UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA

DECLARATION OF THESIS/UNDERGRADUATE PROJECT PAPER AND COPYRIGHT

Author’s full name : NUR AFIQAH BINTI BAHROM

Date of birth : 10 MAY 1990

Title : SINGLE-ENDED FORWARD DC-DC CONVERTER

Academic Session : 2012/2013

I declare that this thesis is classified as:

CONFIDENTIAL (Contained confidential information under the Official

Secret Act 1972)*

RESTRICTED Contains restricted information as specified by the

organization where research was done)

 OPEN ACCESS I agree that my thesis to be published as online open

access (full text).

I acknowledge that Universiti Teknologi Malaysia reserves the right as follows:

1. The thesis is property of University Teknologi Malaysia

2. The Library of Universiti Teknologi Malaysia has right to make copies for the
purpose of research only.
3. The Library has the right to make copies of the thesis for academic exchange.

Certified by:

__________________________________ _______________________________
SIGNATURE SIGNATURE OF SUPERVISOR

Mr. Abd. Jaafar bin Shafie

(NEW IC NO./PASSPORT NO.) NAME OF SUPERVISOR

DATE: 24 JUNE 2013 DATE: 24 JUNE 2013

NOTES: *If the thesis is CONFIDENTAL or RESTRICTED, please attach with the letter from
the organization with period and reasons for confidentiality or restriction
 “I hereby declare that I have read thesis and in my
opinion this thesis is sufficient in terms of scope and quality for the
award of the degree of Bachelor of Engineering (Electrical)”

Signature : ……………………………………………
Name of supervisor : MR. ABD. JAAFAR BIN SHAFIE
Date : ……………………………………………
 i

SINGLE-ENDED FORWARD DC-DC CONVERTER

NUR AFIQAH BINTI BAHROM

A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the

requirements for the award of the degree of
Bachelor of Engineering
(Electrical)

Faculty of Electrical Engineering

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

JUNE 2013
 ii

I declare that this thesis entitled “Single-Ended Forward DC-DC Converter”

is the result of my own research except as cited in the references.
The thesis has not been accepted for any degree and is not
concurrently submitted in candidature of any other degree.

Signature : ……………………………………………
Name : NUR AFIQAH BINTI BAHROM
Date : ……………………………………………
 iii

To my parents for their love, support encouragement.

To my families, siblings, friends and lecturers for their guidance through the whole
process for this project.
 iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

A big thanks and appreciation to my supervisor, Mr. Abd Jaafar bin Shafie
for the guidance, encouragement, ideas and advices through the whole process in
completing my final year project. Without him, this project might be quite
impossible to be completed. I am very grateful and I have learnt a lot from this
project. A lot of thank for all the lecturers and technicians that had helped me to
complete this project.

I would like to thank course mate and friends who have helped me a lot is
this project. They had taught me the value of time, friendship, ethics and many more.
Besides, their existence through this project had encouraged me to complete my
work successfully.

Million thanks for my family and siblings that had support me since the first
year until the fourth year of my study in UTM Skudai, They are the closest supporter
when I was struggling with my hard time during my final year project. I would not be
able to success in this project without their persistence in giving me moral support
and also financial support.
 v

ABSTRACT

Forward converter is one of derivation of buck converter and also known as

switch mode power supplies or SMPS. It has higher efficiency and low power loss
compare to linear voltage regulator. In this project, efficiency was approximately
taken as 80%.This project mainly focused on designing tertiary winding in series
with diode. The need of third winding is essential to demagnetize the flux at the
transformer during switch off. The operation of forward converter was analyzed
when switch is on and off to understand the operation of forward converter. In this
SMPS, the heart of the system is the transformer itself. The transformer not only
provides isolation but also power reduction is applied to the switch. When designing
the transformer, there are several consideration need to be taken such as the size of
the core and size of conductor used as winding. This is to ensure the success
operation of transformer. PWM circuit which is SG3525A was used to provide pulse
signal to trigger MOSFET. Since the output of PWM is not enough, the use of driver
(TC4427) is essential since it can amplify the pulse signal. The result of output
waveform of converter will be analyzed and compare with theoretical.
 vi

ABSTRAK

Penukar forward adalah salah satu terbitan penukar buck dan juga dikenali
sebagai suis bekalan kuasa mod atau SMPS. Ia mempunyai kecekapan yang lebih
tinggi dan kehilangan kuasa yang rendah berbanding dengan pengatur voltan linear.
Dalam projek ini, dianggarkan kecekapan adalah 80%. Projek ini menfokuskan
kepada merekabentuk penggulungan ketiga dalam keadaan siri dengan diod.
Keperluan penggulungan ketiga adalah penting untuk mengelakkan penepuan fluks
pada alat ubah. Operasi penukar forward dianalisis apabila suis berada di dalam
keadaan terbuka dan tertutup. Di SMPS, jantung system adalah pengubah itu sendiri.
Pengubah bukan sahaja menyediakan pengasingan tetapi juga pengurangan kuasa
yang dibekalkan kepada suis. Apabila merekabentuk pengubah, terdapat beberapa
pertimbangan yang perlu diambil seperti saiz teras dan saiz konduktor yang
digunakan sebagai penggulungan. Ini adalah supaya memastikan kejayaan operasi
pengubah. Litar PWM SG3525A telah digunakan untuk memberi isyarat denyut
untuk menhidupkan MOSFET. Memandangkan keluaran PWM tidak mencukupi,
penggunaan pemandu (TC4427) adalah penting kerana ia boleh menguatkan isyarat
denyut. Hasil daripada gelombang keluaran penukar forward akan dianalisa dan
dibandingkan dengan teori.
 vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

