Aggregates

 Generally refers to mineral particles which have rock as their origin unless otherwise specified.
 Particles of random shape.
 Sizes vary from several inches to the size of the smallest grain of sand. Aggregates larger than a several inches are used
while aggregates smaller than a grain of a sand are considered impurities. These impurities maybe tolerated or removed.
In some cases, impurities are considered additives which are added to aggregates.
 Found in nature as sand, gravel, stones, and rock that can be crushed into particles.
 May also be byproducts or waste material from an industrial process and mining operation.
Distinction Between Aggregate and Soil
 No clear distinction between aggregate and soil which also comes originally from rock.
 Most aggregate is soil that has been processed.
 Soil which remain in place and serves as the ultimate foundation of all construction is not considered as aggregate, no matter
what its composition.
Definitions (based on ASTM C125)
1. Coarse Aggregate- aggregate predominantly retained on the No. 4 (4.76 mm) sieve.
2. Fine Aggregate- aggregate passing the ⅜ in sieve and almost entirely passing the No. 4 (4.76mm) sieve and predominantly
retained on the No. 200 (74 micron) sieve
3. Gravel- granular material predominantly retained in No.4 (4.76 mm) sieve and resulting from natural disintegration and
abrasion of rock or processing of weakly bond conglomerate
4. Sand- granular material passing ⅜ in sieve and almost entirely passing the No.4 (4.76 mm) sieve and predominantly retained
on the No.200 (74 micron) sieve, and resulting from natural disintegration and abrasion of rock or processing of completely
friable sandstone.
5. Bank Gravel- (based on ASTM D8) gravel found in natural deposits, usually more or less intermixed with fine material, such
as sand and clay.
6. Crushed Gravel- the product resulting from the artificial crushing of gravel. (resulted from fracture)
7. Crushed Rock- product resulting from the artificial crushing of all rock. (resulted from crushing operation or blasting)
8. Crushed Stone- product resulting from the artificial crushing of rocks, boulders, or large cobblestones. (resulted from
crushing operation)
9. Blast Furnace Slag- nonmetallic product, consisting of silicates and alumino- silicates of lime and of other bases, which is
developed in a molten condition simultaneously with iron in a blast furnace.
Sources/ Formation of Aggregates
The earth’s crust is a solid rock called bedrock which is covered by soil which is originally derived from the bedrock. Soil consists
of gravel, sand, silt, and clay which is classified according to size which gravel is the largest and clay is the smallest.
Types of Aggregates:
1. Natural Aggregates
a. Sand
b. Gravel
c. Larger Stones
d. Bedrock reduced by manufacturing methods
2. Contrived Aggregates
a. Recycled products like crushed concrete, bituminous, or demolition debris
Process involving Aggregates (Formation)
1. Breaking
 Aggregates are broken from massive parent rock. This involves cracking of rock and eventual fracturing through
expansion and contraction of rock due to changing temperature.

2. Transporting
  Aggregates are transported by nature through falling or rolling down slowly due to the force of gravity and may
be carried away by flowing water or flowing ice of glaciers.
3. Depositing
 Aggregates left in various types of deposits such as sand/ gravel banks or in bed of streams and rivers.
Glacial Deposit (Another source of natural aggregates)
Glaciers scrape and gouge pieces of rock, large and small, from the side of the valley and carried them slowly to the lower.
Types of Glacial Deposit (aggregates)
1. Till- deposits dropped by glacier (melting edge of the glacier; larger aggregates)
2. Outwash- carried farther by stream of meltwater. (smaller aggregates)
*Eskers- long, narrow and snake-like ridges. These are commonly used source of aggregates from a glacial deposition.
Take Note:
• Aggregate can also be obtained where there were formerly lakes or stream. (relocation of streams and lakes due to the
movement of the earth’s crust)
• Two main characteristics of aggregates:
1. Rough surface and angular shape- Freshly broken aggregate
2. Smooth surface and rounded shape- travels more and slides farther along streams or by rainwater runoff.
• Size of aggregates a stream carries is approximately proportional to the 6 th power of the velocity flow. The greater the
slope, the greater the velocity. The greater the quantity of water, the greater the velocity. So the result is separation of
aggregates into various size ranges.
Methods of Extraction and Processing
Processing of Aggregates from Underwater Sources
1. Locating
 Knowledge of characteristics of stream flow and deposition is required to locate the best place for good
aggregates.
2. Examination
 After finding the best location of aggregates, samples of aggregates are examined for desired characteristics.
3. Extracting
 Three Methods of Extracting
• Excavation- excavated by dragline, power shovels, and barge- mounted dragline.
• Pump- aggregate is pumped with pumps similar to those for pumping concrete.
• Deepening Channels- there are aggregates brought up during deepening channels or navigation for ships.
(same as scoop/ dragline)

