Question 1

If a system has equal total degrees of freedom and controllable degrees of freedom then it’s a
holonomic system whereas, if the controllable degrees of freedom are less than total degrees of
freedom the system is non-holonomic. An example of holonomic system in robotics can be a
robotic arm with three degrees of freedom i.e. rotation translation in x-axis and translation in y-
axis, where all these can be controlled using motors and actuators. An example for a non-
holonomic system is a mobile robot with normal wheels (not omni wheels) so the robot can
move in 2 axes and can be rotated but the controllable degrees of freedom are only the turning
and movement in one axis.
Question 2
Heuristics
It is a learning-based problem-solving technique, which uses experiences earned previously by
solving similar problems.
Adaptive algorithms
Are those which can adapt to the changes in the environment of operation of a system such as in
the case of mobile robots.
Deterministic
A deterministic system is such a system in which the current state of the system depends on the
previous states. It always produces same results with same initial conditions.
Stochastic
This implies randomness in a process or a system, the current state of any such system will
depend on the inputs and the random factors in the environment.
Optimization
It is the process of making most out of the available resources. In mobile robotics it is the
process of finding the shortest path to destination in minimum possible time.
Local and global optimum
Local optimum is the optimum solution out of a number of available solutions but not all
solutions whereas global optimum is the optimum solution out of all solutions available.
Optimal
Optimal implies the best possible result or solution for a problem, optimal solution is represented
by a function rather than a value as is the case with an optimum solution.
Multi-criteria optimization
In such optimization techniques multiple objectives are considered in deriving an optimum
solution for the given problem. For example, for a mobile robot to reach its destination in the
smallest amount of time it has to be efficient, fast and the cost also has to be considered so to
make the best robot design we need to consider all of these criteria.
Question 3
Newton is the figurative father of calculus and is credited with founding the basics of calculus as
well as infinitesimal calculus. He developed multi-level derivation and integration and worked
on different scientific fields. His major works also include the formulation of laws of physics
among other achievements.
Euler was a prominent mathematician and is known for contributing greatly to the fields of
geometry, trigonometry and calculus, among many others. His major work in calculus was the
development of variational calculus along with Lagrange who also was a prominent
mathematician as well. Both Euler and Lagrange worked on developing variational calculus and
combined presented the ideas of definite integrals. Lagrange also developed methods to solve
systems of linear differential equations which used the characteristic value of a linear
substitution.
We often need to find maximum or minimum values in order to find an optimal solution and for
that we need derivative of the functions, so in optimization applications, the Newtonian calculus
and Euler Lagrange’s calculus are used to find the maximum or minimum values using different
methods and to cater for all the constraints of the given system. We use Lagrangian method to
optimize when there are multiple constraints in the system which makes it much easier to find an
optimal solution.
Question 4
Particle swarm optimization is a stochastic optimization technique inspired by social behaviors
of birds flocking. Genetic algorithms are inspired by the process of natural selection they are
commonly used to generate high-quality solutions to optimization and search problems by
relying on bio-inspired operators such as mutation, crossover and selection. Ant colony
optimization is another optimization technique inspired by the working of an ant colony. PSO
and GA have many similar features but PSO does not have genetic operators like crossover and
mutation. In GAs, chromosomes share information with each other but the information sharing
mechanism in PSO is significantly different.
Question 5
Annealing is a process which requires heating of metals and then slow cooling which enhances
the properties of the metal and relieves it of any internal stresses. Simulated annealing
approximates the global optimum for a problem, it is used when the number of objects is very
large. It is used in optimization such that a random solution is found and with each iteration a
new one is found which if better replaces the old one and if worse, then it might replace the old
one but that is governed by the temperature parameter which decreases as the algorithm
progresses so there is less chance for a worst solution, so an approx. global optimum is found.