DECLARATION ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv
ABSTRACT v
ABSTRAK vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
LIST OF TABLES x
LIST OF FIGURES xi
LIST OF SYMBOL xiii
LIST OF APPENDICES xv

1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background of Forward Converter 1
1.2 Problem Statement 1
1.3 Objective 2

1.4 Scope 2

1.4 Thesis Outline 3

2 LITERATURE REVIEW 5
2.1 Topology of Forward Converter 5
2.2 Advantages of Isolated Transformer 7
2.3 Analysis of Forward Converter 9
2.4 Transformer 13
 viii

2.4.1 Introduction 13
2.4.2 Determination Number of Turns 14

3 METHODOLOGY 16
3.1 Introduction 16
3.2 Method Used in This Project 18
3.3 Determination Parameter of Forward 19
Converter
3.4 Designation for Transformer 19
3.4.1 Selection of Magnetic Material 20
3.4.2 Number of Turns 20
3.4.3 Transformer Conductors Diameter 21
3.5 Control Circuit Selection 23
3.5.1 Pulse Width Modulation Circuit 23
(PWM)
3.5.2 Gate Driver Circuit 25
3.6 Power Stage Components Selection 26
3.6.1 Power Switch Selection 26
3.6.2 Power Diode Selection 26
3.6.3 Output Capacitor Selection 28
3.6.4 Output Inductor Selection 28
3.6.5 Load 29

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 30

4.1 Pulse Width Modulation Circuit (PWM) 30
4.1.1 Procedure to Test PWM Circuit 31
4.1.2 Result and Analysis of PWM Circuit 33
4.2 Driver Circuit 34
4.2.1 Procedure to Test Driver Circuit 34
4.2.2 Result and Analysis of Driver Circuit 35
4.3 Testing of MOSFET 36
4.4 Output Voltage of Forward Converter 37

5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 38

 ix

5.1 Conclusion 38
5.2 Recommendations 39

REFERENCES 40
APPENDIX 42
 x

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE

3.1 Initial Determination of Parameter 19

 xi

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE

2.1 Isolated Forward Converter 6

2.2 DC-DC Converter.(a) Buck Converter is not isolated 7

from the input;(b) the converter is isolated
2.3 Power Applied To the Switch (T) between a buck (a) 8
and an isolated buck (b) for the same enters and exit
value
2.4 Forward converter circuit (a) Equivalent circuit (b) 10
Transistor is on, interval D1(c) Transistor is off,
interval D2 (d) interval D3
2.5 Waveform of Magnetizing Inductance Volt-Second 12
Balance
2.6 Waveform of Magnetizing Current in The 12
Transformer Core for Different Duty Cycle
3.1 Flow Chart of Project 17

3.2 The PWM Integrated Circuit 24

3.3 Oscillator Charge Time versus RT 24

3.4 Pin Connection of TC4427 25

3.5 Switching Time Test Circuit of TC4427 25

4.1 Circuit Connection of SG3525A, TC4427 and 32

IRF540N
4.2 Output Waveform of SG3525A 33

4.3 Output Waveform of TC4427 35

 xii

4.4 Output Waveform of TC4427 (a) VGS waveform (b) 36

VDS waveform
4.5 Output Waveform of Forward Converter 37
 xiii

LIST OF SYMBOLS

A - Area
Ae - Effective Area
Ap - Area Product
Aw - Window Area
B - Flux Density
Bmax - Maximum Flux Density
C - Capacitance
D - Duty Ratio
D1 - Diode
E - Peak Voltage
f - Switching Frequency
i1 - Primary Winding Current
iLm - Magnetizing Inductance current
- Change in Magnetizing Inductance Current
- Inductance Current
- Change in Inductance Current
Isw - Switch Current
L - Inductance
N1 - Primary Turns
N2 - Secondary Turns
N3 - Tertiary Turns
R - Resistor
T - Period
V1 - Primary Voltage
V2 - Secondary Voltage
V3 - Tertiary Voltage
 xiv

VD3 - Voltage Across Diode 3

Vf - Forward Voltage
Vin - Input Voltage
Vo - Output Voltage
VLx - Inductance Voltage
Vs - Voltage Supply
 xv

LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX TITLE PAGE

A1 Complete Circuit of Forward Converter 42

 i

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Forward Converter

Forward converter is one of derivation of buck converter and also known as

switch mode power supplies or SMPS. SMPS have higher efficiency and low power
loss compare to linear voltage regulator. This is because it can operate at saturation
and cut off region.

