and breakage;
i wetting by rain or ground water, or increase in
moisture content from other causes;
contamination by mud, dust, atmospheric pollution
or other substances likely to cause staining or loss of
bond;
entry of salts in solution from ground or other
sources; and
damage by frost.
Except for chipping and breakage, all of the above-
mentioned damage may be prevented by stacking
units on supports clear of the ground, and covering
Figure 5.47 them with heavy polythene, tarpaulins or other suitable
material in such a way that some circulation of air is
maintained.
Mortar and mortar materials should also be stored on
5
site so that they are protected from contamination and
Wall thickness Mass dampness. Pre-mixed mortar should be kept dry and free
Ref. (mm) (kg/rn2) I from premature deterioration.
jtA 300 400
IMPORTANT: Concrete masonry units should not
4 8 200 260
C 150 220
wetted before laying. The only exception to this rule
D 100 150
is in extremely hot, dry conditions, when it may be
permissible to sprinkle the bonding surfaces lightly with
water immediately before laying, to reduce suction.
Completed and partly completed work should be
protected by covering when necessary to prevent
physical damage or surface contamination by rain or
water and extreme heat or cold. Exposed tops of walls
2 should be covered at the end of each day's work, or
immediately if rain begins during the day, to prevent
S
=
=1 I entry of water.
Precautions should be taken to prevent masonry being
sub)ected to loading until the mortar and or the grout
have hardened sufficiently to support the load without
damage.
Wind during the construction of masonry walls is a
2025303540
Wind Gust Velocity (m/s)
potential cause of collapse, with consequent hazards to
life and property. Temporary bracing should be provided
during construction and until the mortar has gained
sufficient strength to resist wind. Figure 5.48 sets out
Figure 5.48 recommendations for the maximum height of unbraced
masonry walls during construction. The maximum
unhraced heights of walls of mass or thickness other
than those shown in this chart may be interpolated.
The thickness of a cavity wall may be assumed to be
two-thirds the sum of the thicknesses of its two leaves.
These recommendations are based on free-standing
walls with free air movement on both sides. Where
temporary bracing is installed, it is permissible for the
wall to project above the bracing to the height shown
in this chart.
CIi. ster 6
Cleaning and
Maintenance Contents
This chapter provides guidance on the correct 6.1 GENERAL BUILDING MAINTENANCE
methods of cleaning and maintaining concrete
6.2 WEATHERPROOFING
masonry to retain attractive finishes.
6.3 CRACKING, FOOTING MOVEMENT AND
CONTROL JOINTS
6.4 EFFLORESCENCE AND STAINING
6.5 REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

GENERAL BUILDING
MAINTENANCE A
Concrete masonry may be generally described as a
'low-maintenance' walling material. However, there are
some important simple precautions that should be taken
to ensure its long-term attractiveness and its ability to
perform the required structural function. These involve.
Ensuring that the masonry remains weatherproof
Repairing any cracks or deterioration of control joints
Cleaning off any efflorescence, staining or mould
and, if necessary, sealing the surface.
CRACKING,
FOOTING MOVEMENT AND
W4IWEATHERPROOFING 4 CONTROL JOINTS
I
Buildings should be designed and constructed so as to Unreinforced concrete masonry is a brittle material
prevent water from penetrating masonry walls. This can which will crack if long walls are constructed without
be achieved by the following steps: a break or if supports move. Cracking may occur in the
Ensuring that the building is correctly designed and concrete masonry units themselves or in the cement
mortars and cement renders used in conjunction with
detailed to account for weatherproofing requirements,
them.
foundation movement, shrinkage and the efficient
removal of rain water. Footing movement
Footing movement is a major source of cracking in
All rainwater downpipes and gutters should be
unreinforced masonry. When buildings are constructed
regularly inspected and kept clean, free of corrosion, on clay or similar soils, moisture movements in the
and connected to a correctly-functioning storm water soils lead to expansion and contraction of the soil,
drain. causing the building to either cantilever on its footings
Flashings should be secured and the joints sealed beyond a shrinking soil mound or to sag between an
with flexible sealant such as silicone. It may be expanded soil rim. As the supporting soil contracts or
necessary to renew sealants over time if they expands, any unreinforced masonry may crack, moving
sympathetically with the deflected concrete footings
deteriorate.
supporting the structures.
The main contributing factors to footing movement are:
Inadequately designed footings with insufficient

