Circuits Review P1

Introduction
Review of Electric Circuits

Dr. Valentin Bolborici
Circuit Terminology
Units, Dimensions and

International System of Units (SI)
Notation
Equations should be dimensionally consistent (each side)
Circuit Terminology

Other International System of Units (SI)
Notation
Dimensions Unit Symbol Conversion
Charge (q) Coulomb C C=As
Energy (E) Joule J J = kg m
Voltage (V) Volt V V = J / C, V = A Ω
Capacitance (C) Farad F F=C/V
Inductance (L) Henry H H=Vs/A
Resistance (R) Ohm Ω Ω=V/A
Frequency (f) Hertz Hz (s-1) Hz = 1 / s
Reactance calculated from capacitance or inductance will have units of ohms (Ω).
Circuit Terminology

International System of Units (SI)
Notation
Only one prefix can be used before an SI unit.
Circuit Terminology
Circuit Representation
Circuit Elements
• Conductors
• Resistors
• Capacitors
• Inductors
• DC sources
• AC Sources
• Switches
• Transistors
• Operational Amplifiers
• Voltmeters
• Ammeters
Circuits contain passive and active elements

Circuit Terminology
Circuit Architecture
Circuits have nodes, loops, and branches

Circuit Terminology
Circuit Architecture
Ordinary node: An electrical connection point that connects to only two
elements.
Extraordinary node: An electrical connection point that connects to three or
more elements.
Branch: Trace between two consecutive nodes with only one element
between them.
Path: Continuous sequence of branches with no node encountered more than
once.
Extraordinary path: Path between two adjacent extraordinary nodes.
Loop: Closed path with the same start and end node.
Independent loop: Loop containing one or more branches not contained in
any other independent loop.
Mesh: Loop that encloses no other loops.
In-series: Elements that share the same current.
In-parallel: Elements that share the same voltage.
Circuit Terminology
Charge
Electric Charge
• Charge can be positive or negative.
and Current
• The smallest charge is that of an electron (-e) or proton (e).
• The net charge in a closed system cannot be created nor
destroyed.
• Like charges repel one another, and opposite charges attract.
• The unit of charge is the coulomb (C).
• The charge of a proton (e) is equal to +1.6 x 10-19 C.
• The charge of an electron (-e) is equal to -1.6 x 10-19 C.
• Charge is always an integral multiple of e
• Movement of charge from one location to another results in
electric current
In a circuit, the properties of electrons are examined, so it is important to recall the charge
of an electron.
Circuit Terminology
• Electrons move through
Current in a Circuit the circuit from the
Electric Charge
negative terminal to the
and Current
positive terminal.
• Likewise, the current
moves through the circuit
from the positive terminal
to the negative terminal,
and positive charges move
in the same direction as
current movement.
• Free electrons flow in
response to an electric
field. This is called electron
drift.
Electrons move in opposite direction to current.

Circuit Terminology
Current
Electric Charge
The time rate of transfer of electric charge across a
and Current
specified boundary.
Flow of net charge -

+
Positive charge flows in the direction of current, negative charge moves opposite the direction of current.
Therefore, the net current is the difference between the two currents. If the 2 are equal, there is no net current.
Circuit Terminology
Convention for Current Direction
Electric Charge
and Current
The actual current direction and current value are equal for both (a) and (b).
Circuit Terminology
Types of Current
Electric Charge
and Current
Direct Current – Alternating Current –
as a result of battery current flowing in home
In a circuit. electrical systems
Direct Current Voltage: V = IR, Alternating Current Voltage: V = IZ, where Z = R + X.

Circuit Terminology
Defining “Voltage”
Voltage and Power

electron removed from atom
positively charged ion
electron accepted by atom
negatively charged ion
In order to move the electron from point a (away from positive charge) to
point b (towards negative charge), energy is required.
Voltage is associated with the polarity of charge.

