Composition of materials for self compacting concrete

CHAPTER 3
COMPOSITION OF MATERIALS FOR
SELF COMPACTING CONCRETE
3.1 Introduction

This chapter discusses the selection and testing of constituent materials for self
compacting concrete (SCC) and normal vibrated concrete (NVC), describes the
preparation and emphasizes their usefulness. It covers different curing techniques
used in this research and development of self curing self compacting concrete
(SCSCC) and its mechanism.
Ordinary portland cement, fly ash, aggregates (Gravel, Grit & Sand), normal tap
water, polycarboxylate-based superplasticizers, membrane forming curing
compound and self curing compound polyethylene glycols were selected to produce
various self-compacting concrete and its curing. The component materials were
tested to examine their suitability and to obtain several physical properties required
for the mixture proportioning process of concrete. The materials were procured in
sufficient quantity at the beginning of experimental work, in order to ensure
uniformity of results in terms of avoiding variation in results in entire investigation.
Following sections describe the constituent materials along with the experiments
conducted.
Self-compacting concrete (SCC) is a fluid mixture, which is suitable for placing in
difficult conditions and in structures with congested reinforcement, without
vibration [Khayat 1996][76]. In principle, a self-compacting or self-consolidating
concrete must:
* Have a fluidity that allows self-compaction without external energy,
* Remain homogeneous in a form during and after the placing process, and
* Flow easily through reinforcement
Generally, SCC has to have a proper flowability and viscosity, so that the coarse
aggregate can float in the mortar without segregating. To achieve a balance between
flowability and stability, the total content of particles finer than the 150 ppm has to
be high, usually about 520 to 560 kg/m3 [Nagamoto and Ozawa 1999][106].
Self-compacting concretes are divided into three different types according to the
composition of the mortar: Powder type, Viscosity-modifying agent (stabilizer) type
& Combination type.
For the powder type, a high proportion of fines produce the necessary mortar
volume, whilst in the stabilizer type, the fines content can be in the range admissible
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 Composition of materials for self compacting concrete

for vibrated concrete. The viscosity required to inhibit segregation will then be
adjusted by using a stabilizer [Nagamoto and Ozawa 1999][106]. The combination
type is created by adding a small amount of stabilizer to the powder type to balance
the moisture fluctuations in the manufacturing process.
However, after completion of proper proportioning, mixing, placing, curing, and
consolidation, hardened concrete becomes a strong, durable, and practically
impermeable building material that requires no maintenance.

3.2 MATERIALS USED IN SCC

3.2.1 Cement

In the most general sense of the word, cement is a binder, a substance that sets and
hardens independently, and can bind other materials together. The most important
use of cement is the production of mortar and concrete for bonding of natural or
artificial aggregates to form a strong building material that is durable in the face of
normal environmental effects. Concrete is a combination of cement, aggregate and
water.
Cement is a powder manufactured from limestone that is mixed with other
aggregates, notably sands, gravels and stone, to produce mortars and concretes.
High-quality cements require raw materials of adequate purity and uniform
composition. The vast majority of cement used in the India is portland cement,
sometimes referred to as Ordinary Portland Cement or OPC; although there are also
specialist cements, such as Sulphate-Resistant Cement (SRC) and High-Alumina
Cement (HAC) which are often used for sub-surface works. Indian standards
IS:12269- [2013][69] outlines the specifications for OPC 53 grade cement.

3.2.1.1 Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)

Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general usage. It is a basic
ingredient of concrete, mortar and plaster. It consists of a mixture of oxides of
calcium, silicon and aluminum. Portland cement and similar materials are made by
heating limestone (a source of calcium) with clay and grinding this product (called
clinker) with a source of sulfate (most commonly gypsum).
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Ordinary Portland Cement of 53 grade conforming to IS:12269- [2013][69] is used for

studies.
When Portland cement is mixed with water, its constituent compounds undergo a
series of chemical reactions that are responsible for the eventual hardening of
concrete. Reactions with water are designated hydration, and the new solids formed
on hydration are collectively referred to as hydration products. During hydration
dicalcium silicate (C2S) and tricalcium silicates (C3S) chemically react with water and
calcium silicate hydrates (C-S-H) are produced. The calcium silicates provide most of
the strength developed by Portland cement. C3S provides most of the early strength
(in the first three to four weeks) and both C3S and C2S contribute equally to ultimate
strength [Neville 2008][115].

3.2.1.2 Physical properties of OPC

The physical properties of cement significantly influence the performance of

concrete. This is also true for SCC. The cement used for SCC should have sound flow
and setting properties. It should enhance the fluidity of concrete and should be free
from false setting due to premature stiffening within a few minutes of mixing with
water. Also, it should be compatible with the chemical admixtures such as
superplasticizers, VMA, curing compounds and polyethylene glycols.
Lump-free fresh cement should be used in SCC. The cement should possess carefully
controlled fineness, and should produce low or moderate heat of hydration to
control the volume changes in concrete. IS:12269- [2013][69] and ASTM-C-150
[2007][15] have specified the specifications for ordinary portland cements, which are
also useful to choose the proper cement for SCC.
Table 3.1 below shows the physical properties of cement for the studies. In addition,
the relative density of cement was 3.15. The density of portland cement usually
varies from 3.10 to 3.25. Thus, the cement was physically suitable to produce the
concretes for this study.

