Basic Electrical Engineering

NEE 220

Engr. Jessica Laine M. Tumbaga

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Introduction
Historically, DC sources were the main means of providing electric
power up until the late 1800s. At the end of that century, the battle of
direct current versus alternating current began. Both had their advocates
among the electrical engineers of the time. Because ac is more efficient
and economical to transmit over long distances, ac systems ended up the
winner. Thus, it is in keeping with the historical sequence of events that
we considered dc sources first.

We now begin the analysis of circuits in which the source voltage

or current is time-varying. In this chapter, we are particularly interested
in sinusoidally time-varying excitation, or simply, excitation by a sinusoid.

A SINUSOID is a signal that has the form of the sine or cosine function.

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Did you know???GeorgeNikola Tesla (1856–1943) and

Westinghouse (1846–1914) helped
establish alternating current as the primary
mode of electricity transmission and
distribution. Today it is obvious that ac
generation is well established as the form of
electric power that makes widespread
distribution of electric power efficient and
economical. However, at the end of the 19th
century, which was the better—ac or dc—
was hotly debated and had extremely
outspoken supporters on both sides. The dc
side was led by Thomas Edison, who had
earned a lot of respect for his many
contributions. Power generation using ac
really began to build after the successful
contributions of Tesla.

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Did you know???

Nikola Tesla (1856–1943) is a Croatian-
American engineer. He was also
responsible for the adoption of 60 Hz as
the standard for ac power systems in the
United States. He moved to the United
States in 1884 and first worked for
Thomas Edison. At that time, the country
was in the “battle of the currents” with
George Westinghouse promoting AC and
Thomas Edison rigidly leading the DC
forces. Tesla left Edison and joined
Westinghouse because of his interest in
ac. He held 700 patents in his lifetime.

Engr. J.L. Tumbaga Friday, October 6, 2017

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Generation of AC voltage/current

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Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction

1st LAW: Any change in the magnetic field of a coil of wire will cause an
emf to be induced in the coil. This emf induced is called induced emf and
if the conductor circuit is closed, the current will also circulate through
the circuit and this current is called induced current.
Method to change magnetic field:
1. By moving a magnet towards or away from the coil
2. By moving the coil into or out of the magnetic field.
3. By changing the area of a coil placed in the magnetic field
4. By rotating the coil relative to the magnet.

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Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction

2nd LAW: It states that the magnitude of emf induced in the coil is equal
to the rate of change of flux that linkages with the coil. The flux linkage of
the coil is the product of number of turns in the coil and flux associated
with the coil.

ⅆ𝜙
ⅇ=𝑁
ⅆ𝑡
Where
e = induced emf (volts)
N = number of turns
ⅆ𝜙
= rate of change of magnetic flux w.r.t. time (Wb/s)
ⅆ𝑡
Note: 108 Maxwells = 1 Weber;
104 Gauss = 1 Tesla

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AC Generation

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Graphical Representation

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NOTE:
• sinθ: where θ is the angle between normal and the magnetic field.
▫ 0°, 180°  yields zero amplitude
▫ 90°, 270°  yields a maximum value
• cosθ: where θ is the angle between plane and the magnetic field.
▫ 0°, 180°  yields a maximum value
▫ 90°, 270°  yields zero amplitude

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Terminologies
• WAVEFORM – traced path by a quantity
• INSTANTANEOUS VALUE – the amount of a certain parameter at a
given time.
• PEAK AMPLITUDE – the maximum amount in a given waveform
• PEAK-TO-PEAK VALUE – the distance between the positive and
negative peak values.
• PERIODIC WAVEFORM – repeats itself periodically
• PERIOD (T)– time it takes to complete one cycle.
• CYCLE – complete portion of a waveform.
• FREQUENCY (f)– no. of cycles completed in 1 sec.
• ANGULAR FREQUENCY (ω) – the velocity at which the radius vector
rotates about the center.

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Sinusoids
A sinusoidal current is usually referred to as alternating current
(ac). Such a current reverses at regular time intervals and has alternately
positive and negative values. Circuits driven by sinusoidal current or
voltage sources are called AC CIRCUITS.

Consider the sinusoidal voltage

𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
where
𝑉𝑚 = the amplitude of the sinusoid
𝜔 = the angular frequency in radians/s
𝜔𝑡 = the argument of the sinusoid

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The sinusoid is shown in Fig. (a) below is a function of its argument and
in Fig. (b) as a function of time. It is evident that the sinusoid repeats
itself every T seconds; thus, T is called the period of the sinusoid. From
the two plots in Fig. below, we observe that ωT = 2π,

2𝜋
𝑇=
𝜔

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Did you know??? Heinrich Rudorf Hertz (1857–

1894), a German experimental physicist,
demonstrated that electromagnetic waves
obey the same fundamental laws as light. His
work confirmed James Clerk Maxwell’s
celebrated 1864 theory and prediction that
such waves existed. Hertz was born into a
prosperous family in Hamburg, Germany.
Hertz successfully generated and detected
electromagnetic waves; he was the first to
show that light is electromagnetic energy.
Although Hertz only lived to the age of 37, his
discovery of electromagnetic waves paved
the way for the practical use of such waves in
radio, television, and other communication
systems. The unit of frequency, the hertz,
bears his name.

