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FACILITIES AND
EQUIPMENT
Defects Produced
in Orbital Welding
for Pharmaceutical
Process Piping: Case
Study and Simulation
Jorge Domingo and Margarita Morquillas

 Bonding or welding processes  used in the construction of distribution
systems for utilities are some of the most critical activities on projects with
high sanitary requirements in the life sciences and similar industries.
Project implementation experience, both domestically and internationally,
indicates that activities requiring high levels of quality monitoring are relat-
ed to the installation of critical fluids distribution systems, most specifically
those constructed from stainless steel alloy tubes jointed by gas tungsten
arc welding (GTAW), also known as tungsten inert gas (TIG), using orbital
welding techniques.
Orbital welding is the controlled rotation of components within a fixed
support, while an adjustable, nonconsumable tungsten electrode attached
to a guide moves (or “orbits”) the joint. The electrode, the arc, the area
surrounding the weld, and tube interior are protected by a shield of inert
gas—usually argon—with a purity of 99.995/99.999% (Figure 2).
Although orbital welding is an automated process, weld quality depends
on a number of parameters, in addition to the operator’s training and skill.
Changes in any of these parameters can result in weld defects, which can
lead to nonconformities. As a result, each weld must be verified individually.

Difficulties are more likely to occur when working on-site, where the welding
conditions are not as favorable as those in specialized workshops, which pro-
vide better opportunities for control. Another challenge is the need in many
cases to use resources that are unfamiliar, due to the project requirements of
the, the client, or locally applicable regulations. It is also worth noting that lo-
cal welding companies contracted to perform work often don’t have enough
experience in large welding projects. This increases the risk of noncompliance
and may require additional resources for performance monitoring.
This article evaluates the causes of defects in welds. The approach taken
was to simulate conditions that can affect the quality of welds by changing
the parameters used to diagnose defects. Weld quality was verified
visually, since this is the most common method in pharmaceutical facilities,
as recommended in American Society of Mechanical Engineers Bioprocess
Equipment (ASME BPE) group regulations.
Nondestructive Weld Verification
Nondestructive weld verification inspects the surface and subsurface of the
weld and surrounding base material to verify weld quality. Commonly used
nondestructive verification methods include:
¡ X-ray
¡ Penetrant liquid
¡ Ultrasound
¡ Magnetic particle
Within the world of critical facilities, however, visual verification by video
endoscopy has wider acceptance. The main advantage of this method over
those listed above is that provides visual verification of the weld surface
Figure 1: Weld rejection due to scratches (a and b)

This article also presents a case study performed after extensive experience
in installation of international projects, during which various types of
nonconformities were identified in a variety of welds (Figure 1).

Orbital Welding
Over the years, the pharmaceutical industry has become increasingly
aware that the welding process used to join components of process piping
systems that will be in contact with the product must be controlled and
consistent to reduce the likelihood of defects in individual welds.

The pharmaceutical industry currently uses orbital GTAW/TIG welding

almost exclusively. This produces welds of high quality with very low
rejection percentages; these joints possess high strength, high purity meta,
and good surface finish.

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 Technical Articles Online Exclusive

Figure 2: Tungsten and piece preparation (a) and weld head (b) Figure 3: Boroscope probe (a) boroscope machine (b)

Figure 4: Acceptable and unacceptable weld profiles for tube welds

finish on the pipeline interior—the main concern
in health care facilities. This technique can also
be used to verify other weld characteristics,
such as homogeneity and absence of surface
pores (Figure 3).

Another advantage of this method is its ability to

verify the profile of color over the heat-affected
zone (HAZ) in the weld bead and surrounding
area. This provides valuable information in
assessing the quality of the weld, which is not
possible using other methods. (See chapter
ASME BPE-2014 weld acceptance criteria.)

It is important to note that weld inspection is

traditionally carried out by experienced staff
with sufficient knowledge for verification and
compliance reporting. Inspectors are currently
recommended to have certification proving
they are trained according to ASME BPE-2014,
GR-4 and ASME B31.3, paragraph 342.2:

¡ Quality Inspector Delegate 1

¡ Quality Inspector Delegate 2
¡ Quality Inspector Delegate 3

European standards are certified by the Europe-

an Welding Federation:

¡ European Welding Engineer

¡ European Welding Technician
¡ Master in Welding

The percentage of welds that will undergo ver-

ification must be agreed in advance between
the involved parties (customer, engineering,
installer, validation and qualification company)
so that installation can be planned to accom-
modate inspection frequency (ASME BPE-2014: Source: Reprinted from ASME BPE-2014, by permission of The American Soceity of Mechanical Engineers. All rights reserved.
MJ-7.3.3 tubing). No further copies can be made without written permission.