strength and stiffness which deflect and cause the
masonry to crack.
Clay soils which are prone to expansion and
contraction.
Trees which may suck the moisture out of the soil
causing it to shrink.
Poor or badly maintained drainage systems which
allow a build up of moisture in the soil causing it to
expand.
A completed building and its surrounding site should be
regularly maintained, ensuring that:
The site storm water drainage system is removing
rainwater
The plumbing reticulation system is not leaking
Trees have not grown too close to the footings and
other structures.
Control joints
position and width of cracks In a wall exposed to the
weather, contraction joints must be weather-proof with a
flexible sealant at the surface. Periodically the sealants
should be inspected, and if they have deteriorated, they
should be removed and replaced.
Expansion joints (for thermal movement) and articulation
joints (for footing or support movement) must be kept
free of hard material such as mortar droppings and
must be free to close under the action of thermal
expansion and footing movement.
EFFLORESCENCE AND
STAINING
Type M4 For applications subject to saline wetting
6.4.1 CAUSES OF EFFLORESCENCE and drying, in aggressive soils, in
severe marine environments, in saline or
White calcium carbonate efflorescence is occasionally
contaminated water including tidal splash
present on concrete masonry walls. The most common
zones and within 1 km of an industry
mechanism for its occurrence is:
producing chemical pollutants.
Moisture enters the masonry through open-topped
Preferred: 1 part Type GP cement, 4 parts
walls, sills or poorly constructed mortar joints.
sand plus methyl cellulose water thickener.
s The moisture dissolves calcium oxide in the cement
Alternative: I part Type GP cement, i'i part
and lime, forming calcium hydroxide.
lime, 41/2 parts sand.
A combination of low external humidity and high
humidity in the cavity and cores in the masonry units Methyl cellulose is an agent which holds moisture
in the mortar while the cement hydrates. It is quite
forces the calcium hydroxide solution to the outer
different from the air-entraining agent commonly used in
surface of the wall. mortars.
The calcium hydroxide combines with the carbon
Control joints
dioxide in the atmosphere to deposit insoluble white Walls should include well-positioned control joints to
calcium carbonate on the surface. prevent indiscriminate cracking of the wall that would
permit ingress of moisture. Control joints should be
6.4.2 DETAILING TO AVOID EFFLORESCENCE
correctly sealed.
The following measures should be taken to minimise Weep holes
the occurrence of efflorescence in masonry walls. Cavity walls should include numerous well-positioned
Tops of walls and parapets weep holes to allow any moisture in the cavity to
Walls and parapets should have protection such as escape. Cavities should be free of mortar droppings.
flashings or capping to the top surface. A common Removal of mortar smears
source of staining of masonry is water entering walls The external face of the masonry should be kept clear
and cavities at this point via the exposed horizontal of mortar smears.
surface.
Window sills 6.4.3 REMOVAL OF EFFLORESCENCE AND
Window sills with an inadequate projection provide a STAINING
source of water entry to the walls and will promote Once an efflorescence or staining problem is identified,
staining. The incorrect installation of window flashings the following procedure is suggested.
will exacerbate this problem.
Engage an expert to identify and report on the
Flashings source of efflorescence or staining. The report should
Flashings should protrude to the outside face of the
consider possible contributions by poor detailing
brickwork. If the flashing is stopped short of the core
(allowing ingress of water and contaminants) and the
holes in the external leaf, any moisture entering the
wall will be channelled into the units, permeating the materials (including masonry units, mortar and grout).
mortar, dissolving calcium hydroxide and eventually Since the staining could continue for some time, it
passing to the outside surface where the calcium is suggested that a building be allowed to stand for,
hydroxide carbonates. say, six months from when the efflorescence first
Masonry units appears before any remedial action is taken.
Unless required otherwise, it is a reasonable expectation At the end of this time, any unsightly deposits will
that concrete masonry units have an efflorescence be visible and the appropriate cleaning strategy can
potential of nil or slight.
be devised and implemented. Cleaning strategies
Mortar may include:
Mortar should be hard and sound. The recommended Dry brushing efflorescence off the surface