Circuit Terminology
Voltage and Power

The work required to move one coulomb of charge across a potential
difference of 1 volt is equal to 1 joule, or 1𝑉 = 𝐽/𝐶.
electron removed from atom
positively charged ion

or
electron accepted by atom
negatively charged ion
The voltage between location “a” and location “b” is equal to the ratio of
the energy required (𝑑𝑤) to transfer charge from “a” to “b”, to the
amount of charge transferred (𝑑𝑞).
Work (energy) is required to move an electron through an electric field, if the electron is
moving in the direction of the electric field.
Circuit Terminology
Voltage and Power

𝑉𝑎𝑏 is the voltage difference between points “a” and “b”.
Note: Voltage can be constant (DC circuit) or vary sinusoidally (AC circuit).
If 𝑽𝒂𝒃 is positive, then the potential at “a” is higher than the potential at “b”.
Circuit Terminology
Defining “Ground”
Voltage and Power

Voltage is the potential difference between two points
or locations.
If choose the reference for the potential difference to be

the earth, the potential difference at a given point
relative to the earth is defined as the voltage with
respect to ground.
In a circuit, the potential decreases or increases relative

to a reference point.
Voltage is the potential difference between two points, and the lowest potential is that of the
earth, or ground.
Circuit Terminology
Voltmeter and Ammeter
Voltage and Power

Voltmeter – measure the potential difference between two points in
a circuit. The voltmeter has a high resistance and therefore uses
negligible current.
Ammeter – measures the current through a wire. The resistance is
very small and therefore the voltage drop across an ammeter is zero.
Do not try to measure the current between two points in parallel. The low resistance in the ammeter will
change the measurement and increase the current through the ammeter which can cause damage.
Circuit Terminology
Voltage and Power

Open and Short Circuits
𝑅= ∞ 𝑅=0
Zero voltage drop occurs across a short circuit.

Circuit Terminology
Switches
Voltage and Power

Switches are devices used close or open an electrical circuit
Circuit Terminology
Power
Voltage and Power

Power is the time rate of change of energy.
dw dw dq
P   vi
dt dq dt
Units: watts
1 W = J/s.
P  0 Conservation law of power in an isolated electrical circuit
Recall: The work required to move one coulomb of charge across a potential difference
of 1 volt is equal to 1 joule, or 𝟏𝑽 = 𝑱/𝑪.
Circuit Terminology
Power
Voltage and Power

1. Current is entering through
the “+” terminal, P > 0. ①
the “-” terminal, P < 0.
3. Current is entering through ③

the “+” terminal, P > 0.
② ④
the “-” terminal, P < 0.
When current enters through “+” terminal, P > 0.

Circuit Terminology
Law of Conservation of Power
Voltage and Power

In an isolated circuit, the sum of the power for all the devices must
equal zero.
𝑛
𝑃𝑘 = 0
𝑘=1
The total power supplied by the circuit is equal to the total power consumed by the
circuit.
Circuit Terminology
Independent Sources
Circuit Elements
• Ideal independent voltage source – constant voltage
for any current value as long as voltage source is not
connected to a short circuit.
• Ideal independent current source – constant current

for any voltage value as long as current source is not
connected to an open circuit.
Independent sources have constant voltage or current in a circuit. Ex. Battery.

Circuit Terminology
Independent Sources
Circuit Elements
Realistic voltage source has resistance associated with it.
Circuit Terminology
Dependent Sources
Circuit Elements
Dependent voltage and current sources rely on another device in the circuit.
Circuit Terminology
Linear Circuits
Ohm’s law for
Circuit Elements
constant R
Independent voltage
source
Dependent voltage source
Recognize linear behavior of various type of circuit elements.

Resistive Circuits
Resistive Circuits – circuits
Introduction
containing only sources and
resistors (no capacitors,
inductors, etc.).
Techniques:
• Ohm’s Law
• Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
• Kirchhoff’s Current Law
• Simplification and
Transformation Techniques
Resistive circuits contain only voltage sources and resistors.
Resistive Circuits
Three classifications of
materials:
• Conductors
Ohm’s Law
• Semiconductors
• Insulators
AWG Size Designation Diameter d (mm)
American Wire Gauge System
0 8.3
2 6.5
4 5.2
6 4.1
10 2.6
14 1.6
18 1.0
20 0.8
The conductivity (and resistivity) of semiconductors is in between metals and insulators.