Ideally, SMPS have 100 percent efficiency because the load will absorb all
the power but practically there will be switching loss and other losses that occur at
switch and cause the efficiency to drop to 75 percent.

Since forward converter have a characteristic to step down the DC value, it is

suitable for low and medium power application such as in electrical distribution in
car and in computer electronic part.

1.2 Problem statement

Forward converter can be derived from buck converter by adding the

transformer and diode D1 between the switch and the diode D2 [1]. Buck converter is
one type of switch-mode converter. Linear voltage regulator and switch mode
converter have same function which is to convert a dc supply voltage to another
 2

value of dc voltage [2]. One of application of forward converter is in the electrical

distribution throughout car at high voltage and then be converted to lower voltages at
such loads as the headlamps and electronic modules.[3]

Linear voltage regulator have low efficiency and high power loss because it
only operate at linear region compare to switch mode converter that can operate at
cut-off and saturation region At linear voltage regulator, transistor absorbs about 75
percent of power supplied by the source. Lower output voltages result in lower
efficiency. Compare with switch mode converter, all power is absorb by the load and
energy efficient is 100 percent. When using a real switch, losses will occur and cause
the efficiency to drop [2].

When considering using ideal transformer for forward converter, the

operation of forward converter is same as buck converter, except for the presence of
transformer turn ratio N2 / N1. In the case with real transformer, the core must be
completely demagnetized during off-interval of transistor and hence the need for
third winding and clamping diode is necessary. During turn on, the magnetic flux
will build up in the core and during turn off, it will be demagnetized by third winding
of the transformer.[6]

1.3 Objective

The objectives of this project are:

I. To study the characteristic of single end forward DC-DC converter
II. To understand and design isolated transformer of forward converter

1.4 Scope
 3

Forward converter can be divide into 2 types which is double ended and
single ended forward converter. Feedback loop can be applied to this type converter
to get higher efficiency by using current mode control (CMC) or voltage mode
control (VMC). This project is only focus on single ended DC-DC forward converter
with no feedback loop.

Conduction mode of this single ended DC-DC forward converter is

continuous and operated at steady state operation. Semiconductor used in this project
will be assuming as ideal and the leakage inductance is zero. Transformer used will
be considered as non ideal transformer and thus the needs of third winding to
demagnetize the core every cycle is necessary.

There are two basic conditions that will be analyzed during the operation of
forward converter. The first one is when the switch is turn on and the second one is
when the switch is turn off. The switch that will be used in this project is MOSFET
type because it is suitable with low power and high frequency circuit.

1.5 Thesis Outline

Chapter 1: Introduction

This chapter describe the basic background of forward converter and the
problem that encountered by forward converter in non ideal state. The objective of
the project also been stated in this chapter.

Chapter 2: Literature Review

In this chapter, the item that will be discussed is the basic topology and
design of this converter. The operation of converter during turn off and turn on will
also be discussed.
 4

Chapter 3: Methodology

There will be flow chart in this chapter to ease people to understand the flow
of this project. In this chapter, the method to select each of component and the way
to conduct this project will be reviewed.

Chapter 4: Result and Discussion

After done research and some theoretical preparation about forward

converter, a hardware or experiment of this converter was held up. Some discussion
about the converter will be also being reviewed in this chapter.

Chapter 5: Conclusion and Recommendation

The summary for the project will be stated in this chapter.

 5

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Topology of Forward Converter

Forward converter is a single switch converter that uses a transformer to

transfer energy from the primary circuit to secondary circuits. Energy will flows
from the primary to the secondary while the switch is conducting current [7]. A core
reset circuit is required in this converter and transformer is not required to store
magnetic energy. The transformer core reset is obtained by adding a tertiary winding
to the transformer in series with a diode D1. Its main function is to return energy
stored in the magnetizing inductance to the input voltage source and therefore reset
the core after each cycle of operation.[1]

The isolation element in the forward converter is a pure transformer which

should not store energy, and therefore, a second inductive element L is required at
the output for proper and efficient energy transfer. Figure 2.1 shows the circuit and
waveforms of isolated forward converter Notice that the primary and secondary
windings of the transformer have the same polarity, i.e. the dots are at the same
winding ends
 6

When the transistor turns on, current will builds up in the primary winding.
Because of the same polarity of the transformer secondary winding, such energy is

forward transferred to the output and also stored in inductor L through diode D2
which is forward-biased.

