Moral development is a topic of interest in both psychology and education.

Psychologist
Lawrence Kohlberg modified and expanded upon Jean Piaget's work to form a theory that
explained the development of moral reasoning. Piaget described a two-stage process of
moral development, while Kohlberg theory of moral development outlined six stages within
three different levels. Kohlberg extended Piaget’s theory, proposing that moral development
is a continual process that occurs throughout the lifespan.

"The Heinz Dilemma"

Kohlberg based his theory upon research and interviews with groups of young children. A
series of moral dilemmas were presented to children, who were then interviewed to
determine the reasoning behind their judgments of each scenario. The following is one
example of the dilemmas Kohlberg presented.

"Heinz Steals the Drug

In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one drug that
the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same
town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was
charging ten times what the drug cost him to make. He paid $200 for the radium and
charged $2,000 for a small dose of the drug.

The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he
could only get together about $ 1,000 which is half of what it cost. He told the druggist that
his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist
said: "No, I discovered the drug and I'm going to make money from it." So Heinz got
desperate and broke into the man's store to steal the drug-for his wife. Should the husband
have done that? (Kohlberg, 1963)."

Kohlberg was not interested so much in the answer to the question of whether Heinz was
wrong or right, but in the reasoning for each participant's decision. The responses were then
classified into various stages of reasoning in his theory of moral development.

Level 1. Preconventional Morality

 Stage 1 - Obedience and Punishment

The earliest stage of moral development is especially common in young children, but
adults are also capable of expressing this type of reasoning. At this stage, children see
rules as fixed and absolute. Obeying the rules is important because it is a means to avoid
punishment.

 Stage 2 - Individualism and Exchange

At this stage of moral development, children account for individual points of view and
judge actions based on how they serve individual needs. In the Heinz dilemma, children
argued that the best course of action was the choice that best-served Heinz’s needs.
Reciprocity is possible, but only if it serves one's own interests.

Level 2. Conventional Morality

 Stage 3 - Interpersonal Relationships
Often referred to as the "good boy-good girl" orientation, this stage of moral
development is focused on living up to social expectations and roles. There is an
emphasis on conformity, being "nice," and consideration of how choices influence
relationships.

 Stage 4 - Maintaining Social Order

At this stage of moral development, people begin to consider society as a whole when
making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and order by following the rules,
doing one’s duty and respecting authority.

Level 3. Postconventional Morality

 Stage 5 - Social Contract and Individual Rights

At this stage, people begin to account for the differing values, opinions and beliefs of
other people. Rules of law are important for maintaining a society, but members of the
society should agree upon these standards.

 Stage 6 - Universal Principles

Kolhberg’s final level of moral reasoning is based upon universal ethical principles and
abstract reasoning. At this stage, people follow these internalized principles of justice,
even if they conflict with laws and rules.

Criticisms of Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development:

 Does moral reasoning necessarily lead to moral behavior? Kohlberg's theory is concerned
with moral thinking, but there is a big difference between knowing what weought to do
versus our actual actions.

 Is justice the only aspect of moral reasoning we should consider? Critics have pointed out
that Kohlberg's theory of moral development overemphasizes the concept as justice when
making moral choices. Factors such as compassion, caring and other interpersonal
feelings may play an important part in moral reasoning.

 Does Kohlberg's theory overemphasize Western philosophy? Individualistic cultures

emphasize personal rights while collectivist cultures stress the importance of society and
community. Eastern cultures may have different moral outlooks that Kohlberg's theory
does not account for.
 A SUMMARY OF LAWRENCE KOHLBERG'S
STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Copyright 2000 by
Robert N. Barger, Ph.D.
University of Notre Dame
Notre Dame, IN 46556

Lawrence Kohlberg was, for many years, a professor at Harvard University. He

became famous for his work there beginning in the early 1970s. He started as a
developmental psychologist and then moved to the field of moral education. He
was particularly well-known for his theory of moral development which he
popularized through research studies conducted at Harvard's Center for Moral
Education.

His theory of moral development was dependent on the thinking of the Swiss
psychologist Jean Piaget and the American philosopher John Dewey. He was also
inspired by James Mark Baldwin. These men had emphasized that human beings
develop philosophically and psychologically in a progressive fashion.

Kohlberg believed...and was able to demonstrate through studies...that people

progressed in their moral reasoning (i.e., in their bases for ethical behavior)
through a series of stages. He believed that there were six identifiable stages
which could be more generally classified into three levels.