Processing of Aggregates from Land Sources

1. Locating
 Landforms are studied by aerial photographs and fieldtrips to locate the best place for good aggregates
2. Examination
 After finding the best location of aggregates, samples of aggregates are examined to determine the suitability of
aggregates
3. Extracting
 Stripping- process of removing unsuitable soil and vegetation soil which are called overburden. This is done
before extracting the aggregates.
 Blasting/ Crushing- aggregates are blasted with explosives and then crushed by machinery. By proper blasting,
crushing and screening, the size of aggregates could be controlled to suit the market.
 Excavation- aggregates are excavated by dragline, bucket loaders, power shovels, and power scrapers.

ROCK TYPES

IGNEOUS ROCK
- formed through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava.
 - varies in texture from coarse grains to glasslike smoothness, depending on how quickly it cooled
- slower cooling creates a coarser texture
Examples:

- Some volcanic rock cooled as foam, resulting in very light weight because of the hollow bubbles

Rocks much used in an industry of construction

- Granite, coarsed grained, light-colored igneous rock

- Gabbro, coarsed grained, dark-colored igneous rock

Trap rock provides excellent aggregate

- Basalt is a fine-grained equivalent of gabbro

- Diabase is an intermediate grain size between gabbro and basalt

Two Types of igneous rock filled with bubbles that are used to produce lightweight aggregate:

- Light-colored pumice
- Drak-colored scoria

SEDIMENTARY ROCK

- At one time consisted of particles deposited as sediment by wind, water or glacier. Most were deposited at the
bottom of lakes or seas. The pressure of overlying deposits together with the presence of cementing materials
combined to form rock
- Generally, shows stratification indication the way it was laid down; it generally breaks more easily along the lines of
stratification
- Rock formed of gravel is called conglomerate
- Rock formed of sand is called sandstone or quartzite

Examples:

-siltstone anyd claystone are soft rock formed of silt or clay. Shale is hard clystone. All three break along planes or
stratification to form flat particles. They do not make the best aggregate,, although shale is better because of its greater
hardness.

-limestone (mainly calcium carbonate) and dolomite (mainly magnesium carbonate and calcium carbonate) were formed
under saltwater and are largely the remains of sea creatures. Don not break in to flat particles. Both are rather soft but generally
make satisfactory aggregates

-chert, formed from fine sand, is hard but often is not resistant to weathering

METAMORPHIC ROCK

- Is either igneous and sedimentary rock that has been changed in texture, structure and mineral composition, or in
one or two of these characteristics, by intense geologic heat or pressure or both
- It is dense but often forms platy particles.

Examples:

- Marble is a recrystallized limestone and dolomite

- Slate is harder form of shale
 - Gneiss a very common metamorphic rock derived from granite, but also from other rock. It is laminated but does not
necessarily break along the laminations
- Schist is more finely laminated than gneiss but of similar character
- Granite, schist and gneiss are often found together, separated from another by gradual gradations

SPECIAL AGGREGATES

LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATES

- are those that have a unit weight of no more than 70 lb per cu ft (1120 kg per cu m) for fine aggregate, 55 lb per cu
ft (880 kg per cu m) for coarse aggregate, and 65 lb per cu ft (1040 kg per cu m) for combined fine and coarse
aggregate.
- It reduces the weight of the upper parts of structures so that the lower supporting parts (foundations, walls, columns
and beams) may be smaller and therefore cost less.
- Used in insulating concrete.
- Less cost in transportation

TYPES OF LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATES

1. Pumice consists of highly vesicular rough textured volcanic glass, which may or may not contain crystals. It is typically
light colored.
- Pumice is composed ofhighly microvesicular glass pyroclastic with very thin, translucent bubble walls
of extrusive igneous rock.
- It is commonly, but not exclusively of silicic or felsicto intermediate in composition
(e.g., rhyolitic, dacitic, andesite, pantellerite, phonolite,trachyte), but basaltic and other compositions are known.
- Pumice is commonly pale in color, ranging from white, cream, blue or grey, to green-brown or black.
- It forms whenvolcanic gases exsolving from viscous magma nucleate bubbles which cannot readily decouple from
the viscous magma prior to chilling to glass.
- Pumice is a common product of explosive eruptions (plinian and ignimbrite-forming) and commonly forms zones in
upper parts of silicic lavas. Pumice has an average porosity of 90%, and initially floats on water
2. Scoria is a highly vesicular, dark colored volcanic rock that may or may not contain crystals (phenocrysts).
- It is typically dark in color (generally dark brown, black or purplish red), andbasaltic or andesitic in composition.
- Scoria is relatively low in mass as a result of its numerous macroscopic ellipsoidal vesicles, but in contrast to pumice,
all scoria has aspecific gravity greater than 1, and sinks in water.
3. Tuff is a type of rock consisting of consolidated volcanic ash ejected from vents during a volcanic eruption.
- Tuff is sometimes called tufa, particularly when used as construction material, although tufa also refers to a quite
different rock. Rock that contains greater than 50% tuff is considered tuffaceous.