Resistive Circuits
Conductivity (σ) – siemens per meter (S/m) – the ease with
which electrons flow through a material as a result of an external
applied voltage across it.
Ohm’s Law
Resistivity (𝝆 = 𝟏/𝝈) – ohm meter (Ω m) – the resistance to
electron flow in a material, which decreases with decrease in
temperature due to less atomic scattering.
𝒍
Resistance (𝐑 = 𝛒 ) – ohm (Ω) – value depends on material’s σ
𝑨
or  value, the cross-sectional area associated with current flow,
and the length through which current flows. A larger area makes
it easier for current to find a path, while a longer material results
in more resistance to flow.
Conductance (𝑮 = 𝟏/𝑹) - siemen
The resistance value through a material takes into account the conductor’s length and area,
in addition to the resistivity (or conductivity) of the material.
Resistive Circuits
Constant Resistance
Ohm’s Law
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉 = 𝐼 2 𝑅
When calculating current, voltage or power in a circuit, assume the resistance of the
resistor is constant for the range of current.
Resistive Circuits
Kirchhoff’s Voltage and Current Laws (1847)
Kirchhoff’s Laws
(Gustav Robert Kirchhoff, 1824-1887)
Sum of currents entering a node is zero.
Sum of voltages around a closed path is zero.
+ -
Voltage is + for ● ● voltage drops
Most problems will result in 2 or 3 unknowns that require the student to solve simultaneous
equations. Note: Kirchhoff was only 23 years old when he came up with Kirchhoff’s Laws.
Resistive Circuits
Kirchhoff’s Voltage and Current Laws
Kirchhoff’s Laws
Kirchhoff’s Current Law
• Sum of all currents entering a node = 0.
• i = “+” if entering
• i = “-” if leaving
• Total Current Entering = Total Current Leaving
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

• Sum of voltages around a closed loop = 0.
• v = “+” if + side encountered first in clockwise direction.
• v = “-” if – side encountered first in clockwise direction.
• Total voltage rise in a loop = Total voltage drop in a loop.
Treat voltage drops as positive values and voltage rises as negative values when adding the
voltages across each element in a loop.
Resistive Circuits
Equivalent Circuits
Equivalent Circuits
Two circuits connected between a pair of nodes are considered to be
equivalent if they exhibit identical i-v characteristics at these nodes.
Resistive Circuits
Resistors in Series
Equivalent Circuits
Resistors in series experience the same current and can be combined into
a single equivalent resistor 𝑅𝑒𝑞 whose resistance is equal to the sum of
all of the individual resistances.
𝑁
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + … 𝑅𝑛 = 𝑅𝑖
𝑖=1
The current 𝑖𝑠 through the circuit with voltage 𝑣𝑠 is equal to
𝑣𝑠
𝑖𝑠 =
𝑅𝑒𝑞
and the voltage across any individual resistor is equal to
𝑣𝑠 𝑅𝑖
𝑣𝑖 = 𝑖𝑠 𝑅𝑖 = 𝑅 = 𝑣𝑠
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑖 𝑅𝑒𝑞
𝑅 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + 𝑅4 + ⋯ 𝑅𝑛 , where all resistors experience the same current, but each

has its own voltage across it.
Resistive Circuits
Equivalent Circuits
𝑹𝟐
𝒗𝟐 = 𝒗
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 𝒔
Resistive Circuits
Resistors in Parallel
Equivalent Circuits
Resistors in parallel experience a different current (depending on its
individual resistance), and can be combined into a single equivalent
resistor 𝑅𝑒𝑞 with a value calculated as follows,
−1
1 1 1 1
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = + + +⋯
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅𝑛
The current 𝑖𝑠 through the circuit with voltage 𝑣𝑠 is then equal to

𝑣𝑠
𝑖𝑠 =
𝑅𝑒𝑞
and the current flowing through any individual resistor (𝐸𝑥. 𝑅1 ) is equal
to
𝑣𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅𝑒𝑞
𝑖1 = = = 𝑖
𝑅1 𝑅1 𝑅1 𝑠
−1
1 1 1 1
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = + + +⋯
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅𝑛
Resistive Circuits
Source Transformations
Equivalent Circuits
Voltage Source with series resistor Current Source with parallel resistor
For circuits to be equivalent, 𝑖 into the external circuit needs to be equal.