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Table 3.1: Physical Properties of Portland cement

PROPERTY VALUE IS CODE IS :
12269-2013
Consistency 28% 30-35
2
Fineness m /kg 257 225
Initial setting time 35min 30min minimum
Final setting time 178min 600min maximum
2 2
Compressive strength at 7 38.49 N/mm 37 N/mm
2
days N/mm
2 2
Compressive strength at 28 52.31 N/mm 53 N/mm
2
days N/mm

3.2.1.3 Chemical composition of OPC

The chemical analysis of portland cement has revealed that it mostly consists of
various oxide compounds. The major oxide compounds are lime, silica, alumina, and
iron. In addition, two minor oxides namely sodium and potassium oxides are of some
importance, particularly with regard to alkali-aggregate reactions in concrete. In
addition, magnesia and sulfuric anhydrite can be present, although they are not
beneficial constituents of cement.
The chemical composition of the OPC used for studies is shown in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2: Chemical composition of OPC – 53 grade
Name & Composition Mass content (%)
Calcium oxide (lime) 61.3
Silicon dioxide (silica) 20.1
Aluminum oxide (alumina) 4.51
Ferrous and ferric oxides (iron oxides) 0.51
Magnesium oxide (magnesia) 1.0
Sulfur trioxide (sulfuric anhydrite) 3.0
Alkaline oxides (alkalis) 1.1
C2S, C3S, C3A, C4AF 24-26, 48-52, 7-8, 11-20%

3.2.2 Fly Ash as SCM:

The Fly Ash story begins 2000 years ago...When the Romans built the Colosseum in
the year 100 A.D. - that still stands the test of time!! The ash generated from
Volcanoes was used extensively in the construction of Roman structures. Colosseum
is a classic example of durability achieved by using volcanic ash. The building
constructed 2000 years ago and still standing today! Only difference is, Fly Ash is

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generated in artificial volcanoes - coal fired kilns. It is a byproduct or an industrial

waste.
Fly ash is one of the most extensively used by-product materials in the construction
field resembling Portland cement. It is an inorganic, noncombustible, finely divided
residue collected or precipitated from the exhaust gases of any industrial furnace.
Most of the fly ash particles are solid spheres and some particles, called
cenospheres, are hollow (Fig. 3.1) [Kosmatka et al. 2002][85]. Also present are
plerospheres, which are spheres containing smaller spheres inside. The particle sizes
in fly ash vary from less than 1 ppm to more than 100 ppm with the typical particle
size measuring under 20 ppm. Their surface area is typically 300 to 500 m 2/kg. Fly
ash is primarily silicate glass containing silica, alumina, iron, and calcium. The relative
density or specific gravity of fly ash generally ranges between 1.9 and 2.8 and the
color is generally gray or tan. [Druta 2003][35, Kasemchaisiri and Tangtermsirikul
2008][75].

[85]
Fig. 3.1: SEM micrograph of fly ash particles [Kosmatka et al. 2002]

3.2.2.1 Role of Fly Ash in concrete

Although their usage is mainly economic (fly ash is much cheaper than cement), the
addition of fly ash has many technical benefits. Dosage of fly ash varies with the
reactivity of the ash and the desired effects on the concrete [Mindess et al.
2003][104]. Many class C ashes when exposed to water will hydrate and harden in less
than 45 minutes. In concretes, class F fly ash is often used at dosages of 15% to 25%

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by mass of cementitious material and class C fly ash is used at dosages of 15% to
40%.
Fly ash has a high amount of silica and alumina in a reactive form. These reactive
elements complement hydration chemistry of cement. When cement reacts with
water, due to hydration, cement produces C-S-H gel. This C-S-H gel binds the
aggregates together and strengthens our concrete. One more compound Calcium
Hydroxide Ca(OH)2 is produced on hydration known as Free Lime. Aggressive
environmental agents like water, sulphates & CO2 attack this free lime leading to
deterioration of the concrete. The cement technologists observed that the reactive
elements present in fly ash convert the problematic free lime into the beneficial C-H-
S Gel.
Ca(OH)2 + SiO2 => C-S-H Gel
Ca(OH)2 + Al2O3 = C-Al-H Gel
It is not only the chemistry provided by fly ash that compliments chemistry of
cement, but also the physical properties of fly ash improve the rheology and
microstructure of concrete by a great extent. Fly ash, on itself, cannot react with
water; it needs free lime, produced on hydration of cement to trigger off its
pozzolonic effect. Once it is triggered, it can go on and on. Thus fly ash improves long
term strength of concrete due to the continued pozzolonic reaction. Fly ash makes
concrete denser, and hence less permeable, mainly by reducing water demand in
concrete and improving microstructure of concrete.

3.2.2.2 Properties of fly ash used for reference mix

The fly ash used for this study was given for testing to Sophisticated Instrumentation
Centre for Applied Research and Testing (SICART). The fly ash used in this study has
physical color Grey with specific gravity 2.13. The physical and chemical composition
of the fly ash used for studies along with the acceptable criteria as per [IS:3812-Part-I
2003][62, IS:3812-Part-II 2003][63] is shown in Table 3.3.

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Table 3.3: Properties & Chemical constituents of fly ash used

Constituents’ property % by mass for Fly Requirement as per IS:
Ash used 3812-2003
Source Vanakbori thermal power plant, Gujarat, India
Class & Color Class “F”, Grey
Specific gravity 2.13
2
Fineness, specific surface area 338 m /kg >320
Loss on ignition 1.03 5% Max.
Silica (SiO2) 63.98 35 % Min. by mass
Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) 3.44 Silica+Al2O3+ Fe2O3 >
Alumina (Al2O3) 28.20 70%
Calcium Oxide (CaO) 2.23
Magnesium Oxide (MgO) 1.45 5.0 % Max.
Total Sulphur trioxide (SO3) 0.165 3.0 % Max.
Alkalies:
Sodium Oxide (Na2O) 0.28 1.5 % Max. by mass
Potassium Oxide (K2O) 0.26