Lighweight aggregates contain numerous air bubbles and man-made particles prepared by:

1. Expanded slag or foamed slag

- As slag flows from a blast furnace in a molten stream at temperatures of 1400-1600 degree Celsius, it is chilled with
high pressure water spray forced into the molten mass where it becomes steam as it cools the slag. The expanding
steam causes bubbles so that the slag is frothy by the time it cools. Then is must be crushed into aggregate size.
2. Diatomite
- consists of skeletons of tiny particles of tiny aquatic plants called diatoms, can be heated to the melting point to be
used as a cinderlike, lightweight aggregate.
3. Fly ash
- Consist of fine mineral particles produced by the burning of coal.
- Used it Portland cement concrete as a substitute for cement
- It may be pelletized to form coarse aggregate or used as fine aggregate.
- It may be mixed with coal mine wastes for aggregate manufacture.
- For road bases, railroad ballast, and asphalt or Portland cement concrete occupies may large industries.
4. Perlite
 - Is a volcanic glass in spherical particles of concentric layers.
- Contains water which, if heated rapidly enough, becomes steam with enough force to shatter the spheres into
particles and expand the particles.
5. Vermiculite
- Includes a variety of water-bearing minerals derived from mica
- Expand perpendicularly to the layers when steam if formed by rapid heating
6. Cinders
- Used as aggregates are fused into lumps by combustion of coal or coke and are not the softer ashes formed by the
lower temperature combustion.
- Contain some unburned material which is undesirable

HEAVY AGGREGATES

- Are those with higher specific gravities than that of aggregates in general use, although there is no definite line
separating them from ordinary aggregates.
- Used primarily to make heavy concrete. Heavy concrete is needed in special cases to resist the force of flowing water
or to counterbalance a large weight.
- Used in nuclear-radiation-shielding concrete where greater density provides greater shielding

PROPERTIES
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Qualities that indicate the usefulness of aggregate particles to the construction industry:

1. Weight
 Weight is of primary importance for large-size stone called riprap placed along the edge of a body of water to protect
the bank or shore from eroding; for a blanket of stones placed to prevent erosion of sloping ground, and for stone
retaining walls held in place by wire baskets called gabions.
2. Strength of the particles to resist weathering, especially repetitive freezing and thawing,
 Resistance to weathering is necessary for long life of any aggregate unless it is used indoors. The quality of resisting
weathering is called soundness.
3. Strength as demonstrated by the ability of the mass to transmit a compressive force,
 Strength of mass is needed if the aggregate is to be used as a base to support the weight of a building, pipeline, or
road, or if it is to be used in portland cement concrete or bituminous concrete.
4. Strength as demonstrated by the ability of the individual particles to resist being broken, crushed, or pulled apart,
 This is important when the aggregate is to be subjected to a load.
5. Strength of the particles to resist wear by rubbing or abrasion,
 Aggregate may be subject to rubbing and abrasion during processing and handling, and also in service.
6. Adhesion or the ability to stick to a cementing agent, and
 If the aggregate is to be used in concrete, adhesion between the particles and the cementing agent is necessary.
7. Permeability of the mass, or the ability to allow water to flow through, without the loss of strength or the displacement
of particles.
 A high degree of permeability is needed if the aggregate is used as a filter or drain, and a low permeability is
necessary if it is used for anything else.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
The chemical properties of aggregates have to do with the molecular structure of the minerals in the aggregate particles.

COMPOSITION
Some aggregates have minerals that are subject to oxidation, hydration, and carbonation. These properties are not
particularly harmful, except when the aggregates are used in portland cement concrete. As might be expected, iron sulfides,
ferric and ferrous oxides, free lime, and free magnesia in industrial products and wastes are some of the common substances.
Any of these substances may cause distress in the portland cement concrete and give the concrete an unsightly appearance.

REACTIONS WITH ASPHALT AND CEMENT

There are several types of substances found in mineral aggregates which may have a negative effect on the cementing
and overall performance qualities of asphalt and cement. Most are rarely significant but various organic substances may retard
hardening, reduce strength development or cause excessive air entrainment in portland cement concrete. These organic
substances include, but are not limited to, mica, iron oxide, lightweight chert, shale, coal, and lignite.