2 | Pharmaceutical Engineering | September-October 2016

 Technical Articles Online Exclusive

Figure 5: Discoloration acceptance criteria for weld HAZs on electropolished 316L Weld Acceptance Criteria
tubing
Since one of the recommendations in this article is to
follow ASME BPE-2014, we have included references
to and extracts from the international standard. For
further details, please review MJ-8 pages from 122
to 139.

The BPE welding standard for a sterile environment

requires that the weld “shall not result in a surface
that will contribute to microbiological growth and
contamination of the product. The weld shall not have
any discontinuities, such as cracks, voids, porosity, or
joint misalignment that will promote contamination
of the product. All welding procedures shall be
qualified to MJ-5.”

As a guideline for inspectors and welders, ASME

BPE-2014 includes acceptable and unacceptable
weld profiles for tube welds criteria as seen in Table
A, Table B, and Figure 4.

The standard also includes a new criteria related

to welding discoloration for weld HAZs, as seen in
Figure 5 and Figure 6.

Electronic versions or photocopies of these accept-

ance criteria should not be used to evaluate sample
or production welds, since subtle color differences
can influence weld acceptability. ASME BPE-2014
Source: Reprinted from ASME BPE-2014, by permission of The American Soceity of Mechanical Engineers. All rights Appendix M explains the technique by which these
reserved. No further copies can be made without written permission. acceptance criteria were determined. Figure 5 is also
available as a stand-alone document: ASME BPE-
We recommend following ASME BPE-2014: MJ-7.3.2 piping and checking 2014 (Fig MJ-8.4-3).
20% of orbital welds. However, such verification should be performed
daily and not only at the end of the installation. Daily verification allows Figure 6 is also available as a stand-alone document: ASME BPE-2014
nonconformances to be corrected immediately, prevents an accumulation (Fig MJ-8.4-2).
of defects, and reduces dismantling costs. A representative sample of each
welder’s or welding operator’s work must be included. Other factors
After compiling and reviewing the tests conducted for this article, and
It is not necessary that the team that inspects and approves welds reside based on the experience gained in implementation of critical facilities, we
on-site permanently. The welding team may perform on-site video conclude that the factors having the highest impact on the quality of welds
endoscopy and transmit digital files (videos, photos) at the end of each are (from higher to lower impact):
day, together with other relevant documentation (isometric reports, weld
parameters, logs). This practice will produce benefits such as: ¡ Purge gas quality and control
¡ Setting parameters for welding equipment
¡ Opportunities for real-time communication ¡ Welding procedure (tungsten, alignment)
¡ Cost savings by eliminating the need to bring in specialists ¡ Quality and dimensional tolerances of the materials to be welded
¡ Continuous weld quality monitoring throughout the installation process ¡ Condition of the premises where welding is performed

All parties involved should agree upon inspection procedures, methodology, Most welding companies have these (and other) parameters under con-
and logistics in advance. trol in workshops. Provided on-site welding is carried out in appropriately
controlled environments to correct procedures and uses required pa-
rameters, weld quality can be guaranteed outside the workshop. Due to

Pharmaceutical Engineering | September-October 2016 | 3

 Technical Articles Online Exclusive

on-site constraints (time and resources), however, procedures Figure 6: Discoloration acceptance criteria for weld HAZs on mechanically
polished 316L tubing
can be compromised, increasing the risk of nonconformities.
It is therefore imperative that time and resources be invested
to assure appropriate conditions, and ensure the weld quality.

Case Study: TIG Orbital Welding

Defects
To show our customers the importance of orbital welding, train
our employees in the verification of such work, and ensure that
it is carried out in the right way, we collected these samples to
show how several factors can lead to failure.