When the transistor turns off, the transformer winding voltage reverses,
reversed-biasing diode [8]

Figure 2.1: Isolated Forward Converter [8]

D1 is necessary for a forward converter because all transformer current stops

when the switch turns off. The clamp provides a path for the current in the
magnetizing inductance of the transformer and the leakage inductance. Since the
clamp voltage can be no larger than the input voltage, the duty cycle must be
restricted to a value less than 50% to ensure that flux does not build up in the core
and result in saturation [7].
 7

2.2 Advantages of Isolated Transformer

A forward converter can be derived from the buck converter by adding the
transformer.[1] There are 3 main advantages with this isolated transformer which is:
1) to prevent a possible electric shock, an option is to isolate the output from the
input by using a transformer, 2) possible to increase duty cycle in order to work with
such a large voltage difference, and 3) power applied to the switch in an forward
converter will be lower than in the Buck.[9].

Figure 2.2 shows how isolated transformer can prevent electrical shock. In
buck converter, input supply and output will be grounded at the same ground. A way
to isolate the output from input electrically is by using a transformer.[10]

Figure 2.2: DC-DC Converter. (a) Buck Converter is not isolated from the input;(b)
the converter is isolated, Vout is a floating value : there is no risk of electrocution. [9]
 8

In a Buck converter, we have an important difference between the input and

the output. For example V in = 300V and V out = 20V, the duty cycle is

It is very difficult to generate such a small duty cycle. By using transformer it

is possible to increase this duty cycle in order to work with such a large voltage
difference.[9]

Refer to Figure 2.3, considering value that enters and exit is same for both
buck and forward converter. Pout =100 W for both of the converters. Power applied in
isolated buck will be lower compare to buck converter by proving it using
calculation,[9]

(a)

(b)
Figure 2.3: Power Applied To the Switch (T) between a buck (a) and an isolated
buck (b) for the same enters and exit value[9]

For buck converter,

 9

For forward converter,

2.3 Analysis of Forward Converter

Refer to figure 2.4 (b) and figure 2.5, when transistor is in on condition, the
magnetic flux in the core will build up. During this on-interval DTs, D1 get reverse
biased, thus preventing the current from flowing through the tertiary. The diode D3
will also get reversed biased and the output inductor current flows through D2.[6]

When transistor is turned off (figure 2.4 (c)), the magnetic energy stored in
the transformer core forces a current flow into the dotted terminal of the tertiary
winding. This is because since the current into the dotted terminal of secondary
winding cannot flow due to D2 been opened circuit. It then will results in Vin to be
applied negatively across the tertiary winding, and the core flux to decline, as shown
in Figure 2.5. [6]

Refer to Figure 2.5, at interval D3, the core flux remains zero and stays zero
during the remaining interval until the next cycle begins. Refer to Figure 2.6, if D2Ts
 10

more than interval (1-D)TS (which is D>0.5), the magnetic flux in the core will
increase and saturate.[11] To avoid the core from saturating, D2Ts must be less than
the off-interval (1-D)TS of the transistor. Typically, winding 1 and 3 are wound
bifilar to provide a very tight mutual coupling and hence N3=N1. The core is applied
an equal magnitude but opposite polarity per-turn voltage during DTS and D2Ts
respectively. At upper limit, D2Ts equal (1-D)TS and duty ratio, Dmax will be 0.5,with
N3=N1 [6].

(a)

(a)

VS

(b)

(b)
 11

(c)

(c)

(d)

(d)

Figure 2.4: Forward converter circuit (a) Equivalent circuit (b) Transistor is on,
interval D1(c) Transistor is off, interval D2 (d) interval D3 [11]
 12

Figure 2.5: Waveform of Magnetizing Inductance Volt-Second Balance.[11]

Figure 2.6: Waveform of Magnetizing Current in The Transformer Core for Different
Duty Cycle.[11]
 13

2.4 Transformer

2.4.1 Introduction

Transformers have two basic functions: to provide electrical isolation and to

step up or step down time-varying voltage and currents. An idealized two winding
transformer has input-output relationships as

An ideal transformer does not allow primary current to flow if the

secondary is an open circuit. In actual transformers, there is a small amount of
current that flows when the secondary is open. This is the magnetizing current
and is a result of the inductance of the primary winding. This magnetizing
inductance should be as large as practical so that the magnetizing current is a very
small fraction of the current when the transformer is delivering power [12].

When a voltage is applied to the primary winding of a transformer, a flux

is produced in the core as given by Faraday’s Law. The changing flux in the core
then induces a voltage in the secondary winding of a transformer

The increase in flux occurs because the magnetizing current increases. We

must keep the flux from the magnetizing current below the knee of the B-H curve to
avoid saturation of the core. The magnetizing current goes down as we increase the
magnetizing inductance.

For periodic voltage and current operation for a transformer circuit, the
magnetic flux in the core must return to its starting value at the end of each switching
 14

period. Otherwise, flux will increase in the core and eventually cause saturation. A
saturated core cannot support a voltage across a transformer winding, and this will
lead to a device currents that are beyond the design limit of the circuit [10].