mixes are:
Washing with low pressure water jet
Type M3 For general applications (except as listed
Steam cleaning
for M4).
High pressure water jet blasting
Preferred: 1 part Type GP cement, 5 parts
sand plus methyl cellulose water thickener. Washing effloresoence off the surface using
proprietary cleaners and chemicals
Alternative: 1 part Type GP cement, I part
lime, 6 parts sand. Wet abrasive (grit) blasting
Dry abrasive (grit) blasting.
S
Building maintenance should be performed at this apply selected cleaning solution starting at the top
time, including: of the wall;
Cracked mortar Should be pointed let the cleaning solution stay on the wall for 1 to 5
Control joints sealed with a polyurethane minutes, or as directed by the manufacturer; and
flexible sealant wash the wall with high pressure starting at the top
Flashings should be repaired (do not direct jet onto mortar joints).
Rainwater downpipes should be repaired or In general, the higher the water pressure, the more
installed if not already in place effective the cleaning and the greater the potential
A clear sealant may be applied or renewed to damage to the surface (see Table 6.1).
protect the masonry against ingress of Table 6.1 Water Jet Cleaning
rainwater.
General Pressure Cleaning
6.4.4 CLEANING METHODS pressure (kPa) Damage ability
The methods of general cleaning listed in order of Mains 300 Low Low
increasing rigour are:
Low Up to 1500 Low Moderate
Dry Brushing
Dry hand brushes from small soft to hard scrubbing Medium 1500- 3000 Damage to Moderate
S brushes can be used to remove soft or loose surface smooth-face masonry to high
deposits such as dust, salts and weak crusts. However, High 3000- 5000 Damage to
it is possible that surface deposits of soluble salts polished-face masonry High
will reappear if water enters the surface of permeable
masonry and subsequently evaporates from the surface. Very high 5000- 50 000 Damage to
Repeated dry brushing may eventually arrest the split-face masonry High
appearance of the salts, but washing will probably be
more efficient.
Acid should not be used through the jet equipment
Water Washing
because:
This is one of the gentlest processes available. Use
of bucket and brush or garden hose and brush can It pushes the chemical deep into the substrate
generally remove most surface dirt. This will remove making it difficult to remove
surface deposits of soluble salts, but will probably fail to Chemical does not remain on wall long enough to
remove hardened calcium carbonate or mortar smears.
work, thus operator tends to use higher strengths to
Soaking with water has been used since Roman times, compensate
a slow steady stream of water causes the dirt deposits
Can cause harm to operator and surrounding
to swell, loosening their grip on the underlying masonry.
environment.
Accumulated waters, cascading over the face of the
masonry, then wash the loosened dirt away. Chemical Cleaning
Many chemicals can be applied to concrete masonry
Steam Cleaning
without appreciable injury to the surface, but strong
This is not often used because it is slow. However,
acids or chemicals with a strong acid reaction should
it can sometimes help remove deep-seated soiling,
definitely be avoided, Even weak acid should be used
softening oily, greasy or tarry deposits and for killing
only as a last resort as it dissolves the cement matrix
mould or algae on damp surfaces.
of the masonry, beginning at the surface. This leaves
Low-Pressure Water Jet the face more porous so that it absorbs more water and
A pump unit projects a low-pressure water jet against exposes more aggregate, thereby changing the colour
the surface to dislodge loosely held material. Often and texture of the masonry.
used as a follow up to a loosening process, eg chemical
The general procedure is to thoroughly wet the masonry
or brushing. Cleaning should begin at the top of the
surface, spray or brush a minimum amount of chemical,
masonry so water will run down and pre-soften the dirt
below
allow it to act for 1 to 5 minutes and then scrub. Wash
it off using one of the methods described above.
High-Pressure Water Jet (Blasting)
This incorporates hot water and a 15° fan nozzle at an Precautions are necessary to protect the operator.
appropriate distance (at least 150 mm) from the surface Occupational health and safety requirements and
common sense should prevail.
and appropriate pressure. The general procedure is:
Organic solvents are generally used on small areas of
allow at least 7 days for mortar to harden;
greasy substances by using a bandage or poultice. This
remove large mortar dags with hammer and chisel or can he expensive since they tend to evaporate or be