Kohlberg's classification can be outlined in the following manner:

LEVEL STAGE SOCIAL ORIENTATION

Pre-conventional 1 Obedience and Punishment

2 Individualism, Instrumentalism,
and Exchange

Conventional 3 "Good boy/girl"

4 Law and Order

Post-conventional 5 Social Contract

6 Principled Conscience

The first level of moral thinking is that generally found at the elementary school
level. In the first stage of this level, people behave according to socially
acceptable norms because they are told to do so by some authority figure (e.g.,
parent or teacher). This obedience is compelled by the threat or application of
punishment. The second stage of this level is characterized by a view that right
behavior means acting in one's own best interests.
The second level of moral thinking is that generally found in society, hence the
name "conventional." The first stage of this level (stage 3) is characterized by an
attitude which seeks to do what will gain the approval of others. The second stage
is one oriented to abiding by the law and responding to the obligations of duty.

The third level of moral thinking is one that Kohlberg felt is not reached by the
majority of adults. Its first stage (stage 5) is an understanding of social mutuality
and a genuine interest in the welfare of others. The last stage (stage 6) is based
on respect for universal principle and the demands of individual conscience. While
Kohlberg always believed in the existence of Stage 6 and had some nominees for
it, he could never get enough subjects to define it, much less observe their
longitudinal movement to it.

Kohlberg believed that individuals could only progress through these stages one
stage at a time. That is, they could not "jump" stages. They could not, for
example, move from an orientation of selfishness to the law and order stage
without passing through the good boy/girl stage. They could only come to a
comprehension of a moral rationale one stage above their own. Thus, according to
Kohlberg, it was important to present them with moral dilemmas for discussion
which would help them to see the reasonableness of a "higher stage" morality and
encourage their development in that direction. The last comment refers to
Kohlberg's moral discussion approach. He saw this as one of the ways in which
moral development can be promoted through formal education. Note that Kohlberg
believed, as did Piaget, that most moral development occurs through social
interaction. The discussion approach is based on the insight that individuals
develop as a result of cognitive conflicts at their current stage.

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development - Explained & Illustrated

Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987) was a well-known theorist in the field of moral
development. He posed moral dilemmas (e.g., Heinz Dilemma) to his subjects then asked
questions to probe their reasons for recommending a specific course of action.

The Heinz Dilemma

1. Scenario 1

A woman was near death from a unique kind of cancer. There is a drug that might
save her. The drug costs $4,000 per dosage. The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went
to everyone he knew to borrow the money and tried every legal means, but he could
only get together about $2,000. He asked the doctor scientist who discovered the
drug for a discount or let him pay later. But the doctor scientist refused.
 Should Heinz break into the laboratory to steal the drug for his wife? Why or why
not?

2. Scenario 2

Heinz broke into the laboratory and stole the drug. The next day, the newspapers
reported the break-in and theft. Brown, a police officer and a friend of Heinz
remembered seeing Heinz last evening, behaving suspiciously near the laboratory.
Later that night, he saw Heinz running away from the laboratory.

Should Brown report what he saw? Why or why not?

3. Scenario 3

Officer Brown reported what he saw. Heinz was arrested and brought to court. If
convicted, he faces up to two years' jail. Heinz was found guilty.

Should the judge sentence Heinz to prison? Why or why not?

Stages of Moral Reasoning

From his research, he identified six stages of reasoning at three levels.

Chart of Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

Stage 1: Punishment-Obedience Orientation

Level One:
Pre-conventional Morality
Stage 2: Instrumental Relativist Orientation

Stage 3: Good Boy-Nice Girl Orientation

Level Two:
Conventional Morality
Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation

Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation

Level Three:
Post-Conventional Morality
Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principle Orientation
Movement through the Stages
Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning is a stage theory. In other words, everyone goes
through the stages sequentially without skipping any stage. However, movement through
these stages are not natural, that is people do not automatically move from one stage to
the next as they mature. In stage development, movement is effected when cognitive
dissonance occurs ... that is when a person notices inadequacies in his or her present way
of coping with a given moral dilemma.

But according to stage theory, people cannot understand moral reasoning more than one
stage ahead of their own. For example, a person in Stage 1 can understand Stage 2
reasoning but nothing beyond that. Therefore, we should present moral arguments that are
only one stage ahead of a person's present level of reasoning to stimulate movement to
higher stages.

This article (in 4 parts) is an attempt to use illustrations to help explain the six stages and
to show how cognitive dissonance can be created by throwing up the inadequacies of the
different stages of reasoning.