2.4.2 Determination Number of Turns

According to Faraday’s Law,

(2.1)

(2.2)

(2.3)

Since ,
(2.4)

So, N1 can be calculated using equation

(2.5)

Refer to figure 2.4 (b), considering forward voltage of D2, number of turn for
secondary winding can be determined by using formula,

(2.6)
 15

(2.7)

(2.8)

(2.9)

For tertiary winding,

(2.10)

(2.11)
 16

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter will explain more detail about the process that been choose to
make this project successful. Design approach for each steps will also be explained
in this chapter. To understand more about the roughly procedure of this project, flow
chart is presented in Figure 3.1.

The first step in designing this project is to understand the characteristic of

single end forward converter. Waveform related with single end forward converter
was studied to understand more about the circuit operation during each cycle. After
the study completed, the next step is determination frequency of PWM controller.
Selection of parameter used in PWM controller is based on the parameter that had
been chose. The needs of gate drive will be considered depends on the capability of
controller to drive the switch. Transformer then will be designed based on the
frequency that had been chose.
 17

START

STUDY CHARACTERISTIC OF
SINGLE END FORWARD
CONVERTER

DECIDE PARAMETER BASED ON

REQUIREMENT

DESIGN PWM CONTROLLER,

GATE DRIVER, TRANSFORMER

IMPLEMENT AND TEST ON

PROTOBOARD

TROUBLESHOOT

TRANSFER TO PCB
(DESIGN USING PCB WIZARD)

TROUBLESHOOT

FINISH

Figure 3.1: Flow Chart of Project

 18

3.2 Method Used In This Project

There will be two methods that will be used in making this project successful.
First is by using software and the second one hardware, which is implementing the
project on Printed Circuit Board (PCB).

Simulation using software Pspice and PCB Wizard will be used. Simulation
of complete single ended DC-DC forward converter will be done using Pspice and
the wave form will be analyse and compared with the result from hardware. PCB
wizard software is helping in designing a tidy circuit which will be printed on PCB.
In PCB wizard, we can manage and arrange our component as we want, thus the size
of PCB can be reduced if we arrange the component closely.

In implementing the project into hardware, there will be 2 steps. First is

implementing it on breadboard. Second is implementing it on PCB. It is important to
do it on breadboard first to ensure whether the connection is right. Circuit that been
implemented on breadboard will be trouble shoot. Any fault during the
troubleshooting process should be considered. If the troubleshoot process success,
implement on PCB can be proceed. When implementing on PCB, there will be four
stages included. First is print the circuit done using PCB wizard software on PCB.
Second is etching process, which is to remove the copper that is not used in the
circuit. Third is the drilling process to make a hole for component pin. Lastly is
soldering the component on the PCB board.

After done with all simulation and hardware process, we can compare the
result from simulation and hardware. Thus, the analyzing process can be proceed.
 19

3.3 Determination Parameter of Forward Converter

Some parameters that involve in the converter need to be specified before the
project was started. All of the calculation for specification of component will be
based on the parameter. The parameter is important because the component selection
will be based on the calculation.

Table 3.1: Initial determination of parameter

Parameter Symbols Value
Input Voltage 28V
Output Voltage 5V
Efficiency 0.8
Output Power Pout 5W
Input Power Pin
6.25W
Input Current Iin Pin/Vin
0.22A
Output Current Iout 1A
Duty Cycle D 40%
Frequency 100kHz
Flux Density 200mT

Forward Voltage VF 1.5V

(refer to datasheet of
diode)

3.4 Designation for Transformer

In forward converter, the transformer is the heart of the circuit. Not only
isolation is provided by the transformer but also power reduction is applied to the
switch. In this section, the item that will discussed is the selection of magnetic
material, calculation of number of turns and the size of conductor.
 20

3.4.1 Selection of Magnetic Material

The E core that been selected to be used in this project is ETD34 magnetic
core. This is because it allows better heat dissipation for the winding since large area
of copper had been exposed to ambient air.

3C90 core have many advantages compare to other ferrite core. The main different is
the core shape which is it have round centre leg. It also has low core cost, good
mounting flexibility and excellent heat dissipation.

3.4.2 Number of Turns

Number of primary turn, N1 can be calculated based on formula (2.5),

In reducing the flux density and consequently magnetic losses in the

transformer, the primary turn had been add up. So, the number turns for primary is
10 turns.

Secondary turn can be found by using formula (2.9)

 21

By using formula (2.11), the number of turns for tertiary winding can be
calculated.

3.4.3 Transformer Conductors Diameter

Root mean square (RMS) current for each of the windings need to be
calculated to determine the size of the conductor that will be used. Determination of
current is very important in ensuring the conductor at the winding can support the
current that will flow through them. Insufficient diameter of conductor may lead to
short circuit of the winding.