General conditions
The tests were conducted under the direction and advice of
specialists using the following equipment and parameters:

Welding conditions
¡ Welding procedure: TIG orbital fusion
¡ Orbital head model: 8-4000 (Arc Machines, Inc.)
¡ Orbital current source model: 207-A (Arc Machines, Inc.)
¡ Feed: Continuous
¡ Shield gas: Argon 100% [99.995%] (Arcal TIG/MIG) EN 439, I1.
¡ Support gas: Argon 100% [99.995%] (Arcal TIG/MIG)
EN 439, I1
¡ Component dimensions: 38.1 mm diameter, 1.65 mm
thickness
¡ Base material: 316L stainless steel, ASME BPE-2014
¡ Electrode: Tungsten, ø 1.6 mm esp., 20 sharp, 1.3 mm Source: Reprinted from ASME BPE-2014, by permission of The American Soceity of Mechanical Engineers.
distance All rights reserved. No further copies can be made without written permission.

Welding parameters ¡ Purge gas flow: 40 L/min

¡ Shield gas flow rate: 20 L/min ¡ Preliminary purge gas flow: 5 L/min (minimum preliminary purge time =
¡ Purge gas flow: 5 L/min (preliminary purge time, min. 15 sec with O2 15 sec.)
sensor) ¡ Shielding gas flow: 5 L/min
¡ Support gas flow: 5 L/min ¡ Tungsten diameter: 1.6; sharp angle 20°
¡ Tungsten diameter: 1.6; sharp angle 20° ¡ Distance tungsten piece: 1.3 mm
¡ Tungsten/workpiece distance: 1.3 mm
Observations: The weld bead is sunken in the central part as shown in the
Pipe and fittings exterior weld coupon as seen in Figure 7. The effective thickness of the tube
¡ Material: Stainless steel AISI 316L, ASTM A270-03 S2/BPE ASME, decreases. On the interior, the appearance is good and there is penetration
UNSS31603, EN 1.4404 in all weld beads, but there are some zones that have higher penetration
¡ Dimensions: According to ASME BPE-2014 than the rest. Externally, the adjacent zone to the weld bead is slightly less
dark than in weld coupon with reference to sample P34 E31.
Cleaning before welding
We used an industrial degreasing formed by solvents, dissolving fats, oils, Welding without internal purge gas
lubricants, tars, and adhesives of the metal parts, applied generously and We duplicate weld coupons caused by neglect, carelessness, ignorance,
allowed to drain. We dried with paper towels and repeated the operation. etc., not by internal purge gas or shielding gas.

Gas-related defects ¡ Purge gas flow: 20 L/min

Welding with excessive purge gas ¡ Preliminary purge gas flow: 0 L/min (It eliminates the pre-purge flow
We increase the purge gas flow by 20 L/min. for welding)
¡ Shielding gas flow: 0 L/min
¡ Tungsten diameter: 1.6; sharp angle 20°
¡ Distance tungsten piece: 1.3 mm
4 | Pharmaceutical Engineering | September-October 2016

Figure 7 (a and b): Weld coupon exterior and interior; welding
with excessive purge gas
Figure 8 (a and b). Weld coupon exterior and interior; welding
without internal purge gas
Observations: The stainless steel needs internal gas protection in the weld
bead to avoid the oxidation that we observe in both images, especially in
the interior weld coupon. A crack also appears along the entire weld root.
Externally, the weld bead is sunken in the central zone, as we can see in
Figure 8. Weld without internal purge decreases the effective thickness of
the tube.
Welding without shielding gas
We eliminate the shielding gas in the weld head.
¡ Purge gas flow: 0 L/min
¡ Preliminary purge gas flow: 5 L/min (preliminary purge time, min. 15 sec.)
¡ Shielding gas flow: 0 L/min (eliminates shielding gas flow)
¡ Tungsten diameter: 1.6; sharp angle 20°
¡ Distance tungsten piece: 1.3 mm
Observations: Although we make the weld with the pieces cleaned, in
the external weld coupon image the oxidation also occurs when you do
not protect the weld pool with gas. On the other hand, the TIG welding
process also needs the protection gas to preserve the tungsten and avoid
contamination. We have difficulty maintaining the electric arc. Externally
the weld bead is very dark and very rusty (Figure 9).
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Low-purity purge gas
We maintain the purge gas, but to simulate an inert gas with 99.995%
purity we use an active gas to represent contaminants in the purge gas.
Argon (98%) + CO2 (2%); Arcal 12 (M12; EN 439)
¡ Purge gas flow: 20 L/h
¡ Preliminary purge gas flow: 5 L/min (preliminary purge time, min. 15 sec.)
¡ Shielding gas flow: 5 L/min
¡ Tungsten diameter: 1.6; sharp angle 20°
¡ Distance tungsten piece: 1.3 mm
Cleaning before welding: This uses an industrial degreasing formed by
solvents, dissolving fats, oils, lubricants, tars, and adhesives of the metal
parts. Apply generously and let it drain. We dry with paper towels and
repeat the operation.
Observations: The external and internal weld beads are rusted (practically
black). The gas used was 98% argon and 2% CO2 (Figure 10).
We also obtain lack of fusion zones, and zones in which the external weld
bead is sunken. A composition change in the purge gas implies a change in
the welding parameters.
Purge gas with humidity
We maintain flows and welding parameters correctly but simulate a very
high relative humidity (80%) through a humidifier and vaporizer.
¡ Purge gas flow: 20 L/h
¡ Preliminary purge gas flow: 5 L/min (preliminary purge time, min. 15 sec.)
¡ Shielding gas flow: 5 L/min
¡ Tungsten diameter: 1.6; sharp angle 20°
¡ Distance tungsten piece: 1.3 mm
Figure 9: Weld coupon exterior (a) and interior (b)
Figure 10: Weld coupon exterior (a) and interior (b)
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Figure 11: Weld coupon exterior (a) and interior (b) ¡ Purge gas flow: 20 L/h
¡ Preliminary purge gas flow: 5 L/min (preliminary purge time, min. 15 sec.)
¡ Shielding gas flow: 5 L/min
¡ Tungsten diameter: 1.6; sharp angle 20°
¡ Distance tungsten piece: 1.3 mm