USES
The largest proportion of the primary aggregate was used to manufacture concrete (36%), with a further 10% used to
manufacture the cement that is also used in the concrete. Used in roads was the second largest category (26%), while 20% of
aggregates were used in other construction uses & fills and another 2% were used for railway ballast. However materials that are
suitable for use as aggregates can also be used to manufacture other products thus industrial and other uses amounted to 6%
with the remainder split between the manufacture of mortar (4%), glass (1%) and use in agriculture (1%).
• Construction
• Aggregates are used in construction to provide drainage, fill voids, protect pipes, and to provide hard surfaces.
They are also used in water filtration and sewage treatment processes.
• Concrete
• Concrete is a mixture of aggregates, cement and water. The purpose of the aggregates within this mixture is to
provide a rigid skeletal structure and to reduce the space occupied by the cement paste.
• Asphalt and roadstone
• This includes not just roads, but also pavements, airport runways, school playgrounds, car parks, most footpaths
or cycleways, and other similar structures.
• Mortar
• Mortar is a workable paste used to bind construction blocks together and fill the gaps between them. Mortar
becomes hard when it sets, resulting in a rigid aggregate structure. Modern mortars are typically made from a
mixture of sand, a binder such as cement or lime, and water.
• Railway ballast
• Railway ballast generally consists of a tough igneous rock, such as granite, with large (40-50 mm size) angular
pieces that lock together. Because of the way igneous rock is formed it is highly resistant to pressure and does
not break easily.
MISCELLANEOUS USES
• Riprap
• Used to armor shorelines, streambeds, bridge abutments, pilings and other shoreline structures against scour,
water or ice erosion.

• Various sizes of stone are used for riprap to protect natural or man-made earthwork. The individual pieces must
be large enough so that the force of the water will not move them. Along a reservoir shore or the water’s edge at
a dam, protective aggregate consisting of particles from baseball size to basketball size might be dumped in a
belting extending from low water to high water along the waterline location.
• Gabion
• A basketlike container for stones that is made of heavy steel mesh, forming the shape of a block with level top
and bottom and four vertical sides.
• Gabions are set in place and filled with stones the size of a fist or larger to act as riprap to form a retaining wall to
hold back an earth bank.
• Wired to each other to form a continuous structure. However, the structure is flexible and adjusts without
breaking to uneven soil settlement or undermining by water current.
• Breakwaters/ Training Walls/ Jetties
 • Long, narrow obstructions that guide the flow of water in a new direction that will deposit suspended material
where it is wanted or remove deposits from where they are not wanted.
• Built of loose stones piled into the shape of a low wide wall or of gabion construction where greater forces must
be resisted.
PAVEMENT BASE

In a typical pavement construction, it consists of several layers or courses which reduce the pressure of concentrated
wheel loads so that the underlying soil or foundation is not overloaded. The load spreads over an area that increases with
depth. Therefore the unit stress is less at greater depths. So the material is arranged to be weaker at greater depths.

The underlying soil may be that which is there naturally or may be hauled in to build a fill or embankment. It is
strengthened by compaction with heavy construction equipment before a base or subbase is placed on it. Subbase material
is usually unprocessed, run of bank material selected to meet specifications which have proven through performance to
provide satisfactory material. Base material is more carefully selected.

In a typical asphalt pavement, called flexible pavement, the base and subbase carry the load and distribute it to the soil
under two thin layers of asphalt concrete. The concrete slab is the chief load-bearing element of Portland cement concrete
pavement, which is known as rigid pavement.

The base under the rigid pavement slab spreads the load somewhat over the foundation, but is designed mainly to
protect the pavement from the detrimental effects of too much moisture. The base under the wearing surface is the chief
load-bearing element of rural or secondary roads. The asphalt surface is there to resist traffic abrasion and protect the base
from rain. Therefore, strength of the base aggregate to transfer the load to the foundation is of utmost importance.

Aggregate bases subject only to static loads and protected from weather and moving water need not meet the rigid
standards required of pavement bases. The gradation of base material for roads and airplane runways is more important in
order to achieve maximum contact between particles and maximum water tightness. Sufficient fine material must be used to
ensure filling the voids without separating the larger particles from contact with each other. The larger particles are the load-
bearing structure, and the fine particles hold or bind the coarser ones by preventing movement between them.

STABILIZING AGGREGATE

Stabilization is the use of other substances to increase strength. Strength can be improved by the addition of clay, which
is a soil with very fine particles having properties unlike any of the larger soil particles. An example of these properties is
cohesion or the tendency to stick together. The clay acts as a cement or paste. There are also other substances that are used
for the same purpose. These include salt, lime, Portland cement, and bituminous cement.