scutch hammer; absorbed. The more commonly used solvents are white
spirit, carbon tetrachloride, methy and ethyl alcohols,
S mask or protect adjacent areas;
thoroughly wet the wall until suction of masonry unit
proprietary paint stripper or dry-cleaning agents. They
is complete;
also tend to leave a visible residue or stain on the
masonry. 6
Detergents are surfactants (surface active agents) and 6.4.5 GUIDELINES FOR DETERMINING
promote wetting of the soiled surface by water. Small APPROPRIATE CLEANING METHODS
quantities of detergent are often used when washing
The appropriate cleaning method depends on the
with water, usually at low pressure. Detergents aie
purpose of the cleaning and on the extent of the work
by no means harmless, with many being chemically-
to be done. A guide to assist in the selection is shown
aggressive. They are most effective and can be used in
in Table 6.2, the principle of which was developed in
the removal of earth stains.
a document published by the National Trustt The
Acid cleaners should be used only after considerable table uses four variables:
thought is given to the consequences, such as effect I degree of resistance of the masonry to damage
on the masonry, operator and the environment. There is
common well-founded resistance to the use of acids on 'T tenacity or degree of difficulty of removal of the
concrete masonry. soiling
Hydrochloric acid (muriatic acid or spirits of salts) is Is severity or potential of the method for damaging the
widely used on clay bricks to remove mortar stains since masonry
it dissolves portland cement. However, for this reason, I cleaning ability of the method.
it can have serious effects on the surface of concrete
masonry if used incorrectly. Generally, a solution of When selecting a cleaning method, it must be
1 part acid to 20 parts water (maximum strength 1 part recognised that the removal of stains may alter the
hydrochloric acid to 10 parts water) is recommended, physical condition and appearance of the masonry.
while an area of less than 6 m2 should be treated at a The task is to select the method that achieves the
time.
desired degree of cleaning while resulting in the least
SAFETY WARNING: Never add water to acid, always damaging alteration to the masonry.
add acid to the water. Hydrochloric acid will not remove Table 6.2 can be used as a general guide in the
salts, and will most likely make removal more difficult. following way.
Phosphoric acid is used for the removal of iron-bearing Identify the masonry material ('B) and the tenacity of
deposits (rusty stains). A maximum strength of 1 part the soiling UT)
acid to 10 parts water should be used Phosphoric acid Select a number of provisional cleaning methods
should not generally be used on coloured concrete
such that the cleaning method ('c) must be as high
masonry as bleaching of the iron oxide pigments will
result.
as the tenacity of the soiling ('T)
Oxalic acid is used for the removal of hardwood timber Select a method with a severity (1s) that does not
stains. 120 grams of oxalic acid with 4 litres of warm exceed the masonry degree of resistance (1R)
water is the recommended mix. Bleaching solutions As an example, consider the removal of soft urban
such as sodium hypochlorite (pool chlorine) have also grime (1T = 3) from smooth coloured masonry units
been found to be very effective and a readily-available (1R = 3). Cleaning methods which have IC = 3 or 4 are
chemical for use on hardwood timber stains. considered and low-pressure water jetting is selected
Wet Abrasive (Grit) Blasting ('C = 3), This has an 1s of 2 to 3 and therefore should
The objective is not to dissolve and wash away the not damage smooth coloured masonry with an 'B of 3.
stain but to remove the outer portion of the masonry on The method should then be tested. If not successful,
which the stain has deposited. Water and grit (usually a method with higher 'C should then be considered.
sand) are directed onto the surface under pressure. However, if high-pressure water jetting with acid were
Water cushions the abrasiveness of the grit and selected ('C = 6) then this has an Is of 7 and would
therefore is less destructive than dry sandblasting. It probably damage masonry with an 'R of 3.
is generally acceptable only on concrete masonry units
C)
0 that are intended to have their aggregates exposed, eg
C split-face, shot-blasted.
Cl
ct
ci)
Dry Abrasive (Grit) Blasting
This is commonly referred to as sand blasting. It is
C seldom used as it opens the surface of the masonry
cT
thus making it more susceptible to pollutants and
staining.
-c
C
cc
C)
0
I
Table 6.2 Guide to Selection of Cleaning Methods for Concrete Masonry Surfaces
MASONRY UNIT TYPE SOILING CLEANING MEFHOD CLEANING METHOD