Observations: Externally, the weld bead is sunken in the central part, but
this kind of failure appears by sectors and decreases the effective thickness
of the tube (Figure 13).

Figure 12: Weld coupon exterior (a) and interior (b)
Installation component defects
Dimensional tolerance failure in components
Welding parameters are correct, but one component is mechanically
deformed and dished. This type of failure may occur when tubes and
accessories have been stored improperly.

¡ Purge gas flow: 20 L/min

Observations: Externally, the weld bead is irregular, “nosing,” and appears
almost completely sunken. The weld bead has a rusty aspect and the
thermal zone was affected. Internally, the weld bead is very irregular, with
rouge oxide layers and lack of fusion in some zones.
With one weld coupon we used the humidifier exclusively, and obtained
rusted zones in some parts of the weld bead. We used pulverized water in
the two other weld coupons; these weld beads were very rusted (Figure 11).
¡ Preliminary purge gas flow: 5 L/min (preliminary purge time, min. 15 sec.)
¡ Shielding gas flow: 5 L/min
¡ Tungsten diameter: 1.6; sharp angle 20°
¡ Distance tungsten piece: 1.3 mm
Observations: Externally, we observe misalignment. Internally there also is no
lack of penetration. The welding is not uniform and symmetric (Figure 14).
Different component thicknesses
Welding parameters are correct, but we use same-diameter components
with thicknesses from 1.65 mm to 1.85 mm.

Purge gas overpressure Figure 13: Weld coupon exterior (a) and interior (b)
We increase the shielding gas flow 20 L/min more than the correct gas flow.

¡ Purge gas flow: 40 L/h

¡ Preliminary purge gas flow: 5 L/min (preliminary purge time, min. 15 sec.)
¡ Shielding gas flow: 35 L/min
¡ Tungsten diameter: 1.6; sharp angle 20°
¡ Distance tungsten piece: 1.3 mm

Observations: Gas overpressure in the weld root produced blacking holes

along all the weld bead; some zones even appeared to have perforations
(also due to the welding position). We observed a generalized lack of
fusion. Projections around the perforations are due to the forced expulsion
of material due to excessive internal pressure. Where no perforations are
detected, the weld could appear to be proper externally, but internally the Figure 14: Weld coupon exterior (a), interior (b), and
preparation (c)
weld root or the weld bead could be sunken (Figure 12). In that case, if
there are no black holes in the weld we cannot detected an overpressure
checking the weld externally.

Flow/pressure purge gas failure

We maintain adequate flow and welding parameters, but simulate a lack of
shielding gas flow by sectors to represent a random failure that can occur
with the leaks in the conduit gas tubes.

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Figure 15. Weld coupon exterior (a) and interior (b) Edge facing failure
Welding parameters equal to those of the reference sample P 34 E31. We
make a defective edge facing (small notch) in one zone of the tube.