There are two types of salt which are mixed with the aggregate to increase its strength, the calcium chloride and sodium
chloride. Coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, and binder must all be in the proper proportion, and the salt is mixed with them
in quantities of 1 to 2 ½ lb per sq yd of surface or 2 percent of the weight of aggregate. The salt forms brine with the water.
This brine forms a film around each particle, which increases the strength of the aggregate in two ways.

The brine film is stronger in surface tension than ordinary moisture, and because of this it increases the cohesion of the
particles. The brine film allows the particles to be forced closer together under compaction than they could be with ordinary
moisture. Brine does not evaporate as readily as untreated water, and therefore it holds fine particles in place much better
despite abrasion by traffic, thereby lessening damage to the road and to nearby properties.

Lime is also used to stabilize aggregate base material. The lime used is burned limestone in either of two forms –
quicklime or hydrated lime. Quicklime is calcium oxide containing magnesium oxide in an amount as high as 40 percent or as
low as 0.5 percent (Cao . MgO). Hydrated lime is quicklime combined with enough water to produce Ca(OH)2 . MgO or
Ca(OH)2 . Mg(OH)2. Unburned limestone cannot be used. Hydrated lime is more stable and therefore easier to store than
quicklime, which hardens upon contact with air.

Lime is mixed with the aggregate in quantities of 2 percent to 4 percent of the aggregate weight. Water is used to
accomplish thorough mixing and to combine chemically with the lime to form the final product, which is limestone. Lime
stabilizes aggregate in two ways. It reacts with clay, causing the particles to combine to form larger particles, giving a better
gradation to aggregate containing too much clay. Lime also causes a solidifying of the mass by reacting chemically with silica
and alumina in the clay and aggregate. Calcium silicates and calcium aluminates are formed. These are cementing agents
which act to hold the particles together. A pozzolan may be added to provide silica and alumina when the aggregate does not
contain enough.

Portland cement or asphalt cement may be added to aggregate base to increase its strength. Stabilization is not the same
as manufacturing Portland cement concrete or asphalt concrete. It refers to the addition and mixing of a small amount of
cement to improve the strength of aggregate.

PERMEABILITY AND FILTERS

Permeability is a measure of the ability of aggregate to allow water to flow through. The best permeability is obtained by
using aggregate as large as possible and as uniform in size as possible. These properties cause large voids with the result that
water flows easily. These voids would have to be filled with smaller particles for the aggregate to achieve its highest strength.
Therefore, good permeability and high strength cannot be obtained together.

A filter consists of aggregate designed and installed for the purpose of holding back particles larger than a certain size
while letting water flow through with minimum of interference. A filter works with each layer being held in place by larger
particles and in turn holding back smaller particles. Size and gradation are of importance for a filter.

Filters may be divided into two categories. The first type holds a mass of soil in place so that water can flow through the
soil and then through the filter without carrying particles of soil with it. Mineral aggregates are always used for this type.
Examples of this type are underdrain, toe drain, and gravel pack.

Underdrain lowers groundwater by carrying it away through a perforated pipe. The pipe is surrounded by a filter to prevent
small particles from entering the pipe through the perforations, settling in the pipe, and restricting pipe flow. Toe drain is an
underdrain that intercepts water seeping through and under an earth dam. Its purpose is to prevent undermining by piping
which is the removal of soil particles by the flowing water until the dam is undermined. The filter prevents piping by holding
the soil in place while allowing water to pass. Gravel pack is the filter that prevents particles form entering the well as ground
water flows through the soil, through the screen, through the pump, and to a water system at the surface.

Another type of filter removes suspended particles from water as it flows through. Drinking water is cleaned this way before
use, and waste water is this way being returned to the ground or to a body of water. Sand is used for this type filter, but so
are many other materials including coal, charcoal, and diatomaceous earth. The two examples for this type are water filter
and sand filter.

Water filter holds particles as water seeps downward through filter to collecting trough. When filter becomes nearly plugged,
a small amount of water is pumped rapidly upward through the filter, overflowing into the troughs and carrying the filtered
particles out with it. The particles that collect over many hours are removed in a few minutes. Sand filter sewage, with most
of the solids removed by settling, flows through the upper pipes, into the filter through perforations, through the filter, and
through perforations into the lower pipes which carry it to a stream or lake. The particles caught in the filter are organic and
are consumed by bacteria. If properly designed, the filter will last in definitely without cleaning.
 TESTS

*Standard test have been devised to evaluate the properties. Performance can be predicted from test results based on past
performances.