3.2.3 Aggregates

Generally, aggregates occupy 70% to 80% of the volume of concrete and have an
important influence on its properties. They are granular materials, derived for the
most part from natural rock (crushed stone, or natural gravels) and sands, although
synthetic materials such as slags and expanded clay or shale are used to some
extent, mostly in lightweight concretes [Mindess et al. 2003][104]. In addition to their
use as economical filler, aggregates generally provide concrete with better
dimensional stability and wear resistance. Although aggregate strength can play
sometimes an important role, for example in high-strength concretes, for most
applications the strength of concrete and mix design are essentially independent of
the composition of aggregates. However, in other instances, a certain kind of rock
may be required to attain certain concrete properties, e.g., high density or low
coefficient of thermal expansion [Neville 2008][115].
In order to obtain a good concrete quality, aggregates should be hard and strong,
free of undesirable impurities, and chemically stable. Aggregates should also be free
of impurities like silt, clay, dirt, or organic matter. Due to these coatings on the
aggregates, they will isolate the aggregate particles from the surrounding concrete,
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causing a reduction in strength. Silt, clay and other fine materials will increase the
water requirements of the concrete, and the organic matter may interfere with the
cement hydration. [Neville 2008][115]

3.2.3.1 Types of Aggregates — Aggregates for concrete are divided into two types as
follows (Fig. 3.2):

Sand
Fine
< 4.75mm

Aggregate Grit
4.75mm to
12.5mm
Course
Gravel
> 12.5mm

Fig. 3.2: Types of aggregates

3.2.3.2 Fine Aggregates (Sand)

Sand is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finely divided

rock and mineral particles. The composition of sand is highly variable, depending on
the local rock sources and conditions, but the most common constituent of
sand is silica (silicon dioxide, or SiO2), usually in the form of quartz.
Locally available sand in the form of natural pit sand by source was used as the fine
aggregate (FA). The sand was found as deposits in soil, and obtained by forming pits
into the soil. The sand was tested for mass passing 4.75 mm sieve. Moreover, the
sieve analysis and other tests were performed for the sand in accordance with
IS:383- [1970][57] and IS:2386- [1963][61].

3.2.3.3 Properties of sand

The test results for the physical properties of are presented in Table 3.4. The
properties of sand indicated that it was suitable for use to produce the concretes.
The bulk density, fineness modulus and specific gravity were within permissible

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limits specified by the Indian standards IS:2386- [1963][61].

The bulk density of sand was 1776 kg/m3, which is greater than that of aggregates.
The bulk density of sand is generally higher than that of coarse aggregate due to
reduced void content. However it is favorable that the difference in densities is not
much as large difference between the relative densities of fine and coarse
aggregates leads to increased segregation in concrete. The absorption of sand
obtained was 1.23%. The absorption of fine aggregate generally varies in the range
of 0.2 to 3.0% [Neville 2008][115]. Hence, the absorption of concrete sand was in the
lower range, which is beneficial for concrete properties and durability. The total
evaporable moisture content of sand was 0.1%, which is the same as that of
aggregates. The reason may be the identical drying condition.

Table 3.4: Properties of Sand or fine aggregates

Property Value of Sand
Source Bodeli, Gujarat
Color Yellowish White
Zone Zone II
Specific Gravity 2.55
Fineness Modulus 2.87
3
Bulk Density 1776 kg/m
Water Absorption 1.73%
Surface moisture 0.1%

3.2.3.4 Coarse aggregates

As a basic raw material aggregates can be put to many uses, although certain tasks
may require a specific type of aggregate.
Aggregates are the most mined material in the world. Aggregates are a component
of composite materials such as concrete and asphalt concrete; the aggregate serves
as reinforcement to add strength to the overall composite material. Due to the
relatively high hydraulic conductivity value as compared to most soils, aggregates are
widely used in drainage applications such as foundation and French drains, septic
drain fields, retaining wall drains, and road side edge drains.
Aggregates are also used as base material under foundations, roads, and railroads. In
other words, aggregates are used as a stable foundation or road/rail base with
predictable, uniform properties (e.g. to help prevent differential settling under the

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road or building), or as a low-cost extender that binds with more expensive cement
or asphalt to form concrete.
3.2.3.5 Coarse aggregate (Grit)

Grit is granular material which can be between coarse sand and pebbles. Generally
4.75mm-12.5mm in size, grit has limited uses in the construction industry on its own,
other than as a surface dressing. However, over recent years with the development
in block paving specifications, it has become a viable alternative bedding material for
permeable paving and other forms of elemental paving used in areas of high water
ingress. A small portion of these aggregates used in SCC increases the flowability and
segregation resistance.
3.2.3.6 Properties of coarse aggregates (Grit)

The test results for the properties of grit are presented in Table 3.5. The properties
of grit indicated that it was suitable for use to produce the concretes. The bulk
density, fineness modulus and specific gravity were within permissible limits
specified by the Indian standards IS:2386- [1963][61].
The bulk density of grit was 1764 kg/m3, which is lesser than that of sand. The bulk
density of aggregates generally varies from 1200 to 1780 kg/m3 [Kosmatka et al.
2002][85]. It includes the pores and voids existing in aggregates.
The bulk density of aggregates is generally lower than that of sand due to increased
void content. However it is favorable that the difference in densities is not much as
large difference between the relative densities of fine and coarse aggregates leads to
increased segregation in concrete. The absorption of grit obtained was 1.58%. The
absorption of fine aggregate generally varies in the range of 0.5 to 4.5% [Neville
2008][115]. Thus, the absorption of grit was in the lower range, which is good for
concretes. A higher absorption value is indicative of greater pores in aggregates that
might affect the strength and durability of concretes.
Table 3.5: Properties of Coarse Aggregate-Grit
Property Value of Grit
Source Sevalia, Gujarat
Colour Grayish Black
Specific Gravity 2.75
Fineness Modulus 5.76
3
Bulk Density 1764 kg/m
Absorption 1.48%
Surface moisture 0.1%

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3.2.3.7 Coarse aggregate (Gravel)

Granular material which can be of almost any rock types, It is usually between 60mm
and 4.75 mm in size which may be rounded, if from a marine or fluvial source, or
angular if a quarried and crushed product. Gravels are sold in mixed sizes, e.g. 20-
5mm or closely graded to a specific size, such as 10mm.
The advent of modern blasting methods enabled the development of quarries, which
are now used throughout the world, wherever competent bedrock deposits of
aggregate quality exist. In many places, good limestone, granite, marble or other
quality stone bedrock deposits do not exist. In these areas, natural sand and gravel
are mined for use as aggregate. Where neither stone, nor sand and gravel, are
available, construction demand is usually satisfied by shipping in aggregate by
rail, barge or truck. Additionally, demand for aggregates can be partially satisfied
through the use of slag and recycled concrete. However, the available tonnages and
lesser quality of these materials prevent them from being a viable replacement for
mined aggregates on a large scale.