¡ Purge gas flow: 20 L/min

¡ Preliminary purge gas flow: 5 L/min (preliminary purge time, min. 15 sec.)
¡ Shielding gas flow: 5 L/min
¡ Tungsten diameter: 1.6; sharp angle 20°
¡ Distance tungsten piece: 1.3 mm

Observations: Externally, the weld bead is sunken, implying a decrease of

effective thickness. Internally, the weld bead is correct, but there is a lack of
fusion in the facing zone where the notches are visible (Figure 17).

Defective facing (filing)

Figure 16: Weld coupon exterior (a), interior (b), and
preparation (c)
Welding parameters are correct; we file the internal edge of one component.

¡ Purge gas flow: 20 L/min

¡ Preliminary purge gas flow: 5 L/min (preliminary purge time, min. 15 sec.)
¡ Shielding gas flow: 5 L/min
¡ Tungsten diameter: 1.6; sharp angle 20°
¡ Distance tungsten piece: 1.3 mm

Observations: Externally, the weld bead is sunken; this implies a decrease

of effective thickness. Internally, the weld bead is correct, but there is a lack
of fusion in the defective facing zone where the notches are (Figure 18).
¡ Purge gas flow: 20 L/min
¡ Preliminary purge gas flow: 5 L/min (preliminary purge time, min. 15 sec.) Oil or grease in the welding components
¡ Shielding gas flow: 5 L/min Welding parameters are correct.
¡ Tungsten diameter: 1.6; sharp angle 20°
¡ Distance tungsten piece: 1.3 mm
Figure 17: Weld coupon exterior (a), interior (b), and
preparation (c)
Observations: Externally, the weld bead is sunken, which implies a decrease
of effective thickness. Internally, the weld bead is irregular and is slightly
oxidized. There is penetration along the entire weld bead, but irregular
form (Figure 15).

Base material cut failure

Welding parameters are correct, but we create a small bevel on the edge of
one component to simulate a failure in the cut of the pipes.

¡ Purge gas flow: 20 L/min Figure 18: Weld coupon exterior (a), interior (b), and
preparation (c)
¡ Preliminary purge gas flow: 5 L/min (preliminary purge time, min. 15 sec.)
¡ Shielding gas flow: 5 L/min
¡ Tungsten diameter: 1.6; sharp angle 20°
¡ Distance tungsten piece: 1.3 mm

Observations: In the zone where incorrect cutting is located, the material

breaks in and the weld bead is perforated and sunken. In the other half
tube, the welding was correct. Internally, the weld bead is correct except for
the perforation that measures about 25 mm (Figure 16).

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Figure 19: Weld coupon exterior (a) and interior (b)
Figure 20: Weld coupon exterior (a), interior (b), and
preparation (c)
¡ Purge gas flow: 20 L/min
¡ Preliminary purge gas flow: 5 L/min (preliminary purge time, min. 15 sec.)
¡ Shielding gas flow: 5 L/min
¡ Tungsten diameter: 1.6; sharp angle 20°
¡ Distance tungsten piece: 1.3 mm
Observations: Externally, we can see a mild oxidation, but no other imper-
fection. Internally, the weld bead looks dirty, irregular, and in some zones
there is a lack of fusion; visually, however, the pores are indistinguishable
(Figure 19).
Metallic contaminants in the components
Welding parameters are correct, iron filings are placed inside.
¡ Purge gas flow: 20 L/min
¡ Preliminary purge gas flow: 5 L/min (preliminary purge time, min. 15 sec.)
¡ Shielding gas flow: 5 L/min
¡ Tungsten diameter: 1.6; sharp angle 20°
¡ Distance tungsten piece: 1.3 mm
Observations: Internally, we can see metallic inclusions. Externally, the weld
bead is sunken and rusty in some zones (Figure 20).
Different base material components
Welding parameters are correct, but we used a piece made of 316L ASME
BPE stainless steel and another piece of the same material for alimentary
industry.
8 | Pharmaceutical Engineering | September-October 2016
Figure 21: Weld coupon exterior (a) and interior (b)
Figure 22: Weld coupon exterior (a), interior (b), and
preparation (c)
¡ Purge gas flow: 20 L/min
¡ Preliminary purge gas flow: 5 L/min (preliminary purge time, min. 15 sec.)
¡ Shielding gas flow: 5 L/min
¡ Tungsten diameter: 1.6; sharp angle 20°
¡ Distance tungsten piece: 1.3 mm
Observations: Externally, the weld bead is very irregular, breaking in, and
very rusty. We can see the difference of diameter between both compo-
nents. The joint is misaligned. Internally, the weld bead is very irregular
and it is partially rusted. Color difference in base materials is due to the
difference between the two polished materials (Figure 21).
Weld preparation defects
Excessive track welding with penetration and
without shielding gas
Welding parameters are correct; we make several track welds between
both pieces and with 60A of intensity and without shielding gas.
¡ Purge gas flow: 20 L/min
¡ Preliminary purge gas flow: 0 L/min (preliminary purge time, min. 15 sec.)
¡ Shielding gas flow: 0 L/min
¡ Tungsten diameter: 1.6; sharp angle 20°
¡ Distance tungsten piece: 1.3 mm
Observations: Externally, we can observe that the track welding is too large
in comparison to the rest of the weld bead. The track welding should be
invisible, and should be covered with the welding bead. Also there are
blacking holes in the crater point. In the internal part of the weld coupon
and around the track welding, there is rust and it is completely black and
cracked: Figure 22.