Therefore, 𝑣𝑠 − 𝑣12 𝑣12 𝑣𝑠 𝑣𝑠
𝑖= = 𝑖𝑠 − 𝑖 = =
𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑠
𝑅1 𝑅𝑠 and 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅𝑠
Voltage source 𝑣𝑠 with a series resistor 𝑅𝑠 to a current source 𝑖𝑠 with a parallel resistor 𝑅𝑠 .
Analysis Techniques
Introduction
Techniques:
• Node-Voltage Method
• Mesh-Current Method
• Source Superposition
• Thevenin and Norton Equivalent Circuits
• Maximum Power Transfer
Methods used to analyze linear planar circuits.

Analysis Techniques
Mesh-Current Method
Mesh-Current Method
Mesh – a loop that encloses no other loop
Mesh Current – current associated with a mesh; the
mesh current does not equal the current through
resistors in adjacent meshes, but it does equal the
current through resistors with no adjacent meshes.
Ex. Can assume that I1 = Ia but cannot assume that I1 ≠ Ib
Note that the currents used in the mesh-current method are not necessarily the actual circuit
currents.
Analysis Techniques
Mesh-Current Method
Mesh-Current Method
Mesh Current Method – applies KVL for each mesh by
following these steps:
1. Identify all the meshes and assign each of them an
unknown mesh current. Define mesh currents to be
clockwise.
2. Apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) to each mesh.
3. Solve the resultant simultaneous equations.
KVL can be applied in the mesh-current method to determine the mesh currents which can be
used to determine the actual currents in the circuit.
Analysis Techniques
Mesh-Current Method
Mesh-Current Method
Notice the
pattern!!
Mesh 1:
−𝑉𝑜 + 𝐼1 𝑅1 + 𝐼1 −𝐼2 𝑅3 = 0 𝑰𝟏 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟑 − 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝟑 = 𝑽𝒐
Mesh 2:
𝑅3 𝐼2 − 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 𝑅2 = 0 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 − 𝑰𝟏 𝑹𝟑 = 𝟎
Notice the pattern in the solutions on the left. This pattern can be used as a short-cut for
setting up the set of simultaneous equations.
Analysis Techniques
Source Superposition
Linear Circuits – Superposition Principle
A system is said to be linear if its output response is directly proportional
to the excitation at its input.
Superposition Principle
If a circuit contains more than one independent source, the voltage (or
current) response of any element in the circuit is equal to the algebraic
sum of the individual responses associated with the individual
independent sources, as if each had been acting alone.
v  v1  v2  .......  vn
i  i1  i2  .......  in
Source Superposition can be used to determine current in circuit or output voltage.

Analysis Techniques
Source Superposition
Circuit Analysis by Source Superposition
Step 1 – Replace voltage sources with short circuits and current sources
with open circuits except for Source 1 (leave only 1 source in
circuit). Ex. Eliminate Io and determine circuit current.
Step 2 – Apply node-voltage, mesh current, source transformation, KCL or
KVL to solve for either voltage or current due to source 1 only.
Step 3 – Repeat the process for all other sources and use circuit analysis
to determine either voltage or current. Ex. Eliminate Vo and
determine circuit current.
Step 4 – Add all currents or voltage values for each. Ex. Add currents from
Steps 2 and 3.
Source Superposition can be used to determine current in circuit or output voltage.

Analysis Techniques
Thévenin’s Theorem
Thévenin and Norton

(i) A linear circuit can be represented at its output terminals by an
Equivalent
equivalent circuit consisting of a series combination of a voltage
source VTh and a resistor RTh.
𝑉𝑇ℎ
𝑖𝐿 =
𝑅𝑇ℎ + 𝑅𝐿
The equivalent circuit leads to the determination of iL or RL.

Analysis Techniques

(ii) VTh is equal to the open circuit voltage at terminals.
Equivalent
𝑉𝑇ℎ = 𝑉𝑜𝑐
Open circuit configuration will allow the determination of VTh.

Analysis Techniques

(ii) Determine 𝑖𝑠 in the short circuit in order to determine 𝑅𝑇ℎ .
Equivalent
𝑉𝑇ℎ 𝑉𝑇ℎ
𝑅𝑇ℎ = 𝑖𝐿 =
𝑖𝑆𝐶 𝑅𝑇ℎ + 𝑅𝐿
Short circuit configuration will provide RTh, which will allow the calculation of iL or RL.
Analysis Techniques
Norton’s Theorem

- is the application of “Source Transformation” to the
Equivalent
Thévenin Equivalent Circuit as shown below:
Source
Transformation
𝑉𝑇ℎ 𝑉𝑇ℎ
𝐼𝑁 = =
𝑅𝑇ℎ 𝑅𝑁
Source transformation is used to convert from Thévenin to Norton Equivalent Circuit.

