LOGIC - is the study of methods and principles used to distinguish correct reasoning from incorrect

reasoning.
- the study of reasoning
- Logic is a philisophy subject. It is the science and art of correct thinking. It is a science that
stands for a systemized body of truths acquired through observation and experimentation. It is a
systemized body of logical truths and principles governing correct thinking. It is also an art, a "techne",
that teaches how to make good arguments. It weighs whether reasoning is correct or incorrect; this is
the core of the problem confronting logic.

• Etymological ->logike(gk.) – treatise on matters pertaining to thought (by Zeno of Elea)

• Real -> the science and art of valid inferential reasoning

HISTORY OF LOGIC

Development of Logic

A. Pre-Aristotelian Logic in Greek

-used logic to argue against each other and defend their ideas
• ELEATICS – Zeno of Elea
• SOPHISTS- Gorgias, Thrasymachus
• MEGARICS –Euclides

B. Aristotelian Logic
- Aristotle formalized a systematic study of logic (Oganon)
• Aristotle combined
*Socrates’ idea of universal definition,
*Zeno’s reductio ad absurdum,
*Parmenides’ and Plato’s claims about propositional structure and negation
*the argumentative techniques found in legal reasoning and geometrical proofs

C. Post-Aristotelian Logic in Greece

-continuation and further development of Aristotle’s Organonand the search for a
criterion of truth (beginnings of Epistemology)
• Theophrastus – hypothetical syllogism
• Eudemus, - responsible for incorporating logic into philosophy

D. The Greek and Latin Commentators

-the handing down of knowledge from the Greek to the Romans
Alexander of Aprhodisias and St. John of Damascus on the problem of universals
Galen – 4th syllogistic figure and the fallacies of Diction
Andronicus of Rhodes – compiled and organized Aristotle’s works
Cicero – wrote the 1st logical treatise in Latin

E. The Scholastics and the Crusaders

-improvement of Aristotelian logic and the incorporation of logic into the sciences
MarciannusCapella – De NuptiisMercuriietPhilologiae
Boethius – translated Aristotle’s works into Latin
Peter Abelard – composed an independent treatise on logic
F. Modern Logic -aims at escaping the ambiguity of language
-development of the inductive method way of reasoning and symbolic logic

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz – envisioned the development of a universal language to be specified with
mathematical precision
• 3 Overlapping Traditions in the Development of Logic
1. Algebraic School – focus on the relationship between correct reasoning and operations like
addition ad multiplication
2. Logicist School – aimed to codify The underlying logic of all rational, scientific discourse into a
single system
3. Mathematical School – axiomatization of particular branches of mathematics like geometry,
arithmetic, analysis and set theory.

NATURE OF LOGIC

a. SPONTANEOUS LOGIC
 From our observation: we follow a certain order to do things, e.g. read a book, cook rice, bake a
cake, play some sport, go and buy a drink. We don't do these things haphazardly or at random;
we follow a certain procedure, we follow a certain logic.

 In other words, there is purpose and order in our everyday action. Where there is order, there is
logic.

 This is the way we are. Our logical way of going about life is a result of our human nature, which
is rational. (All other animals act according to instinct.) Because logic arises from human nature,
then all human beings have spontaneous logic.

b. LOGIC AS AN ART (Logic's practical side)

 "Art" (Latin ars, Greek techne) = ability to do something (in ancient usage).
 The art that directs the reasoning process so that man may attain knowledge of the truth in an
orderly way, with ease, and without error. (St Thomas Aquinas, In I Anal. Post.).
 Object of study: reasoning skills
 As art, logic is the tool of the sciences. It is called ars artium, the art of arts. All other abilities
need this basic ability.
 As art, logic can also be cultivated as a technique.
c. SCIENTIFIC LOGIC. LOGIC AS SCIENCE (Logic's speculative side)
 The science that studies the reasoning process itself.

 Object of study 1: acts of reason, insofar as reason is directed or ordained to grasping reality or
being. (Remember that ens et verum convertuntur, truth and being are the same thing in reality.
Hence, we can say that logic aims to investigate acts of reason insofar as reason seeks to know
the truth.)

 Object of study 2: logical properties (properties of acts and products of reason) or logical
relations (relations between acts and products of reason). Logical properties or logical relations
are beings of reason (in contrast to real beings, beings which are not merely in our minds).