Excessive track welding with penetration and with
shielding gas
Welding parameters are correct; several track welds were made between
both pieces with 60A of intensity and with shielding gas.
¡ Purge gas flow: 20 L/min
¡ Preliminary purge gas flow: 5 L/min (preliminary purge time, min. 15 sec.)
¡ Shielding gas flow: 5 L/min
¡ Tungsten diameter: 1.6; sharp angle 20°
¡ Distance tungsten piece: 1.3 mm
Observations: Externally, the track welding is too large in comparison to the
rest of the weld bead. Track welding should not be visible, and should be
Figure 23: Weld coupon exterior (a), interior (b), and
preparation (c)
Figure 24: Weld coupon exterior (a), interior (b), and
preparation (c)
Figure 25: Weld coupon exterior (a) and interior (b)
Figure 26: Weld coupon exterior (a), interior (b), and
preparation (c)
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covered with the welding bead. Unlike the previous weld coupon, there are
no rusted parts (Figure 23).
Alignment failure of the components in the track
welding
Welding parameters are correct, several track welding was done between
both pieces with a 30A of intensity.
¡ Purge gas flow: 20 L/min
¡ Preliminary purge gas flow: 5 L/min (preliminary purge time, min. 15 sec.)
¡ Shielding gas flow: 5 L/min
¡ Tungsten diameter: 1.6; sharp angle 20°
¡ Distance tungsten piece: 1.3 mm
Observations: Welding is not uniform. Penetration is excessive in some
zones and limited/insufficient in others. Excessive rust in one external zone
of the welding bead. There are “get downs” without even cause perfora-
tions (Figure 24).
Excessive distance between components
Welding parameters are correct, but we separated the pieces to be welded.
¡ Purge gas flow: 20 L/min
¡ Preliminary purge gas flow: 5 L/min (preliminary purge time, min. 15 sec.)
¡ Shielding gas flow: 5 L/min
¡ Tungsten diameter: 1.6; sharp angle 20°
¡ Distance tungsten piece: 1.3 mm
Observations: This produces weld bead breakage. Weld thickness is weak
due to excessive separation of the pieces, hence its resistance is not enough
to support the residual stresses due to heating and subsequent cooling and
it breaks, almost after welding, and before removing component holding
jaws (Figure 25).
Equipment and welding parameter defects
Overlap failure
Welding parameters are correct, but we separated the components at 0.22
mm to simulate this failure.
¡ Purge gas flow: 20 L/min
¡ Preliminary purge gas flow: 5 L/min (preliminary purge time, min. 15 sec.)
¡ Shielding gas flow: 5 L/min
¡ Tungsten diameter: 1.6; sharp angle 20°
¡ Distance tungsten piece: 1.3 mm
Observations: Overlap failure. Externally, the weld bead is breaking in the
overlap. Internally, the weld root has good aspect and penetration, except
the overlap zone where, we can observe an excessive penetration and an
irregular weld bead (Figure 26).
Component misalignment
Welding parameters are correct. To simulate this failure, we leave one of the
orbital weld head jaws open (clamp inserts looseness).
Pharmaceutical Engineering | September-October 2016 | 9
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Figure 27: Weld coupon exterior (a) and interior (b)
Figure 28: Weld coupon exterior (a), interior (b), and
preparation (c)
¡ Purge gas flow: 20 L/min
¡ Preliminary purge gas flow: 5 L/min (preliminary purge time, min. 15 sec.)
¡ Shielding gas flow: 5 L/min
¡ Tungsten diameter: 1.6; sharp angle 20°
¡ Distance tungsten piece: 1.3 mm
Observations: Misalignment. Internally, the weld bead is irregular, and ex-
ternally, it is very rusted in some parts (Figure 27).
Misaligned tungsten related to the joint