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The fact that v(t) repeats itself every T seconds is shown by replacing t by
t + T in the previous equation, we get

𝑣 𝑡+𝑇 =𝑣 𝑡

That is, v has the same value at t + T as it does t and v(t) is said to be
PERIODIC.

A PERIODIC FUNCTION is one that satisfies f (t) = f(t + nT), for all t and
for all integers n.

As mentioned, the period T of the periodic function is the time of one

complete cycle or the number of seconds per cycle. The reciprocal of this
quantity is the number of cycles per second, known as the cyclic
frequency f of the sinusoid. Thus,

1
𝑓=
Engr. J.L. Tumbaga
𝑇 Friday, October 6, 2017
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Problems
1. A conductor 0.2 meter long is moved downward at a uniform velocity
at 3,000 cm per sec. in the magnetic field. The field may be
considered as having a uniform density of 4,000 gausses. Determine
the magnitude of the induced emf.

2. An alternating sine-wave voltage has a maximum value of 150V and a

frequency of 50Hz. Determine a.) the value of voltage 0.004sec after
crossing the time axis in a positive direction, b.) the angle in radian
and electrical degrees corresponding to time in a.)

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Problems
3. A 60-cycle alternating current has a maximum value of 40A. It
crosses the time axis in a positive direction when time is zero.
Determine a.) time when current first reaches a value of 25A, b.) time
when current first reaches a negative value of 25A, c.) value of
current when time is 1/120 second.

4. A 60-cycle alternating current with a maximum value of 10A has an

instantaneous value of 5A when t=0 while di/dt is positive. What is
the equation of the current wave?

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2𝜋 1
From 𝑇 = and 𝑓 = 𝑇, it is clear that
𝜔

𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
While ω is in radians per second (rad/s), f is in hertz (Hz).

Let us now consider a more general expression for the sinusoid,

𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + θ)
Where (𝜔𝑡 + θ) is the argument and θ is the phase angle. Both argument
and phase can be in radians or degrees.

PHASE ANGLE – a fixed angle θ added to the variable ωt when computing

the sine/cosine function.
sin 𝜔𝑡 ± 𝜃
PHASE SHIFT  + θ (left side)
 - θ (right side)
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Recall: sin(-θ) = -sinθ sin(ωt ± θ ± 180°) = -sin(ωt ± θ)

cos(-θ) = cosθ cos(ωt ± θ ± 180°) = -cos(ωt ± θ)
sin(ωt ± 180°) = -sin(ωt) sin(ωt + 90°) = cos(ωt)
cos(ωt ± 180°) = -cos(ωt) cos(ωt + 90°) = -sin(ωt)

Examine the two sinusoids: 𝑣1 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin ω𝑡 and 𝑣2 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + θ)

v2 leads v1 by θ
Engr. J.L. Tumbaga
Or v1 lags v2 by θ
Friday, October 6, 2017
Or v1 and v2 are out of phase
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If θ = 0, then v1 and v2 are said to be in phase; their reach their minima

and maxima at the same time. We can only compare 2 or more sinusoids
if they operate at the same frequency; they do not need to have the same
amplitude.

A sinusoid can be expressed in either sine or cosine form. When

comparing two sinusoids, it is expedient to express both as either sine or
cosine with positive amplitudes. This is achieved by using the following
trigonometric identities:
sin (ωt ± 180°) = - sin ωt
cos (ωt ± 180°) = - cos ωt
sin (ωt ± 90°) = ± cos ωt
cos (ωt ± 90°) = ∓ sin ωt

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A graphical approach may be used to relate or compare sinusoids as an

alternative to using the trigonometric identities shown previously.

sinωt sin ωt = cos (ωt - 90°)

cos ωt = sin (ωt + 90°)
- cos ωt = cos (ωt ± 180°)
- cos ωt = sin (ωt - 90°)

90°
- cosωt cosωt
- 90°

- sinωt
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Problems
1. Find the amplitude, phase, period and frequency of the sinusoid. v(t)
= 12cos (50t + 10°)
Ans. 12V, 10°. 50rad/s, 0.1257s, 7.958Hz
2. Given the sinusoid 30sin (4πt - 75°), calculate its amplitude, phase,
angular frequency, period, and frequency.
3. Calculate the phase angle between v1 = -10cos (ωt + 50°) and v2 =
12sin (ωt - 10°). State which sinusoid is leading.
Ans. V2 leads v1 by 30°
4. Find the phase angle between i1 = -4sin (377t + 55°) and i2 = 5cos
(377t - 65°). Does i1 lead of lag i2?

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Winston Churchill

~The End~

Engr. J.L. Tumbaga Friday, October 6, 2017