Index of resistance to Index of tenacity, T Index of severity, IS Index of cleaning ability, IC
damage, 'R V ('s should not exceed IR) y ('c to be as high as 'T) y
Lime mortar Loose dust Dry brushing Dry brushing
Lime mortar, hard Climbing plants ,moss Water misting Very-low-pressure water washing
Cement render, old Fungi, algae Very-low-pressure
Loose flaking paint water washing
Powder efflorescence Organic solvents
Steam cleaning
2 2 2 2
Lightweight units Deposited efflorescen ce Hand brushing Steam Cleaning
Composition mortar Oil, grease Hand brushing with detergent Organic solvents
Smooth, coloured units Soils Low-pressure water jetting Low-pressure water washing
Soft urban grime Mechanical scrubbing Hand brushing
Chemical
Bleach
4 4 4 4
Standard units Bird droppings Medium-pressure water jetting Medium-pressure water jetting
Fire-rated units Plaster Mechanical scrubbing
Tar with detergent
Old hard paint Chemical (acids)
Soft mortar smears High-pressure water jetting
Timber stains
Iron and welding splatter
Honed units Moderate urban grime Manual abrasive removal Very-high-pressure water blasting
Polished units Hardened mortar smears High-pressure water jetting
Very-high-pressure
water blasting
Wet sand blasting
Shot-blasted units Modern plastic paints Dry sand blasting Wet sand blasting
Split-face units Hard urban grime Mechanical grinding Dry sand blasting
10 -'- 10 10
S
I REFERENCES AND
BIBLIOGRAPHY
I Principles of Cleaning Masonry Buildings Technical