Cost is a great importance when large quantities of aggregates are being selected. Aggregate is always available at low cost, but
the cost arises significantly if the aggregates are being transported at a great distance. It is often preferable to use the best
aggregate nearby than to obtain better aggregate from a greater distance.

I. Size and Gradation

a. Objective
To determine the “range of sizes” of the aggregates.

b. Procedure
ASTM C136 – Sieve or Screen Analysis of Fine and Coarse Aggregates, describes standard procedures for performing a
sieve analysis and specifies the amount of error allowed.

1. A representative sample is placed in the top sieve after the entire nest including the pan has been put together. The
cover is placed on top.
A sample of aggregates to be analyzed is placed on the top sieve, which has largest hole. The second sieve has
smaller holes, and each succeeding sieve has holes smaller the sieve above it.
2. The nest of sieves is shaken by hand or a mechanical shaker.
If no particle remains on top sieve, then the top sieve size represents one kind of maximum size for the sample. The
absolute maximum particle is between the top sieve size and the size of the next sieve.
3. The quantity retained on each sieve is removed from the sieve, using brush to collect particles caught in the wire
mesh, and weighed.
4. Each quantity weighed should be kept on a separate sheet of paper until the sum of individual weights has been
compared with the total weight of the sample. Then, if there is a discrepancy, the individual quantities can be
reweighed.
Table 1: Sieve sizes commonly used in construction.
Table 2: Sieve analysis results (coarse aggregates)

c. Other ASTM standards deal with specialized type of Sieve Analysis

1. ASTM C117- Standard Method of Test for Materials Finer than No. 200 Sieve in Mineral Aggregates by Washing
Provides a method for washing clay particles through the sieves when the clay is stuck together in chunks or adheres
to larger particles

2. ASTM D451- Sieve Analysis of Granular Mineral Surfacing for Asphalt Roofing and Shingles
3. ASTM D452- Sieve Analysis of Nongranular Mineral Surfacing for Asphalt Roofing and Shingles
4. ASTM D546- Sieve Analysis of Mineral Filler
Set forth other specialized sieve analysis procedure. Mineral filler is very fine, dustlike aggregate used in bituminous
concrete to fill voids between fine aggregate particles.
d. Gradation Chart
- A graph of percent by weight versus sieve sizes
Gradation- the distribution of particle sizes within the total range of sizes

1. Well Graded- means sizes within the entire range are in approximately equal amounts
2. Uniform Gradation- means a large percentage of particles are of approximately the same size
3. Gap Graded (Skip Graded) - means that most particles of a large size or a small size with very few particle of an
intermediate size.

II. Surface Area

*A ratio of surface area to volume or surface area to weight is determined and used for computations dealing with surface area.

-----calculation for the surface area to volume for a sphere-------

 Importance of Surface Area of a Particle

a. In waste water filters

Organic matter is consumed by bacteria that live on aggregate surfaces. Consumption, and therefore the quantity of waste water
that can be treated, is proportional to the numbers of bacteria which are proportional to the total surface area of the particle. It
is, therefore, advantageous to have a large surface per volume of aggregate to support more bacteria.

b. In design of an asphalt paving mixture

It is also of importance if aggregate particles are to be bound together for strength. The design of an asphalt to form a coat of a
certain thickness completely over each particle. An estimate is made of the square feet of surface per pound of aggregate, and
the proportion by weight of asphalt material to aggregate is determined according to the amount of surface to be coated. The
particles are always bulky in shape for strength so that the surface area is small (slightly larger than for spheres) and the result is
that the small quantity of asphalt material is sufficient to coat the particles.

III. Weight Volume Relationship

*It is desirable to know the volume of the aggregate in relationship to its weight.

This is because the quantity needed is determined according to the volume of it must occupy, but that quantity is ordered and
measured for payment by weight.

*Various combinations are used to relate weight to volume, depending on how the aggregate is to be used.

 Kinds of Volume and Weight for Aggregate Particles

a. Bulk volume- volume of solid particles including their pores plus volume of the voids.

b. Saturated, surface- dry volume- volume including pores

c. Solid volume- volume of the solid material not including pores.

d. Wet weight- weight of solid material plus absorbed water filling the pores plus some free water on the particle
surfaces. The amount of free water is variable.

e. Saturated, surface-dry weight- weight of the solid material plus enough absorbed water to fill the pores.

f. Oven dry weight- weight of the solid material only. This is the most consistent weight because no water is included.