3.2.3.8 Properties of coarse aggregates (Gravel)

The test results for the properties of coarse aggregates-gravel are presented in Table
3.6. The properties of gravel indicated that it was suitable for use to produce the
concretes. The bulk density, fineness modulus and specific gravity were within
permissible limits specified by the Indian standards IS:2386- [1963][61].
The bulk density of gravel was 1725 kg/m3, which is lesser than that of sand. The
bulk density of aggregates generally varies from 1200 to 1750 kg/m 3 [Kosmatka et al.
2002][85]. It includes the pores and voids existing in aggregates. The bulk density of
aggregates is generally lower than that of sand due to increased void content.
However it is favorable that the difference in densities is not much as large
difference between the relative densities of fine and coarse aggregates leads to
increased segregation in concrete. The absorption of gravel obtained was 1.64%. The
absorption of fine aggregate generally varies in the range of 0.5 to 4.5% [Neville
2008][115]. Thus, the absorption of gravel was in the lower range, which is good for

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concretes. A higher absorption value is indicative of greater pores in aggregates that

might affect the strength and durability of concretes.
The coarse aggregates used were air-dried. There was no free or surface moisture on
the surface of aggregates. Therefore, the concrete stone contained a negligible
amount of total evaporable moisture. The moisture content of coarse aggregates is
generally not considered in the primary mixture proportions of concrete. But the
moisture content increases the quantity of mixing water that produces a higher W/B
ratio and thus produces an impact on the properties of concrete. Hence, the
moisture content of the aggregates should be given due allowance to adjust the
mixture proportions of concrete.
Table 3.6: Properties of Coarse Aggregate-Gravel
Property Value of Graval
Source Sevalia, Gujarat
Specific Gravity 2.75
Fineness Modulus 7.73
3
Bulk Density 1625 kg/m
Colour Greyish Black
Absorption 1.34%
Surface moisture 0.1%

3.2.4 Water

Water is an important ingredient of concrete as it actively participates in the

chemical reaction with cement. In practice normally if water is fit for drinking it is
considered suitable for making concrete but it may not be true always. Water with
pH value between 6 to 8 is acceptable but the best coarse to find out whether a
particular source of water is suitable for concrete or not. If the compressive strength
is upto 90 percent, the source is acceptable. [Shetty 2009][150]. IS:456- [2000][58]
specifies the permissible limits for solids in water used for making concrete.
We have used normal tap water for making concrete. The tap water did not contain
any objectionable substances causing color or odor. The water was not tested to
verify the acceptance criteria based on the physical tests assuming that the quality
of potable water is acceptable for making concrete.

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3.2.5 Sea water

Now-a-days, as a progress of development, lots of engineering construction including

high rise building, embankment walls, bridge etc is going on along the coastal belt of
the country. In coastal areas, there has always been a deficiency of plain water as
the available water is affected by sea salts. So it is difficult to arrange plain water for
construction works in such location. Also it is economical to use sea water that is
available near the construction site instead of plain water to be transported from
other areas/sources. But sea water contains large amounts of sea salts, which may
have adverse effect on the properties of concrete. So it is required to investigate the
effect of sea salts on strength properties of different types of concrete while using
sea water for casting and curing of concrete particularly effect on SCC. Primarily the
study is to investigate the strength behavior of concrete cured with plain as well as
sea water and compare their results.

3.2.5.1 Properties of Sea water

The sea water used for studies was brought from Mahi estuary of gulf of Khambhat.
A laboratory testing was carried out at environmental laboratory for a sample. The
properties of the sea water have been presented in Table 3.7.
Table 3.7: Properties of Sea water
Property Value [28A]
As per [Deshkar 2011]

Source Mahi estuary, Gulf of Mahi estuary, Gulf of

Khambhat, India Khambhat, India
pH 7.9 7.6-10.7
Salinity 3.69 0.2-33.10
Cl (mg/l) 8.04 0.11-18.3
NO2 (mg/l) 0.01 0.011 -0.02
NO3 (mg/l) 0.18 0.092-0.31
PO4 (mg/l) 0.15 0.1-0.21
Silicates (mg/l) 0.01 0.003-0.01

3.2.6 Admixtures

Admixture is defined as a material, other than cement, water and aggregates, which
is used as an ingredient of concrete and is added immediately before or during
mixing. It is a material which is added at the time of grinding cement clinker at the
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cement factory. Various admixtures are categorized based on their function in the
concrete namely Plasticizers, Superplasticizers, Retarders and Retarding Plasticizers,
Accelerators and Accelerating Plasticizer, Air-entraining Admixtures, Damp-proofing
and Waterproofing Admixtures, Gas forming Admixtures, Workability Admixtures,
Grouting Admixtures, Bonding Admixtures, Coloring Admixtures. [Shetty 2009][150]
[IS:9103- 1999][67]