Analysis Techniques
Maximum Power Transfer

Maximum Power Transfer:
• Maximizing current (iL) from the source circuit to the load
circuit.
• Maximizing voltage (vL)at the input to the load circuit.
• Maximizing power transfer (PL) from the source to the load
circuit.
Source Circuit = Active Load Circuit = Passive Circuit

Circuit
Contains at least 1 Contains dependent sources
independent source. but no independent sources.
Need to derive an equation using the Thévenin equivalent circuit model to determine
maximum power .
Analysis Techniques

• Source circuit contains a Thévenin equivalent voltage (vs) and

resistance Rs.
• Load circuit contains only a Thévenin equivalent resistance Rs since

there are no independent sources (vL = 0).
What must RL be to result in the maximum power transfer to the load circuit?
Analysis Techniques

2
𝑣𝑠 𝑅𝐿
𝑃𝐿 = 𝑖𝐿 𝑣𝐿 = 2
𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝐿
2
𝑣𝑠
𝑃𝐿 = 𝑖𝐿 𝑣𝐿 =
4𝑅𝐿
Percent power transfer = PL/Ps = PL/(vs iL )= 50%, the rest is dissipated in RS.
Operational Amplifiers
Introduction
Introduction
are used in analog signal processing circuits:
• Amplify signals
• Invert signals polarity
• Integrate signals
• Differentiate signals
• e.t.c.
Op-Amp Characteristics
Introduction
• Circuit with interconnected
transistors, diodes, resistors
and capacitors, fabricated on
a silicon chip.
• Modeled by simple circuit.
• High gain A
• Linear input-output response.
The linear input-output response makes it possible to analyze with Ch 3 techniques.

Op-Amp Nomenclature – dual-in-line package DIP
configuration
2. inverting input
3. non-inverting input
4. negative power supply
6. output
7. positive power supply
KCL: 𝑖𝑜 = 𝑖𝑝 + 𝑖𝑛 + 𝑖+ + 𝑖−
Five of the 8 terminals connected to the outside circuit and are important when analyzing the circuit.
Op-Amp Transfer Characteristics
𝑣𝑜 = 𝐴 𝑣𝑝 − 𝑣𝑛
𝐴 = 𝑜𝑝 − 𝑎𝑚𝑝 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛,
when op-amp circuit is not connected to an external circuit on output side
In linear region, Vcc does not affect operation of circuit.

Ex. If 𝑉𝑐𝑐 = 10 𝑉, and 𝐴 = 106 ,
then 𝑣𝑝 − 𝑣𝑛 should be
between ± 𝑉𝑐𝑐 𝐴 or 10 μV to
operate in the linear range.
Op-Amp by
itself:
𝑣𝑜 = 𝐴 𝑣𝑝 − 𝑣𝑛
𝐴 = 𝑜𝑝 − 𝑎𝑚𝑝 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛
If 𝐴 𝑣𝑝 − 𝑣𝑛 > 𝑉𝑐𝑐 the output voltage exceeds the power supply and
the op-amp goes into saturation.
The gain is defined as A if the op-amp is not connected to an external circuit.

Op-Amp 𝑣𝐿
𝐺=
connected to 𝑣𝑆
a circuit: 𝐺 = 𝑜𝑝 − 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛,
The gain is defined as G if the op-amp is connected to an external circuit.

Equivalent Circuit if in Linear Region
High input resistance
Low output resistance
High output voltage

(Ideal – infinite gain)
Characteristics of an op-amp connected to an external circuit in linear region.

Ideal Op-Amp
a) Ideal Op Amp
b) Negative feedback
c) Inverting amplifier
d) Non-inverting amplifier
Ideal Op Amp Assumptions
Ideal Op-Amp
1. Op Amp Gain (A) is infinite: vn=vp
2. The input resistance (Ri) is very large > 1MΩ
3. in=ip=0 due to large input resistance Ri

Negative Feedback
Ideal Op-Amp
Negative Feedback – a part of the output signal is fed
back to the inverting input.
• the negative feedback subtracts part of the output
signal from the input signal decreasing the difference
between vn and vp.
• it reduces the output signal due to a reduction of the
input signal.
• insures that Op Amp is in the linear region.
• without negative feedback the Op Amp saturates
Negative Feedback
Ideal Op-Amp
Inverting Op-Amp Circuit:
Inverting Op-Amp
−𝑽𝒄𝒄
+ +
+
+𝑽𝒄𝒄 V0
- - -
Input voltage source connected to the inverting terminal.