Size of the conductor is determined by using AWG value system. Value of

current that had been calculated will then be referred to AWG table to find suitable
diameter of conductor.
 22

Secondary RMS (I 2, rms) current can be found by using,

Primary RMS current (I 1, rms),

Tertiary RMS current (I 3, rms),

Usually, manufacturer use the following ratio:

 23

The largest RMS current is 0.707A and by referring to AWG table, the most
suitable size wire is 30 which is similar to diameter of 0.05mm2 (can withstand
maximum of 0.86A ) Since the size is too small to handle and to make the winding
process easier, the size of 0.6mm2 had been selected for all three winding. 0.6mm2
size is approximately equal to AWG 19 which can withstand higher current.

3.5 Control Circuit Selection

Control circuit is the circuit that will provide pulse signal that will trigger the
gate terminal of MOSFET. MOSFET will be selected as switch in the converter. The
selection of control circuit is very important because if the MOSFET is not working,
it is impossible to analyze the forward converter operation.

3.5.1 Pulse Width Modulation Circuit (PWM)

PWM control integrated circuit provides the duty cycle and the elements to
implement the control for a basic DC-DC converter. In fact, the duty cycle is
generated by comparison between a triangular signal and a dc signal. Thus, IC for
PWM circuit is very complicated because it contains miniature transistors and
comparators. In this project, SG3525A was chosen as a PWM integrated circuit.
Main function of PWM is to provide pulse signal to gate terminal of MOSFET. This
will decide the on or off state of the MOSFET depending on duty cycle and
switching frequency. Figure 3.2 show the pin connection of SG3525A and the
connection that related with the IC. Voltage supply of 13V was supplied at pin 15.
Pin 11 and 14 is the output pin that will be connected to driver. According to
datasheet, the maximum output voltage is 5.2 V with 49% as maximum duty cycle.
 24

Figure 3.2: The PWM integrated circuit

In order to get certain value of frequency and duty cycle, CT at pin 5 and RT at
6 should be varied. The value of RT and CT can be obtained by referring the datasheet
of this PWM. Figure 3.3 shows the graph that can helped in determining the suitable
value for RT and CT. The desired frequency for this project is 100 kHz. By finding the
value of period which is 10 μs, the value of CT can be set as 1nF and value of RT is
approximately taken as 12 kΩ.

Figure 3.3: Oscillator Charge Time versus RT

 25

3.5.2 Gate Driver Circuit

Function of gate driver is to interfere between PWM and forward converter

circuit. Besides, the other function of the driver is to drive the N-channel of
MOSFET in DC-DC forward converter. Gate driver of TC4427 was chosen in this
project since it can withstand high value of peak output current which is 1.5A. Figure
3.4 shows that TC4427 has two input pins and two output pins. Fortunately, the
output from PWM and the MOSFET that need to be drive is only one.

Figure 3.4: Pin Connection of TC442

Figure 3.5 shows the connection that involve in using TC4427 as suggested in
datasheet of the component. Since the needs of input and output of the driver is only
one, hence, pin 2 was chosen to be input pin and pin 7 as the output pin.

Figure 3.5: Switching Time Test Circuit of TC4427

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3.6 Power Stage Components Selection

There are some electronic components that should be selected in power stage
process. The components are power switch, power diode (D1, D2, and D3), output
inductor, output capacitor, and output resistor.

3.6.1 Power Switch Selection

MOSFET type had been selected to be implemented as switch in forward

converter circuit. MOSFET have higher breakdown voltage compare to BJT. It can
be used for high frequency application where there is no theoretical limit and hence
the switching losses could be lowered. Plus, MOSFET have a simpler driver circuit if
compare to driver circuit for BJT.MOSFET is voltage-controlled device compare to
BJT which is current controlled device. The advantage of MOSFET is it has body-
drain diode which is particularly useful in dealing limited freewheeling currents.

N-channel MOSFET was chosen because it has simpler driver circuit

compare to p-channel MOSFET.N-channel was chosen to avoid the switching power
losses. Hence, IRF540N from international rectifier was selected. Since the
frequency used in this circuit does not resulting in switching losses, the use of heat
sink that was mounted on MOSFET is for safety reason only.

3.6.2 Power Diode Selection

There will be three power diodes that will be used in forward converter. The
important criteria that should be noted for selecting power diode is fast switching,
high current rating, reverse voltage and low voltage drop.
 27

Aim of D1 is to prevent negative current to flow through secondary winding

of transformer and D2 are to allow freewheeling during demagnetization time.
Function of D3 is to allow demagnetization of the transformer. Theoretical voltage
across secondary winding is,

To find the best value for reverse voltage rating of D2, VD2 must be less than
or equal with V2. This is because VD2 = V2 + VF.

The maximum voltage that can drop theoretically into D3 is,

VD3= 2Vin

VD3= 2(28) =56V.