Bulletin 3.1 National Trust of Australia 1984.
2 AS/NZS 4455-1997 Masonry Units and Segmental
Payers Standards Australia.
3 AS/NZS 4456-1997 Masonry Units and Segmental
Payers - Methods Of Test Standaids Australia.
4 Cleaning of Masonry, Code of Practice NSW Building
and Construction Industry Training Committee
Limited, Sydney 1989.
5 Flashing Strategies for Concrete Masonry Wails
National Concrete Masonry Association
Tek 19-4a, Virginia USA 1999.
6 Removal of Stains from Concrete Masonry
National Concrete Masonry Association
Tek 8-2a, Virginia USA 1999.
7 Efflorescence of Masonry Masonry Mortar Technical
Notes No 4 Boynton R S & Gutschick K A,

National Lime Association, Washington USA 1966.
8 Efflorescence - Mechanism of Occurrence and
Possibilities of Prevention Kresse P, Bayer, Germany
1985.
9 Australian Masonry Manual NSW Government Public

Works Department and Association of Consulting
Structural Engineers of NSW ACSE, Sydney 1991.
10 Concrete Masonry Handbook Panarese W C,
Kosmatka S H and Randall F A Jr, Portland Cement
Association, Illinois USA 1991.
CD-ROM o
Details for CAD Contents
This appendix incorporates a CD-ROM containing A.1 CONTENTS AND HOW TO USE IT
the details in PartC:Chapter 3 for use in computer z
w
A.2 LIMITED-LICENCE AGREEMENT
0
aided drafting, as well as the Specification from
PartC:Chapter 2.
0
A.3 CD-ROM DIRECTORY
A.4 THE CD-ROM

CONTENTS AND LI lIED-LI CENCE
HOWTO USE AGREEMENT
The enclosed CD-ROM contains the following groups of BY OPENING THE SEAL ON THE PAGE CONTAINING THE
files: CD-ROM YOU ACCEPT ALL THE TERMS AND CONDITIONS
OF THE FOLLOWING AGREEMENT.
Part C: Chapter 3 Detailing, as a PDF (Portable
Document Format) file. This requires Adobe Acrobat I In this agreement "files" shall mean the machine-
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off the web at the following URL - 2 You may use unlimited copies of the files for your
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of Adobe Acrobat Reader) the details may be cut modified or otherwise, for commercial resale.
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like, directly from the PDF file for creation of reports,
preliminary details, etc.
Limited and Standards Australia does not and cannot
warrant the performance or results you may obtain by
Data files for each of the details in Pait C:Chapter 3,
using the files.
containing most of the details as DXF (Document
5 In no event will Concrete Masonry Association of
Exchange Format) files, but some of the less
Australia Limited or Standards Australia be liable
important details as EPS (Encapsulated Post Script)

files. All CAD programs can open DXF files for to you for any consequential, incidental or special
editing and incorporation in your project drawings. damages, including loss of profits, through your use
Some CAD and word processing programs can open of the files.
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Part C: Chapter 2 Specification, contains the text
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file. This retains the basic formating and is suitable
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CD-ROM DIRECTORY
The enclosed CD-ROM contains the following folder and

file structure:
1-PartC_Chapter3.pdf >G-Shear_Walls >L-Ancillary
>G1dxf >L1.dxf
2-Specification(Chapter2)
>G2.dxf >L2.dxf
>SpecText.rtf
>G3.dxf >L3.dxf
3-Details(Chapter3) >H-Starter_Bars >L4.dxf
>A-Lintels_Masonry >H1.dxf >L5.dxf
>A1.dxf >H2.dxf >L6.dxf
>A2.dxf >H3.dxf >L7dxf
>A3.dxf >J-Control_Joints >L8dxf
>A4.dxf >J1.dxf >L9.dxf
>A5.dxf >J2.dxf >L1O.eps
>A6dxf >J3.dxf >L11.eps
>A7.dxf >J4.dxf >L12eps
>B-Lintels_Steel >J5.dxf >L13.eps
>B1.dxf >J6.dxf >L14.eps
>B2.dxf >J7dxf >L15.eps
>B3.dxf >J8.eps >L16eps
>B4.dxf >J9.eps >L17.eps