Non-inverting Op-Amp
Non-inverting Op-Amp Circuit:
if
−𝑽𝒄𝒄
+
ip
+
+
+𝑽𝒄𝒄
V0
- - -
Input voltage source connected to non-inverting terminal.

Introduction
Circuits with Op Amps
• Summing Amplifier
• Difference Amplifier
• Voltage Follower (Buffer)
Op-Amp circuits are used in signal processing circuits to amplify a signal, invert a signal, or perform a
mathematical function on the signal.
Summing Amplifier
Summing Amplifier
Is used to add two or more voltages
Find the relationship between v1, v2, and v0.

Difference Amplifier
The difference amplifier combines an inverting and non-inverting
amplifier to perform subtraction.
A difference amplifier will scale up V2 by a positive gain, G2, and scales down V1 by a negative
gain, G1, and adds the two together as the output.
Voltage Follower (Buffer)
Vs RL
V0 
Rs  RL
Output voltage depends on both Rs and RL

Voltage Follower (Buffer)
V0  Vp  Vs
The output of the voltage follower follows the input signal while remaining immune to changes in RL
RC and RL First-Order Circuits
Introduction
• Non-periodic Waveforms
• Capacitors
• Inductors
• Response of the RC Circuit KCL and KVL equations are
first order differential
• Response of the RL Circuits equations.
RC circuits contain sources, resistors and one capacitor, RL circuits contain sources, resistors and one
inductor.
The transient response represents the initial
Introduction
reaction immediately after a sudden change, such as
closing or opening a switch to connect a source to
the circuit.
There is an initial response to a change before steady state condition is reached.

Nonperiodic Waveforms
Types of wave functions:
Step Function Ramp Function
Exponential
Square Pulse
Signals can be modeled using these type of nonperiodic wave functions.

Capacitors
Capacitor – an electrical component that consists
Capacitor
of two conductors separated by an insulator or
dielectric material; can store electrical charge like a
battery.
If a voltage is applied to
the capacitor, equal charges of
Capacitor
opposite sign will accumulate
at the two plates. The charges
will produce an electric field E.
q v
E but E
A d
q v q A
It results:  or 
A d v d
Capacitance C of a capacitor – is defined as the amount

of charge q that its positive plate holds, normalized to
the applied voltage responsible for that charge
Capacitor
accumulation.
q
C [F ]
v
A
or C  [F ]
d
Electrical Properties of Capacitors
According to: q  Cv
Capacitor
dq dv
i C
dt dt
The voltage across a capacitor cannot change
instantaneously.
If the voltage across a capacitor is constant its current is

equal to aero. That means under dc conditions, a capacitor
behaves like an open circuit (it has infinite resistance).
Electrical Properties of Capacitors
By integrating the (i, v) characteristic of a capacitor
between a past time t0 to a present time t we
Capacitor
obtain: 1
t
v(t )  v(t0 )   idt '
C t0
The voltage across a capacitor at a time t is equal to
the voltage across the capacitor at a previous time t0
plus the integral of the current between t0 and t.
t
1
v(t )   idt '
C0
Inductors
Inductor – is an electrical component that is used
Inductors
to store energy through the magnetic field induced
by the current flowing through its wires.
Inductors
A current i in the inductor produces a magnetic flux Λ.
Inductors
 N 2 S 
   i [Wb]
 l 
Self inductance – L of an inductor is defined as the ratio
between the magnetic flux inside the inductor and
current i that produces the magnetic flux.
 N 2 S
L [H ] or L [H ]
i l
Inductors – Electrical Properties
According to Faraday’s law:
Inductors
d di
v [V ] but   L  i [Wb] vL [V ]
dt dt
The current through an inductor cannot change
instantaneously
Under dc conditions, an inductor acts like a short circuit.
t
1
Current at a time t is: i(t )  i (t0 )   vdt'
L t0
The current in an inductor depends on the present voltage across the inductor and the
previous value of the current in the inductor.
Inductors in Series
The current is the same through all inductors
Inductors
Inductors in series add like resistors in series.
Inductors in Parallel
The voltage is the same
across all inductors.
Inductors
Inductors in parallel add
together the same way as
resistors.
Inductors in parallel add like resistors in parallel.