3.2.6.1 Superplasticizers or High Range Water Reducers (HRWR)

Superplasticizers (High Range Water Reducers) are low molecular-weight, water-

soluble polymers designed to achieve high amounts of water reduction (12-30%) in
concrete mixtures in order to attain a desired slump. They also can be used without
water reduction to produce concretes with very high slumps, in the range of 150 to
250 mm (6 to 10 inches). At these high slumps, concrete flows like a liquid and can
fill forms efficiently, requiring very little vibration. These highly workable mixtures
are called flowing concretes and require slumps to be in excess of 190 mm (8.5
inches). [Tandirli et al. 2000][157]. Superplasticizer (SP) also called High Range Water
Reducers (HRWR) is an essential component of SCC to provide the necessary
workability [Okamura and Ouchi 2003][116]. They reduce the yield stress and plastic
viscosity of concrete by their liquefying action.
The superplasticizer to be selected should have:
(i) High dispersing effect for low W/ P ratio (less than 1 by volume)
(ii) The dispersing effect should be maintained of for at least two hours after
mixing,
(iii) Less sensitivity to temperature changes
The main purpose of using a superplasticizer is to produce flowing concrete with
very high slump that is to be used in heavily reinforced structures and in places
where adequate consolidation by vibration cannot be readily achieved. The ability of
a superplasticizer to increase the slump of concrete depends on such factors as the
type, dosage, and time of addition, water / binder ratio and the nature of cement
and filler materials. It has been found that for most types of cement, a
superplasticizer improves the workability of concrete. The new generation

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superplasticizer are Poly- Carboxylate Ether (PCE) based particularly useful for
production of SCC. [Shetty 2009][150].
The action of plasticizers is mainly to fluidify the mix and improve the workability of
concrete, mortar or grout. The mechanisms that are involved could be explained as
shown in fig. 3.3.
Using PCE polymers, give excellent water reduction as compared to normal
plasticizers. This helps to reduce the w/c ratios and cement contents, even in normal
concretes. Lower the w/c ratio, lower are the number of capillaries in concrete. It is
also a well documented fact that PCE based admixtures do not have the side effects
of retardation often seen with normal retarding superplasticizers. This is beneficial as
workability time of concrete can be controlled but the hydration and setting of
concrete will proceed unhindered. This ensures that any subsequent vibration to
concrete after initial set will not open up capillaries, as is the case if concrete is
retarded for a very long period of time, thereby rendering concrete relatively
waterproof.

Fig. 3.3: Effect of surface-active agents on deflocculating of cement

[150]
grains [Shetty 2009]

Fig. 3.4 shows the structure and functioning of the latest PCE Polymer molecules.
[Surlaker 2011][156]
Superplasticizers constitute a relatively new category and improved version of
plasticizer, the use of which was developed in Japan and Germany during 1960 and
1970 respectively. They are chemically different from normal plasticizers. Use of
Superplasticizers permits the reduction of water to the extent up to 30 per cent

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 Composition of materials for self compacting concrete

without reducing workability in contrast to the possible reduction up to 15 per cent

in case of plasticizers.

Fig. 3.4: Structure and Functioning of PCE Polymer

[156]
Molecules, [Surlaker 2011]

Superplasticizer (SP) also called High Range Water Reducers (HRWR) is an essential
component of SCC to provide the necessary workability [Okamura and Ouchi
2003][116]. They reduce the yield stress and plastic viscosity of concrete by their
liquefying action [Skarendahl and Petersson 2000][151]. The new generation
superplasticizer are Poly- Carboxylate Ether (PCE) based particularly useful for
production of SCC. [Shetty 2009][150].

3.2.6.2 Classification of superplasticizers

Following are a few polymers which are commonly used as base for
superplasticizers:
 Sulphonated malanie-formaldehyde condensates (SMF)
 Sulphonated naphthalene-formaldehyde condensates (SNF)
 Modified lignosulphonates (MLS)
 Acrylic polymer based (AP)
 Copolymer of carboxylic acrylic acid with acrylic ester (CAE)
 Cross linked acrylic polymer (CLAP)

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 Polycarboxylate ethers (PCE)

 Multicarboxylat ethers (MCE)
 Combinations of above.
Out of the above new generation superplasticizers based on carboxylic acrylic ester
(CAE)(Fig. 3.5) and multicarboxylatether (MCE).
As far as our country is concerned, at present, we manufacture and use the first four
types of superplasticizers. The new generation superplasticizers have been tried in
recent projects, but it was not found feasible for general usage on account of high
cost. The first four categories of products differ from one another because of the
base component or on account of different molecular weight. As a consequence
each commercial product will have different action on cements. Whilst the dosage of
conventional plasticizers do not exceed 0.25% by weight of cement in case of
lignosulphonates, or 0.1 % in case of carboxylic acids, the products of type SMF or
NSF are used considerably high dosages (0.5%-3.00%), since they do not entrain air.

rd
Fig. 3.5: Effect of 3 generation PCE based super-plasticizer

The modified lignosulphonate (LS) based admixtures, which have an effective

fluidizing action, but at the relatively high dosages, they can produce undesirable
effects, such as accelerations or delay in setting times. Moreover, they increase the
air-entrainment in concrete.
Plasticizers and superplasticizers are water based. The solid contents can vary to any
extent in the products manufactured by different companies. Cost should be based
on efficiencies and solid content, but not on volume or weight basis. Generally in
projects cost of superplasticizers should be worked for one cubic meter of concrete.

Effect of curing techniques on mechanical properties of self compacting concrete 93

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3.2.6.3 Effects of superplasticizers on fresh concrete:

It is to be noted that dramatic improvement in workability is not showing up when

plasticizers or superplasticizers are added to very stiff or what is called zero slump
concrete at nominal dosages. A mix with an initial slump of about 2 to 3 cm can only
be fluidized by plasticizers or superplasticizers at nominal dosages. A high dosage is
required to fluidify no slump concrete. An improvement in slump value can be
obtained to the extent of 25 cm or more depending upon the initial slump of the
mix, the dosage and cement content. It is often noticed that slump increases with
increase in dosage. But there is no appreciable increase in slump beyond certain limit
of dosage. As a matter of fact, the over dosage may sometime harm the concrete. A
typical curve, showing the slump and dosage is shown in Fig. 3.6.