Thus, the diode was chosen must have minimum reverse voltage equal to
2.5Vin =70V for safety reason. A fast soft recovery diode MUR860 diode from ON
semiconductor was selected to be as D1, D2 and D3. MUR860 have ultrafast recovery
time, low forward voltage and low leakage current. It can support high value of
reverse voltage which is 600V and have low forward voltage that is 1.5V.
 28

3.6.3 Output Capacitor Selection

Function of output capacitor is to absorb the AC current component in order

to prevent it from flowing through the resistance. So that the current that will flow
through the resistance is only a DC current. There are several consideration need to
be taken in choosing the capacitor such as low internal impedance value, low ESR
and high capacitance in small package. A 220μF electrolytic capacitor was selected
to be used in this project. This value is approximately safe to be used because peak to
peak current is small due to parameter that been specified. Hence, 220μF could
absorb most of AC current and thus providing a smooth and low ripple output DC
voltage.

3.6.4 Output Inductor Selection

Referring to Kirchhoff’s law, when switch is conducting,

 29

Based on the value of inductor that had been calculated, the best value is 13.8
μH. For safety purpose, inductor of 220 μH was chosen. The current rating is 3.5 A
prohibiting the converter from operating at maximum power rating for a long
duration. By prohibiting the situation, the problem with saturation could be
prevented.

3.6.5 Load

In forward converter designation, a resistive load of 150Ω with 5W and 5%

resistivity range was selected to be as load at output section.
 30

CHAPTER 4

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

In this chapter, the things that will be discussed are the result obtained from
the project. The result from forward converter circuit can generally divided into 3
sections which is PWM controller, gate driver and forward converter.

4.1 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) Circuit

SG3525A is very sensitive chip and prone to damage. After testing of IC on

the protoboard was done, the circuit of PWM can be transfer to PCB board. There are
several procedures that need to be followed to ensure the operation of the IC. Main
thing that need to be focused on are duty cycle, frequency and voltage output.
 31

4.1.1 Procedure to Test PWM Circuit

The aim for output of PWM controller is output voltage that can drive
MOSFET which is 15V, duty cycle of 40% and frequency of 100kHz. The procedure
of the testing is stated below. Refer to Figure 4.1 to ease understanding of the circuit
connection.

a) DC supply of 13V was injected to pin15 which is Vcc pin.

b) Output was observed by using oscilloscope. Waveform was verified to ensure

that desired duty cycle was obtained. (Since RT is fixed value, so the
frequency of the PWM could not be change.)

c) Potentiometer at pin 2 was adjusted to get desired duty cycle which is 40%.

d) Probe was connected to terminal of output voltage and waveform was

observed on oscilloscope.
 32

Figure 4.1: Circuit Connection of SG3525A, TC4427 and IRF540N

 33

4.1.2 Result and Analysis of PWM circuit

Figure 4.2 shows the waveform and some measurement of PWM testing.
Since RT was fixed value which is 12kΩ, so the frequency was fixed to 111 kHz.
Desired frequency is 100 kHz. It shows that the weakness of the PWM design is by
using fixed resistor as RT. Desired duty cycle for this project is 40% and by
comparing with the reading of oscilloscope, the desired duty cycle was success. Peak
to peak voltage is only 4.40V. Hence, it is not sufficient enough to drive MOSFET.
MOSFET need 10V-20V to on and below 10V to switch off. Thus, the need of driver
to amplify the pulse signal is essential.

Figure 4.2: Output Waveform of SG3525A.

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4.2 Driver Circuit

Driver that was chosen to amplify the pulse signal is TC4427. Duty cycle and
frequency remain unchanged because same value of D and f will be used to drive the
MOSFET. The function of TC4427 is solely for amplifying pulse signal only.

4.2.1 Procedure to Test Driver Circuit

a) Output of SG3525A will be input of TC4427. The output of PWM will

connected to pin 2 (Vin)

b) DC supply of 13V was injected to pin6 which is Vcc pin.(Refer to Figure 4.1)

c) Probe was connected to output (pin 7) and waveform on oscilloscope was

verified.

d) Duty cycle and frequency remain unchanged. If there were any changes,
adjust potentiometer at pin 2 of PWM circuit.

e) Voltage supply was adjusted within limit and the output waveform was
observed.
 35

4.2.2 Result and Analysis of Driver Circuit

Figure 4.3 shows the waveform and some measurement of TC4427 testing.
Output value of PWM was increased when connected to driver circuit. This shows
that the pulse signal had been amplified to certain value. The voltage output of PWM
is increased from 4.48V to 15.2V with D and f remain unchanged. The output value
of TC4427 is 15.2V. Hence, it is sufficient enough to drive the MOSFET to on
region.

Figure 4.3: Output Waveform of TC4427.

 36

4.3 Testing of MOSFET

Output of driver was connected to gate terminal of MOSFET. Source

terminal will be connected to ground. For drain terminal, it will be connected to
primary winding of forward converter.

Figure 4.4a shows the waveform of gate source MOSFET (VGS) and figure
4.4b shows the waveform of drain source MOSFET (VDS). The waveform is
opposite to each other means the MOSFET is functioning well. Thus, the switch can
be used in forward converter circuit.