Response of the RC Circuit

First Order RC Circuit
A first order RC circuit contains one energy storage element – a capacitor


Natural Response of a Charged Capacitor
Define:
a) t=0- as the instant just before the switch is moved from
terminal 1 to terminal 2.
b) t=0 as the instant just after it was moved; t=0 is
synonymous with t=0+

For t≥0 apply KVL
Ri  v  0
but
dv
iC
dt
it results
dv
RC v 0
dt
first order diff . equation

Solve the equation by integration:
t
d
0 dt ' ve
at '

dt '  0
at ' t
ve | 0
0
v(t )e at  v(0)  0
Time Constant solving for v(t ) results in :
of the circuit
v(t )  v(0)e  at  v(0)e t / RC for t  0
  RC [s] v(t )  VS e t / RC for t  0
The magnitude of the time constant τ is a measure of how fast or how slowly a circuit
Responds to a sudden change.

The current in the capacitor is:
dv Vs
i(t )  C   e t / for t  0
dt R
The instantaneous power getting
transferred to the capacitor is:
Vs 2 2t /
p(t )  vi   e for t  0
R
The amount of energy 1 2 CVs 2 2t /
w(t )  Cv (t )  e for t  0
In the capacitor is: 2 2


General Response of the Step Response of the RC Circuit
Response of the RL Circuit

First Order RL Circuit
A first order RL circuit contains one energy storage element – an inductor


Natural Response of the RL Circuit
Switch in position 1 for a long time. The inductor behaves

as a short circuit. The inductor current i(0-)=Is.
After the switch is moved in position 2 the current in the
inductor is i(0)=i(0-)=Is because the inductor current cannot
change instantaneously.

Natural Response of the RL Circuit
For t≥0 apply KVL
di
Ri  L 0
dt
or
di
 ai  0 i (t )  i (0)e  t / for t  0
dt
where where
1 L
a
R  
L a R
first order diff . equation is the time const.

General Form of the Step Response of the RL Circuit
Circuit Analysis
Second-Order Circuits
A second-order circuit may contain any combination of two
energy-storage elements (2 capacitors, 2 inductors, or one of
Overview
each ), provided like-elements cannot be replaced with a single
element equivalent.
A second order circuit contains two energy storage elements.

Circuit Analysis
Initial and Final Conditions
Initial and Final

Conditions
• A second-order circuit is described by a second-order differential
equation.
• The second-order differential equation associated with the circuit
includes a number of unknown constants.
• To determine the values of these constants we match the solution
to known values of the voltage or current under consideration.
• Usually for a circuit involving a sudden change we look for a
solution for a time period following the sudden change.
We can analyze the circuit conditions at the beginning and at the
end of that time period and then use the results to match the
solution of the differential equation.
Initial and final conditions are used to determine the constants in the diff. equation.
Circuit Analysis
Initial and Final Conditions
Initial and Final

Example 6-1
Conditions
Determine a) vC(0) and iL(0), b) iC(0) and vL(0), and c) vC (∞) and
iL(∞) after the switch was moved to position 2.
Circuit Analysis
The Series RLC Circuit
The Series RLC

Circuit
R Overdamped response α>ω0
damping coefficien t   ( Np / s)
2L
Critically damp response α=ω0
1
resonant frequency 0  (rad / s)
LC Underdamped response α<ω0
Circuit Analysis
The Series RLC

Circuit
R Overdamped response α>ω0
damping coefficien t   ( Np / s)
2L
Critically damp response α=ω0
1
resonant frequency 0  (rad / s)
LC Underdamped response α<ω0
Circuit Analysis
The Series RLC

Write equation as :
Circuit
vC  a1vC  b1vC  c1
'' '
where
Write KVL for the loop : R 1 V
a1  , b1  , c1  S
L LC LC
di
RiC  L L  vC  VS for t  0 and
dt
dv a1
but i  C C and then  , 0  b1
dt 2
Solution given in Table 6  1
d 2 vC R dvC 1 VC
  vC  in textbook
dt 2 L dt LC LC
Circuit Analysis
Solution Procedure: Series RLC Circuit
The Series RLC