>B5.dxf >J1Oeps >L18.eps
>B6.dxf >J11eps >L19.eps
>B7.dxf >J12.eps >L20.eps
>B8.dxf >J13.eps >L21eps
>C-Vert_Reinf_Masoniy >K-Thermal >L22.eps
>C1.dxf >K1.dxf >L23eps
>C2dxf >K2dxf >L24.eps
>C3dxf >K3.dxf >L25.eps
>C4.dxf >K4dxf >L26eps
>C5.dxf >K5.dxf >L27.eps
>C7.dxf >K7.dxf >L29eps
>C8dxf >K8 dxf >L30.eps
>C1O.dxf >K1O.dxf >L32eps
>Cltdxf >K11dxf >L33eps
>D-Steel_Mulhons >K12,dxf >L34.eps
>D1.dxf >K13.dxf >L35.eps
>D2.dxf >K14dxf >L36.eps
>D3.dxf >K15.dxf >L37.eps
>D4.dxf >L38.eps
>D5dxf >L39eps
>D6.dxf >L4Oeps
>E-Masonry_Mullions >L41.eps
>E1.dxf >L42.eps
>F-Bond_Beams >L43eps
>F1.dxf >L44.eps
>F2.dxf
>F3.dxf
>F4.dxf
>F5.dxf
>F6.dxf
>F7.dxf
>F8.dxf
>F1.dxf
>F1O.dxf
>F11.dxf
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Design and Construction

Chapter 3 Common Masonry

Chapter 4 Applied Finishes

Chapter 5 Vertical Loads

Chapter 6 Horizontal Loads

Chapter 9 Thermal Performance

Chapter 6 Cleaning and

concrete masonry, ie brickwork and blockwork. It MASONRY

Other concrete products such as segmental payers 1.4 STRUCTURAL VERSATILITY

Factories Whilst not sacrificing aesthetics, concrete masonry

are available from some manufacturers. Where it is

"Straight splitting" to concrete blocks S

Split-face block wall to shopping centre "Angled splitting" to concrete blocks

the drum wall. The resulting unit has a much softer'

'Twin-blend" rumbled bricks showing comparison between

In the second process, a coloured cementitious

the grout and the parent mix, giving a unit with

Plain ribbed block to wall and balustrade of residential

impact on the character of wall finish possible with this

Split-rib balustrade detail Split-ribbed blocks to multi-storey building

ii''iiiiiiiiiiil liii 11111111

Profiled wall of spilt-ribbed and plain blocks

Projections producing a profiled effect as part of the design to

but are probably most effective in either white or soft

window wall. Properly designed screen walls can also

Whilst these costs are significant, they are spread

Dimensional limitations on the size and shape of units 32 28 32

Whilst the manufacturing process encourages the use of

to extrude a solid unit which can be bedded at 90°

Custom-designed colours are an inexpensive approach

A major requirement of many walls in buildings is to

i1 Part B of this Manual provides detail on the

and detailing for structural concrete masonry.

A masonry wall is made up of a number of components,

masonry units, tracing the development of the

blocks were granted in England arid the United States.

Since 1939, there have been progressive improvements

With the introduction of segmental paving into the

Most concrete masonry units used in Australia are

Re-design when Cement and

manufacturers and comparison with

Regular checks: Conbnuous inspection for culls

Figure 2.7 Concrete Masonry Manufacture - Typical Flow Diagram

most plants and is linked with the batching plant to

it is delivered from the mixer to the blockmaking

Checks are made frequently on both moulds and cores

Figure 2.12c Blockmaking Machine with Manually-operated

Figure 2.17a 'Cube( with Magazine of Pa/lets on Right

Figure 2.17b 'Cube( with two Finished 'Cubes' of Blocks on

Figure 2.16 Low-pressure Installation with automatic

3.3 CATALOGUE OF MASONRY UNITS

Concrete masonry units, for use in walls, fall into two

90, 110, 140, 190 or 290 mm wide,

The Concrete Masonry Association of Australia has

CODE NUMBER (for example)

Prefix identilies Suffix identifies

Figure 3.1 Coding System

KEY TO PREFIX NUMBERS

Block Width (mm) Number

KEY TO SUFFIX NUMBERS

Block Block Length

Figure 3.2 Typical Dimensions of Cores