(a)

(b)
Figure 4.4: Output Waveform of TC4427 (a) VGS waveform (b) VDS waveform.
 37

4.4 Output Voltage of Forward Converter

Output voltage of forward converter supposedly is 5V but referring to figure

4.5, the output voltage is only 2.8 V. This might be because of voltage drop at each
component that involved in forward converter such as power diode and resistive
load. Since resistive load is too large which is 150Ω, the voltage drop at resistive
load is large hence affecting much at output.

The output waveform is not perfectly straight because of noise that

contributed by the transformer.

Figure 4.5: Output Waveform of Forward Converter.

 38

CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion

Forward converter was designed based on 100 kHz switching frequency. In

assuming the non ideal operation of this type of converter, the need of reset winding
is essential. The purpose of reset winding is to transfer trap energy from primary side
back to the source, avoiding flux saturation in the transformer core.

There are several points that need to be considering in designing forward

converter such as energy transfer, saturation in the core and leakage inductance that
will affect the entire operation of the converter. This is because, in using SMPS, the
heart of the system is the transformer itself and followed by other small components.
To obtain better operation of the transformer, it is advisable to used exact or large
size of transformer core.

When MOSFET is in operation, it will faced problem of increasing

temperature. When primary side take large current, MOSFET will become easily
heat up and the voltage of on state of MOSFET will increase. There are also another
point that need to be considered such as spikes due to voltage current, efficiency of
the system, switching loss and many other so that the analyzing of the converter can
be done efficiently.
 39

5.2 Recommendations

In this project, it was found that the core of the transformer had been
saturated. This is because the sudden voltage had been applied to forward converter.
To overcome this problem, it is good to increase the supply voltage slowly while
observing the changes of output of the converter. In case the switching is not
properly function, it will not damage the core of the transformer.

In overcoming the saturation problem of the transformer, there are some

methods that can be suggested. First is by increasing the number of turn of each
winding and the second one is by increasing the frequency of the transformer.

When the converter operates in high switching frequency, it will be prone to

major losses cause by switching loss. There are good and bad in using high switching
frequency. The advantages of using high switching frequency for this system is it can
reduce the size of the converter but it will cause switching loss. So, in overcoming
the switching loss problem, using snubber circuit at the switch or MOSFET is
advisable. Snubber circuit is used to keep the voltage at drain terminal of MOSFET
low so that the power during the transition is kept low. The capacitor in snubber
circuit should be properly charged and discharged in each cycle.

Selection of each component should be made wisely to be cost effective.

Over rated components are good to be used in the system but it may cost high. The
best way is by calculating theoretically the exact value of each component .next; try
to compare using simulation of Pspice so that we knew whether the components
selected is suitable or not.
 40

REFERENCE

1. Kazimierczuk, M.K., Forward PWM DC-DC Converter, in Pulse-Width

Modulated DC-DC Power Converters. 2008, Wiley: UK. p. 811.

2. W.Hart, D., DC-DC Converter, in Power Electronics. 2011, McGraw-Hill:

Singapore. p. 197.

3. Schlecht, K.a., High-Frequency High-Density Converters for Distributed

Power Supply Systems. 1988. 76(4): p. 15.

4. W.Hart, D., Resonant Converter, in Power Electronics. 2011, McGraw-Hill:

Singapore. p. 387.

5. Tezak, O., D. Dolinar, and M. Milanovic. Snubber design approach for dc-dc
converter based on differential evolution method. in Advanced Motion
Control, 2004. AMC '04. The 8th IEEE International Workshop on. 2004.

6. Mohan, N., Forward Converters, in First Course on Power Electronics and

Drives. 2003, MNPere: Minneapolis. p. 251.

7. Raymond A. Mack, J., Transformer Isolated Circuits, in Demystifying

Switching Power Supplies. 2005, Newnes: United States of America.

8. Marcelo Godoy Simoes, P.D., Power Bipolar Transistors, in Power

Electronics Handbook, M.H. Rashid, Editor. 2001, Academic Press.
 41

9. Analysis and design of a forward converter. 2006, Universidale Federal de Santa

Catarina. p. 8.

10. W.Hart, D., DC Power Supplies, in Power Electronics. 2011, McGraw-Hill:

Singapore. p. 265

11. Erickson, R.W., Forward converter, in Fundamentals of Power Electronics. 1997,

Chapman and Hall: New York.
12. Raymond A. Mack, J., Transformer Selection, in Demystifying Switching Power
Supplies. 2005, Newnes: United States of America.

13. Chapman, S.J., Transformer, in Electrical Machinery and Power System

Fundamentals. 2002, McGraw Hill: New York. p. 152.

14. W.Hart, D., Drive Circuits, Snubber circuits and Heat Sinks, in Power
Electronics. 2011, McGraw-Hill: Singapore. p. 443.
 42

APPENDIX A

Appendix A1: Complete Circuit of Forward Converter (including PWM Circuit and
Driver Circuit)