Step 1: Use formulas in textbook to calculate α and ω0.
Circuit
Step 2: Analyze the circuit history and determine vC (0), vC (∞) and iL (0).
Use the fact that the capacitor voltage and the inductor current
cannot change instantaneously.
Step 3a: If α> ω0 results overdamped response

Calculate s1, s2, A1, and A2 using textbook
vC (t )  vC ()  A1e s1t  A2e s2t for t  0
Step 3b: If α= ω0 results critically damped response
Calculate B1 and B2 using textbook
vC (t )  vC ()  ( B1  B2t )et for t  0

Circuit Analysis
Solution Procedure: Series RLC Circuit
The Series RLC

Step 3c: If α< ω0 results underdamped response
Calculate ωd, D1, and D2 using formulas in textbook
Circuit
vC (t )  vC ()  ( D1 cos d t  D2 sin d t )et for t  0
Circuit Analysis
The Parallel RLC Circuit
The Parallel RLC

Circuit
diL
but vC  vL  L
Apply KCL to the circuit : dt
iR  iL  iC  I S for t  0 d 2 iL 1 diL 1 IS
  iL 
vC dv dt 2
RC dt LC LC
 iL  C C  I S
R dt can be written :
iL " a2iL 'b2iL  c2
Circuit Analysis
The Parallel RLC Circuit
The Parallel RLC

Circuit
IS 1
where : a2 
1
, b2 
1
, c2  
RC LC LC 2 RC
Solution of the equation is given in textbook

Circuits Review P1

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Introduction

Review of Electric Circuits

Units, Dimensions and

Units, Dimensions and

Units, Dimensions and

Circuits contain passive and active elements

Circuits have nodes, loops, and branches

Electrons move in opposite direction to current.

Flow of net charge -

Direct Current Voltage: V = IR, Alternating Current Voltage: V = IZ, where Z = R + X.

Voltage and Power

positively charged ion

electron accepted by atom

negatively charged ion

Voltage is associated with the polarity of charge.

Voltage and Power

electron removed from atom

positively charged ion

electron accepted by atom

negatively charged ion

Voltage and Power

Voltage and Power

If choose the reference for the potential difference to be

In a circuit, the potential decreases or increases relative

Voltage and Power

Voltage and Power

Zero voltage drop occurs across a short circuit.

Voltage and Power

Voltage and Power

P  0 Conservation law of power in an isolated electrical circuit

Voltage and Power

3. Current is entering through ③

When current enters through “+” terminal, P > 0.

Voltage and Power

• Ideal independent current source – constant current

Independent sources have constant voltage or current in a circuit. Ex. Battery.

Dependent voltage source

Recognize linear behavior of various type of circuit elements.

The conductivity (and resistivity) of semiconductors is in between metals and insulators.

Conductance (𝑮 = 𝟏/𝑹) - siemen

Sum of voltages around a closed path is zero.

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

𝑅 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + 𝑅4 + ⋯ 𝑅𝑛 , where all resistors experience the same current, but each

The current 𝑖𝑠 through the circuit with voltage 𝑣𝑠 is then equal to

For circuits to be equivalent, 𝑖 into the external circuit needs to be equal.

Methods used to analyze linear planar circuits.

Source Superposition can be used to determine current in circuit or output voltage.

Source Superposition can be used to determine current in circuit or output voltage.

Thévenin and Norton

The equivalent circuit leads to the determination of iL or RL.

Thévenin and Norton

Open circuit configuration will allow the determination of VTh.

Thévenin and Norton

Thévenin and Norton

Source transformation is used to convert from Thévenin to Norton Equivalent Circuit.

Maximum Power Transfer

Source Circuit = Active Load Circuit = Passive Circuit

Maximum Power Transfer

• Source circuit contains a Thévenin equivalent voltage (vs) and

• Load circuit contains only a Thévenin equivalent resistance Rs since

Maximum Power Transfer

The linear input-output response makes it possible to analyze with Ch 3 techniques.

In linear region, Vcc does not affect operation of circuit.

The gain is defined as A if the op-amp is not connected to an external circuit.