* Formula for unit weight:

Unit weight = oven dry weight / solid volume

*Specific gravity- the ratio between the unit weight of the substance to the unit weight of water

A. Bulk SG- oven-dry weight and saturated, surface-dry volume

B. Apparent SG- oven-dry weight and solid volume of particle

C. Asphalt SG- oven-dry weight divided by the weight of a volume of water equal to the solid volume plus the volume of pores
that is not filled with asphalt cement when aggregate and cement are mixed.
*Methods for determining the bulk and apparent specific gravity.

1. ASTM C127 Specific Gravity and Absorption of Coarse Aggregate

a. A representative sample of coarse aggregate weighing about 5 kilograms is dried by heating and weighed at intervals
until two successive weighings show no loss of weight. The final weight is recorded as the oven-dry weight.

b. The over-dried sample is soaked in water for 24 hours.

c. The aggregate is removed from the water and dried with a cloth until no film of water remains, but the particle
surfaces are damp.

d. The aggregate is then weighed. The result is saturated, surface-dry weight in air.

e. The aggregate is submerge in water in a wire basket, and the submerge weight is obtained. The submerged weight of
the basket must be deducted. The submerged particles displace a volume of water equal to their own volume including
all pores because the pores are filled with water before being submerge. There is a weight loss when submerged which is
equal to the weight of the water displaced.

f. Oven-dry weight of aggregate in air divided by the difference between saturated, surface-dry weight in air and weight
submerged equals bulk specific gravity. The weight loss in water is the weight of a quantity of water equal to saturated,
surface-dry volume. Therefore, this calculation determines the ratio of weight of volume aggregate (solid matter plus
pores) to the weight of an equal volume of water.

g. Oven-dry weight of aggregate in air is divided by the difference between the oven-dry weight in air and the submerged
weight equals the apparent specific gravity. In this case the weight loss in water is the weight of a quantity of water equal
to the volume of solid matter if aggregate. Therefore, this calculation determines the ratio of weight of aggregate solid
matter to the weight of an equal volume of water. It should be understood that oven-dry weight of solid matter alone is
the same as oven-dry weight of solid matter plus pores since the empty pores have no weight.

2. ASTM C128 Specific Gravity and Absorption of Fine Aggregate

a. A representative sample of fine aggregate weighing about 1000 grams is dried to a constant weight, oven-dry weight.

b. The oven-dried sample is soaked in water for 24 hours.

c. The wet aggregate is dried until it reaches a saturated, surface-dry condition. This condition cannot be easily
recognized with small-sized aggregate. To determine the point at which it reaches this condition, the drying must be
interrupted frequently to test it. The test consists of putting the aggregate into a standard metal mold shaped as the
frustum of a cone and tamping it 25 times with a standard tamper. The cone is removed vertically and the fine aggregate
retains the mold shape if sufficient moisture is on the particles to cause cohesion. The aggregate is considered saturated,
surface-dry the first time the molded shape slumps upon the removal of the mold.

d. A representative sample consisting of 500 grams of aggregate (saturated, surface-dry weight) is put into a 500 cubic
centimeter container, and the container is filled with water at 23 degrees Celsius.

e. The full container is weighed. The total weight consists of the sum of:

1. known weight of flask,

2. known weight of aggregate (SSD), and

3. unknown weight of water.

The weight of water can be determined by subtracting flask and aggregate weight from the total weight.
 e. The entire content is removed from the container, with additional rinsing as required to remove all particles, and the
oven-dry weight of particle is determined.
f. The container is weighed full of water.
g. The foregoing procedures provide all the data needed to compute the SG and absorption. Saturated, surface-dry volume
of aggregate is used for bulk SG, and solid volume is used for apparent SG. Oven-dry weight of aggregate is used for
either type of SG, and SSD weight may be used for bulk SG if so stated. Either SG equals oven-dry weight of aggregate
divided by weight of container filled with water plus weight of aggregate in air, minus weight of container filled with
aggregate and water. For Bulk SG, the SSD weight of aggregate in air is used in the denominator, and for apparent SG the
oven-dry weight of aggregate in air is used in the denominator.
h. Absorption is the weight of water needed to fill the particle holes, divided by the weight of the solid matter and
expressed as a percentage. It is computed by dividing SSD weight minus oven-dry weight.

IV. DELETERIOUS MATTER

Excessive amounts of foreign material are detrimental in aggregate used for any purpose. Permissible amounts are greater for
aggregate used as a base.

ASTM C33 contains allowable limits for seven types of deleterious substances which must be controlled in aggregates to be used
for Portland cement concrete. Maximum permissible quantities are listed according to a percentage of the weight of the entire
sample for fine aggregates and coarse aggregates.