[150]
Fig. 3.6: Slump produced by superplasticizers [Shetty 2009]

3.2.6.4 Compatibility of superplasticizers and cement:

It has been noticed that all superplasticizers are not showing the same extent of
improvement in fluidity with all types of cements. Some superplasticizers may show
higher fluidizing effect on some type of cement than other cement. There is nothing

Effect of curing techniques on mechanical properties of self compacting concrete 94

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wrong with either the superplasticizer or that of cement. The fact is that they are
just not compatible to show maximum fluidizing effect. Optimum fluidizing effect at
lowest dosage is an economical consideration. Giving maximum fluidizing effect for a
particular superplasticizer and cement is very complex involving many factors like
composition of cement, fineness of cement etc.
Although compatibility problem looks to be very complex, it could be more or less
solved by simple rough and ready field method. Incidentally this simple field test
shows also the optimum dose of the superplasticizer to the cement. Following
methods could be adopted.
 Marsh cone test
 Mini slump test
 Flow table test
Out of the above, Marsh cone test gives better results. In the Marsh cone test,
cement slurry is made and its flowability is found out. In concrete it is the cement
paste that influences flowability. Although, the quantity of aggregates, its shape and
texture etc. will have some influence, it is the paste that will have greater influence.
The presence of aggregate will make the test more complex and often erratic.
Whereas the using of grout alone will make the test simple, consistent and indicative
of the fluidifying effect of superplasticizer with a cement.

3.2.6.5 Selection of superplasticizer and fixation of doses

In order to identify an appropriate superplasticizer, a market survey was carried out

for number of available superplasticizers considering their properties and
availability. Three different superplasticizers were identified namely Glanium Sky
784, Viscocrete 20HE and Glenium SKY B276 suretch from two different
manufacturers. Marsh cone test was conducted to finalize one superplasticizer
amongst the identified three.
3.2.6.6 Properties of selected superplasticizers

The properties of the superplasticizer, Polycarboxylic either based, Glenium Sky-784,

Viscocrete 20HE and Glenium SKY B276 Suretch are listed in Table 3.8. The
superplasticizer is procured from BASF chemical (India) Pvt. Ltd., Sikka, India.

Effect of curing techniques on mechanical properties of self compacting concrete 95

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Table 3.8: Properties of Superplasticizers

Property Glenium Sky-784 Viscocrete 20HE Glenium SKY B276-suretch
Color Light brown liquid Light brownish liquid Light brown liquid
Relative Density 1.10 ± 0.01 at 25° C 1.08 at 25° C 1.10 ± 0.02 at 25° C
pH ≥6 4.3 ± 0.5 ≥6
Chloride ion content <0.2% Chloride-free <0.2%

3.2.7 Marsh cone test

Marsh cone apparatus is a conical brass vessel, which has a smooth aperture at the
bottom of diameter 5mm. The profile of the apparatus is shown in Fig. 3.7.

Fig. 3.7: Marsh Cone Test in progress

The procedure of test is as under:

Take 2 kg cement, proposed to be used at the project. Take one liter of water (w/c =
0.5) and start with minimum percentage of superplasticizers, say 0.1% of wt of
cement. Mix them thoroughly in a mechanical mixer (Hobart mixer is preferable) for
two minutes. Hand mixing does not give consistent results because of unavoidable
lump formation which blocks the aperture. Take one litre of cement slurry and pour
it into marsh cone duly closing the aperture with a finger. Start a stop watch and
simultaneously remove the finger. Find out the time taken in seconds, for complete
flow out of the slurry from the cone. The time in seconds is called the "Marsh Cone
Time". Repeat the test with gradually increasing the dosages of superplasticizer.
Every time the dosage of superplasticizer is increased it will be observed that the
flow time decreases. If we keep on increasing the dosage of superplasticizer, a stage
Effect of curing techniques on mechanical properties of self compacting concrete 96
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will come when increase in dosage of superplasticizer will not decrease the time of
flow. The dose at which the Marsh cone time is lowest is called the saturation point.
The dose is the optimum dose for that brand of cement and superplasticizer.
For the selected superplasticizers the Marsh cone test was carried out as narrated
above. The results are tabulated in Table 3.9. Fig. 3.8 to 3.10 show graphs for
percentage superplasticizer dosage V/s flow time indicating the saturation point and
thus showing the optimum dosage for that superplasticizer.

Table 3.9: Marsh cone flow time in seconds

SP % Glenium SKY Viscocrete Glenium SKY
784 20HE B276 Suretec
0.6 168 XXX 188
0.7 104 117 122
0.8 77.30 83 93
0.9 62.45 67 73
1.0 50.38 58.23 63.25
1.1 40.56 52.56 58.47
1.2 38.54 47.12 58.30

1.3 38.57 41.03 57.8

1.4 38 40.67 XXX

1.5 XXX 39.96 XXX

It can be observed from the graph that the optimum dose for Glenium Sky 784,
Viscocrete and Glenium SKY B276 Suretch is 1.2, 1.3 and 1.1 % respectively. As
Glenium SKY B276 Suretch gives the minimum dose, we have selected it for all the
further castings of the research work.

As discussed above the reference mix are prepared using this Glenium SKY-B276-
Suretec superplasticizer with a dose of 1.1 percent of the cement.