 The objects of study are beings of reason, things in our mind. These things would not be there if
we did not already have some previous knowledge of things actually and really existing outside
our mind, i.e., things in the world, real beings. Logic reflects on that previously acquired
knowledge; logic is reflexive knowledge. (This is why Logic cannot be the basis of philosophical
or scientific knowledge, because it bases itself on previous direct knowledge of things in reality,
not things in the mind.)

RELEVANCE OF STUDYING LAW

• It helps one to reason out validly

• It makes us more critical and analytical
• It helps us think systematically
• It helps us detect fallacies and errors in reasoning
• It helps us to distinguish valid from invalid reasoning
• It enables us to persuade people
• It enables us to comprehend all aspects of reality

FORMAL LOGIC AND MATERIAL LOGIC

• Formal Logic – discusses the conceptual patterns or structures needed for inference (main concern
is validity and correctness of reasoning)
• Material Logic – discusses the kind of matter, that is the nature of terms and premises that are used
in the different kinds of demonstration given in the latter part of logic (its concern involves truth,
correspondence to facts)
MATERIAL LOGIC  Focus on the content of reasoning
(PHILOSOPHY OF  Reflects on
LOGIC) 1. correspondence between logical and real orders

2. seeks to explain the nature of the logical operations of the mind (i.e. it asks:
"What are these operations?" "How are they related?")

FORMAL LOGIC  Focus on the form of reasoning, i.e., the structure or logical coherence.
 The principles governing formal logic follow the principle of non-contradiction.
Ergo, these principles are themselves true. (Why do we have to affirm this? Because
we might think that because we are just studying the form of the arguments, we may
not be actually interested on whether the contents are true or false. But we should
remember that the form itself has to be true.)
 More closely related to particular or positive sciences (biology, physics, chemistry)
than with Philosophy.
 Based on the Philosophy of Logic.
 (The book of Fr Sanguineti focuses on material logic.)

WHAT IS CRITICAL THINKING

Critical thinking is the ability to think clearly and rationally. It includes the ability to engage in reflective
and independent thinking. Someone with critical thinking skills is able to do the following :
 understand the logical connections between ideas
 identify, construct and evaluate arguments
 detect inconsistencies and common mistakes in reasoning
solve problems systematically
 identify the relevance and importance of ideas
 reflect on the justification of one's own beliefs and values

Critical thinking is not a matter of accumulating information. A person with a good memory and who
knows a lot of facts is not necessarily good at critical thinking. A critical thinker is able to deduce
consequences from what he knows, and he knows how to make use of information to solve problems,
and to seek relevant sources of information to inform himself.

Critical thinking should not be confused with being argumentative or being critical of other people.
Although critical thinking skills can be used in exposing fallacies and bad reasoning, critical thinking
can also play an important role in cooperative reasoning and constructive tasks. Critical thinking can
help us acquire knowledge, improve our theories, and strengthen arguments. We can use critical
thinking to enhance work processes and improve social institutions.

Some people believe that critical thinking hinders creativity because it requires following the rules of
logic and rationality, but creativity might require breaking rules. This is a misconception. Critical
thinking is quite compatible with thinking "out-of-the-box", challenging consensus and purusing less
popular approaches. If anything, critical thinking is an essential part of creativity because we need
 critical thinking to evaluate and improve our creative ideas.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD CRITICAL THINKER

 Are honest with themselves, acknowledging what they don't know, recognizing their limitations,
and being watchful of their own errors.

 Regard problems and controversial issues as exciting challenges.

 Strive for understanding, keep curiosity alive, remain patient with complexity, and are ready to
invest time to overcome confusion.

 Base judgments on evidence rather than personal preferences, deferring judgment whenever
evidence is insufficient. They revise judgments when new evidence reveals error.

 Are interested in other people's ideas and so are willing to read and listen attentively, even when
they tend to disagree with the other person.

 Recognize that extreme views (whether conservative or liberal) are seldom correct, so they avoid
them, practice fair-mindedness, and seek a balance view

 Practice restraint, controlling their feelings rather than being controlled by them, and thinking
before acting.

Uncritical Thinkers...

 Pretend they know more than they do, ignore their limitations, and assume their views are error-
free.

 Regard problems and controversial issues as nuisances or threats to their ego.

 Are inpatient with complexity and thus would rather remain confused than make the effort to
understand.

 Base judgments on first impressions and gut reactions. They are unconcerned about the amount
or quality of evidence and cling to their views steadfastly.

Natural logic is our common sense acquired from birth and experiences, while scientific logic is
natural logic that is further enhanced and trained by following the principles and rules of logic.