7 Categories of Deleterious Matter:

 Friable Particles

 Material Finer than no.200 Sieve

 Soft Particles

 Coal and Lignite

 Chert

 Organic Impurities

 Materials Reactive with the Alkaline in Cement

Friable particles are those which are easily crumbled such as clay, lumps, weak sandstones, or oxidized ores. ASTM C142,
Tests for Friable Particles in Aggregates is the method of testing for friable particles.

Material finer than no.200 sieve is the material which passes through the no. 200 sieve in a washed sieve analysis
performed according to ASTM C117, Tests for Materials Finer than no. 200 Sieve in Mineral Aggregates by Washing.

ASTM C33 limits material finer than no. 200 sieve in fine aggregates to 3% for Portland cement concrete subject to abrasion
and 5% for other Portland cement concrete, and in coarse aggregate to 1% for all concrete.

Soft particles are those that are marked with a groove after being scratched on a freshly broken surface by a pointed brass
rod under a force of 2 lbs. in accordance with ASTM C235, Tests for Scratch Hardness of Coarse Aggregate Particles.

Lightweight pieces are particles in coarse or fine aggregate that have a SG substantially less than that of the aggregate as a
whole.

ASTM C123, Lightweight Pieces in Aggregate is the method for determining the percentage of lightweight pieces in
aggregate.
 Organic impurities are non-mineral material of an organic type, mainly tannic acid, sometimes found in fine aggregate.

ASTM C40, Organic Impurities in Sands for Concrete is a simple method of testing for excessive organic impurities.

ASTM C87, Effect of Organic Impurities in Fine Aggregate on Strength of Mortar is the method of making comparison.

Reactive aggregates are those which contain minerals which react with alkalis in Portland cement, causing excessive
expansion of mortar or concrete.

ASTM C295, Petrographic Examination of Aggregates for Concrete

ASTM C289, Tests for Potential Reactivity of Aggregates (Chemical Method)

ASTM C227, Tests for Potential Alkali Reactivity of Cement-Aggregate Combination (Mortar bar Method)

ASTM C342, Tests for Potential Volume Change of Cement-Aggregate Combinations

ASTM C586, Potential Alkali Reactivity of Carbonate Rocks for Concrete Aggregate (Rock Cylinder Method)

V. MISCELLANEOUS PROPERTIES

Toughness, which means resistance to abrasion and impact, is indicated by the Deval tests described in ASTM D2, Abrasion of
Rock by Use of Deval Machine and ASTM D289, Abrasion of Coarse Aggregate by Use of Deval Machine.

Toughness is an important quality for aggregate subjecting to mixing in a Portland cement concrete mixer or an asphalt concrete
pugmill.

In Deval test, aggregate is rotated 10,000 times in a cylinder with six steel spheres for ASTM D289 and no spheres in ASTM D2.

In Los Angeles test, aggregate of the type to be used is combined with 12 steel spheres of fewer for smaller aggregates and
rotated in a cylinder 500 times for small size coarse aggregate and 1000 times for large size aggregates.

Soundness of aggregates means resistance to disintegration under weathering including heating and cooling, wetting and drying,
and freezing and thawing.

ASTM C88, Soundness of Aggregates by use of Sodium Sulfate or Magnesium Sulfate, provides a method of measuring soundness
by immersing aggregate in a sodium sulfate or magnesium sulfate solution and removing and oven-drying it.

Hydrophilic aggregate is the aggregate which does not maintain adhesion to asphalt when it is wet. The word “hydrophilic”
means “loves water”. This simply implies that hydrophilic prefers water rather than asphalt.

ASTM D1664, Coating and Stripping of Bitumen-Aggregate Mixtures, provides a method for testing aggregates for adhesion to
asphalt.

VI. SAMPLING

Aggregate test and inspection must be performed on representative samples.

A representative sample is a small quantity with exactly the same characteristic of the total quantity.

Methods of taking samples must avoid segregation which is any separation of the basis on some properties.
ASTM D75, Sampling Stone, Slag, Gravel, Sand and Stone Blocks for Highway Use Materials, provides proper sampling of
aggregates.

Samples are required for:

 Preliminary investigation of possible source of supply, whether a rock formation, an aggregate deposit, or an industrial
byproduct.

 Acceptance or rejection of the source of supply by the buyer. This is a preliminary determination.

 Acceptance or rejection by the buyer of specified material from the supplier.

 Control of removal and processing operations.

Bibliography

C.A. Herubin and T.W. Marotta, “Basic Construction Materials”, 1981

Don A. Watson, “Construction Materials and Processes”, 2nd Ed., 1978

Whitney Clark Huntington, “Building Construction: Materials and Types of Construction”, 2nd ed., 1887

http://www.in.gov/indot/files/chapter_03.pdf

http://www.sustainableaggregates.com/overview/uses.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page