Effect of curing techniques on mechanical properties of self compacting concrete 97

 Composition of materials for self compacting concrete

200 0.6

175 0.7

150 0.8

Flow Time in sec

125 0.9
100
1
75
saturation point 1.1
50
1.2
25
1.3
0
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.4
SP dosage % by cement

Fig. 3.8: Superplasticizer dosage V/s flow time for Glenium SKY 784

125 0.8

100 0.9
Flow Time in sec

1
75
1.1
saturation point
50
1.2
25
1.3

0 1.4
0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
SP dosage % by cement 1.5

Fig. 3.9: Superplasticizer dosage V/s flow time for Viscocrete 20HE

200
0.6
175
0.7
150
Flow Time in sec

0.8
125

100 0.9

75 saturation point
1
50
1.1
25
1.2
0
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3
SP dosage % by cement

Fig. 3.10: Superplasticizer dosage V/s flow time for Glenium SKY B276 Suretec

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3.2.8 Self curing Admixtures

Some specific water-soluble chemicals added during the mixing can reduce water
evaporation from and within the set concrete, making it ‘self-curing.’ The chemicals
should have abilities to reduce evaporation from solution and to improve water
retention in ordinary Portland cement matrix. Internal curing (IC) is a method to
provide the water to hydrate all the cement, accomplishing what the mixing water
alone cannot do. [Dhir et al. 1994][30]

A common feature of all the existing curing techniques is that they require “external
action” to ensure that they are correctly applied for the curing of concrete. An
“internal curing system would have several advantages, primarily the production of a
better quality concrete surface, greater turnover and the reduction in costs of
operatives. It is conceivable that such a system could be created by the introduction
during the mixing state of a chemical that would reduce water evaporation in the set
concrete and make the concrete effectively “self-curing”.

3.2.8.1 Super-absorbent Polymer (SAP) for self curing

SAPs are a group of polymeric materials that have the ability to absorb a significant
amount of liquid from the surroundings and to retain the liquid within their structure
without dissolving. SAPs are principally used for absorbing water and aqueous
solutions. SAPs can be produced with water absorption of up to 5000 times their
own weight. However, in dilute salt solutions, the absorbency of commercially
produced SAPs is around 50 g/g. They can be produced by either solution or
suspension polymerization, and the particles may be prepared in different sizes and
shapes including spherical particles. Because of their ionic nature and
interconnected structure, they can absorb large quantities of water without
dissolving. SAPs exist in two distinct phase states, collapsed and swollen. The
macromolecular matrix of a SAP is a polyelectrolyte, i.e., a polymer with ionisable
groups that can dissociate in solution, leaving ions of one sign bound to the chain
and counter-ions in solution. For this reason, a high concentration of ions exists
inside the SAP leading to a water flow into the SAP due to osmosis. Another factor

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contributing to increase the swelling is water solvation of hydrophilic groups present

along the polymer chain. Elastic free energy opposes swelling of the SAP by a
detractive force. [Ambily and Rajamane 2007][12]
The common SAPs are added at rate of 0–0.6 wt % of cement. The SAPs are
covalently cross-linked. They are Acrylamide/acrylic acid copolymers. One type of
SAPs are suspension polymerized, spherical particles with an average particle size of
approximately 200 mm; another type of SAP is solution polymerized and then
crushed and sieved to particle sizes in the range of 125–250 mm. The size of the
swollen SAP particles in the cement pastes and mortars is about three times larger
due to pore fluid absorption. The swelling time depends especially on the particle
size distribution of the SAP. It is seen that more than 50% swelling occurs within the
first 5 min after water addition. [Naik and Canpolat 2006][108]
Experimental measurements were performed to predict the compressive strength,
split tensile strength and flexural strength of the concrete containing Super
Absorbent Polymer (SAP) at a range of 0%, 0.2%, 0.3%, and 0.4% of cement and
compared with that of cured concrete of grade M40. Addition of SAP leads to a
significant increase of mechanical strength (Compressive, split tensile and flexural
strength). From the results it was noted that the compressive strength increased by
28%, 34% and 2.16% at 3days and 32.8%, 36.5% and23% at 7 days and 2.5%, 7.23% and
6.34% at 28 days respectively for the Mix2, Mix3 and Mix4 when compared to control
mix. The split tensile strength increased by 8.5%, 20.5% and 2.56% at 3days and 2%,
15.73% and 6.5% at 7 days and 15%, 18.6% and 4.64% at 28 days respectively for the
Mix2, Mix3 and Mix4 when compared to control mix. The flexural strength increased by
7.56%,11.68% and 10.4% at 3 days, 7 days and 28 days respectively for the Mix 2, Mix3
and Mix4 when compared to controlled mix. Maximum Compressive, tensile and
flexural strength of self curing concrete for dosage of SAP 0.3% of cement was higher
than non self curing concrete. [Francis and John 2013][40]. He also noted that
performance of the self-curing agent was affected by the mix proportions mainly the
cement content and the w/c ratio.

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3.2.8.2 Polyethylene Glycols (PEGs)

Use of poly-ethylene glycol (PEG) reduces the evaporation of water from the surface
of concrete and also helps in water retention. Polyethylene glycol is a condensation
polymer of ethylene oxide and water with the general formula H(OCH 2CH2)nOH, the
abbreviation (PEG) is termed in combination with a numeric suffix which indicates
the average molecular weights. One common feature of PEG appears to be the
water-soluble nature. Polyethylene glycol is non-toxic, odorless, neutral, lubricating,
non-volatile and non-irritating and is used in a variety of pharmaceuticals. Depending
on the number of oxyethylene groups, the molecular weight ranges from 200 to
approximately 9500. PEG's below 700 molecular weight occur as clear to slightly
hazy, colorless, slightly hygroscopic liquids with a slight characteristic odour. PEG's
Between 700-900 are semi-solid. PEG's over 1000 molecular weight are creamy
white waxy solids, flakes, or free-flowing powders. [Macrogol 1992][96].
The extent of polyethylene glycol absorption appears to be dependent on the
molecular weight of the specific polymer, such that more complete absorption has
been reported for the lower weight polyethylene glycols, while absorption is much
more limited in the case of the higher molecular weight polyethylene glycols.
3.2.8.3 Properties PEGs selected for studies and its doses

In order the study the effect of molecular weight of the curing capacity we have
selected two PEGs with different molecular weight namely PEG600 (Fig. 3.11) and
PEG1500 (Fig. 3.12). The chemicals are procured from Merck (India) Ltd, Mumbai,
India. The properties of are shown in table 3.10. Dosages of PEG’s was decided with
reference to relevant literature review and fixed as 0.5% of cementitious material.
[Ambily 2007][12] [Sathanandham et al. 2013][145].

Fig. 3.11: PEG 600 LR Fig. 3.12: PEG1500 for self curing A2 type

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Table 3.10: Properties of PEG600 & PEG1500

Property PEG600 PEG1500
Physical State And Appearance Liquid, Transparent Flakes, creamy white
Odor & Taste Not Available Not available
Molecular Weight 600 G/Mole 1500 G/Mole
Ph (1% Soln/Water) 6 6
Specific Gravity 1.12 1.1
Dispersion Properties Solubility in water, Methanol, Solubility in water, Methanol,
Diethyl Ether Diethyl Ether
Solubility Easily Soluble in cold water, Hot Easily Soluble in cold water,
water. Soluble in Methanol, Hot water. Soluble in
Diethyl Ether Methanol, Diethyl Ether

3.2.9 Membrane-forming curing chemicals:

Membrane-forming compounds consisting of waxes, resins, chlorinated rubber, and

other materials can be used to retard or reduce evaporation of moisture from
concrete. They are the most practical and most widely used method for curing not
only freshly placed concrete but also for extending curing of concrete after removal
of forms or after initial moist curing. Curing compounds should be able to maintain
the relative Humidity of the concrete surface above 80% for seven days to sustain
cement hydration. [Goel et al. 2013][43]
Membrane-forming curing compounds are of two general types: clear, or
translucent; and white pigmented. Clear or translucent compounds may contain a
fugitive dye that makes it easier to check visually for complete coverage of the
concrete surface when the compound is applied. The dye fades away soon after
application. On hot, sunny days, use of white-pigmented compounds is
recommended; they reduce solar-heat gain, thus reducing the concrete
temperature. Pigmented compounds should be kept agitated in the container to
prevent pigment from settling out. Curing compounds should be applied by hand-
operated or power-driven spray equipment immediately after final finishing of the
concrete. The concrete surface should be damp when the coating is applied. On dry,
windy days, or during periods when adverse weather conditions could result in
plastic shrinkage cracking, application of a curing compound immediately after final
finishing and before all free water on the surface has evaporated will help prevent
the formation of cracks. [Shetty 2009][150]
Power-driven spray is recommended for uniform application of curing compounds

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on large paving projects. Spray nozzles and windshields on such equipment should
be arranged to prevent wind-blown loss of curing compound. Normally only one
even coat is applied at a typical rate of 3 to 4m2 per litre but products may vary, so
manufacturer’s recommended application rates should be followed. If two coats are
necessary to ensure complete coverage, second coat should be applied at right
angles to the first. Complete coverage of the surface must be attained because even
small pinholes in the membrane will increase the evaporation of moisture from the
concrete.
Curing compounds might prevent bonding between hardened concrete and a freshly
placed concrete overlay. And, most curing compounds are not compatible with
adhesives used with floor covering materials. And, most curing compounds are not
compatible with adhesives used with floor covering materials. Consequently, they
should either be tested for compatibility, or not used when bonding of overlying
materials is necessary. [Neville 2008][115]
Table 3.11: Properties of Wax based curing
compound – FAIRCURE as per ASTM
Water retention 0.29% kg/m²
Reflectance 70 %
Drying time < 90 min
Water retention More than 90%
efficiency
Curing efficiency 90%

Fig. 3.13: Wax Based Curing Compound

FAIRCURE WX WHITE and its application

For external curing compound, a wax based chemical with brand name FAIRCURE
WX WHITE procured from FAIR MATE chemical Pvt. Ltd , Mumbai, India was used.
The properties of material are listed in table 3.11. Wax based liquids FAIRCURE
(Fig.3.13) was sprayed with brush in two layers over the freshly finished specimen
once the free water on the surface has evaporated and there was no water sheen on
the surface visible on the specimens. This liquid forms an impermeable membrane
that minimizes the loss of moisture from the concrete.

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3.2.10 Polyethylene film

Plastic sheets such as polyethylene film are used to cure concrete. Polyethylene films
are lightweight, impervious hence prevent the moisture movement from the
concrete and can be applied to simple as well as on complex shapes. Major
disadvantage of this type of curing is that it causes patchy discoloration especially if
the concrete contains calcium chloride. Discoloration is more pronounced when the
film develops wrinkles and it is difficult and time consuming on a large project to
place the sheets without wrinkles. Polyethylene film should confirm to ASTM C171.
[ASTM-C171 2007][16]. The specimen were wrapped with a transparent 0.01 mm
thick plastic material after de-molding and are placed over the exposed surfaces of
concrete as soon a placed in a semi open place in ambient temperature. Care was
taken that at-least three wraps of sheet are placed without marring the finish of
specimens. Fig. 3.14 shows the sample specimen wrapped with polyethylene film.

Fig. 3.14: Polyethylene film wrapped specimen

3.2.11 Gunny bags for Wet covering

This is most often used curing method in the construction industry. In this method
moisture retaining fabrics such as burlap cotton mats, jute mats and rugs are used as
wet covering to keep the concrete in a wet condition during the curing period, for if
the drying is permitted, the cover will itself absorb the water from the concrete.
Alternative cycles of wetting and drying during the early period of curing will cause
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cracking of the surface. The major disadvantage of this method is discolouring of

concrete.
Wet covering curing is the most efficient and preferred techniques in various
construction projects, but they also encounter certain restriction in situ in
construction of highways, canal lining, Shell structures, high-rise buildings and areas
having scarcity of water.
Locally available jute mats were used to cure the specimen. Jute mat covers were
placed as soon as the specimens were de-molded to maintain water on the surface
of the concrete. They were kept wet continuously for the period of experiments.
Care was taken to avoid alternative drying and wetting condition by continuously
keeping the mats wet with water. Fig. 3.15 shows the specimen covered with jute
mat.

Fig. 3.15: Wet covering with jute mat

Effect of curing techniques on mechanical properties of self compacting concrete 105