Welding parameters are correct; tungsten is loose.
¡ Purge gas flow: 20 L/min
¡ Preliminary purge gas flow: 5 L/min (preliminary purge time, min. 15 sec.)
¡ Shielding gas flow: 5 L/min
¡ Tungsten diameter: 1.6; sharp angle 20°
¡ Distance tungsten piece: 1.3 mm
Observations: Externally, one weld coupon broke through the side of the
cord soldier. In the other, two weld coupons do not appear to have external
imperfections, but internally we can observe a lack of fusion and penetra-
tion on one side of the joint to be welded (Figure 28).
Tungsten not sharpened
Welding parameters are correct; we do not sharpen the tungsten.
¡ Purge gas flow: 20 L/min
¡ Preliminary purge gas flow: 5 L/min (preliminary purge time, min. 15 sec.)
10 | Pharmaceutical Engineering | September-October 2016
¡ Shielding gas flow: 5 L/min
¡ Tungsten diameter: 1.6; sharp angle 20°
¡ Distance tungsten piece: 1.3 mm
Observations: Unfocused electric arc, thermic support is not directed to the
weld coupon joint properly. In one weld coupon, the weld bead takes down
and generates perforations. In the other weld coupon externally there is no
fusion on one side of the weld bead. Finally, in the third weld coupon, the
joint was welded, and externally we couldn´t see lack of fusion, but inter-
nally there is no fusion in one side of the joint. Internally, this failure occurs
in the three weld coupons (Figure 29).
Punctual high tension in the main electrical feed
We divided the tube into 30 sectors of 2 seconds’ duration. In two of these
mini-sectors we introduce one high tension to simulate a punctual high ten-
sion of the electrical main that generates high random intensity.
¡ Purge gas flow: 20 L/min
¡ Preliminary purge gas flow: 5 L/min (preliminary purge time, min. 15 sec.)
¡ Shielding gas flow: 5 L/min
¡ Tungsten diameter: 1.6; sharp angle 20°
¡ Distance tungsten piece: 1.3 mm
Observations: During high-tension sectors, the external aspect of the weld-
ing changes, the weld bead is wide, and internally there is more penetra-
tion. In the tungsten, the electrode formed into a ball due to overheating
during periods of high tension (Figure 30).
Punctual low tension in the main electrical feed
We divided the tube into 30 sectors of 2 seconds’ duration. In two of those
sectors we simulated a punctual low tension of the general electricity net-
work by lowering tension in the welding machine that generates low ran-
dom intensity.
¡ Purge gas flow: 20 L/min
¡ Preliminary purge gas flow: 5 L/min (preliminary purge time, min. 15 sec.)
¡ Shielding gas flow: 5 L/min
¡ Tungsten diameter: 1.6; sharp angle 20°
¡ Distance tungsten piece: 1.3 mm
Observations: During sectors with insufficient intensity, the external aspect
of the welding changes, the weld bead is narrower, and internally, there are
zones with a lack of fusion. Externally, there is a part of the weld bead that
is slight, punctured, and smaller in width (Figure 31).
Excessive welding intensity
We turn up the intensity about 46A.
¡ Purge gas flow: 20 L/min
¡ Preliminary purge gas flow: 5 L/min (preliminary purge time, min. 15 sec.)
¡ Shielding gas flow: 5 L/min
¡ Tungsten diameter: 1.6; sharp angle 20°
¡ Distance tungsten piece: 1.3 mm
 Technical Articles Online Exclusive

Figure 29: Weld coupon exterior (a), interior (b), and ¡ Purge gas flow: 20 L/min
preparation (c)
¡ Preliminary purge gas flow: 5 L/min (preliminary purge time, min. 15 sec.)
¡ Shielding gas flow: 5 L/min
¡ Tungsten diameter: 1.6; sharp angle 20º
¡ Distance tungsten piece: 1.3 mm

Observations: The weld bead is bulky in the overlap. In the overlap zone, we
see an excessively wide root (Figure 34).

Excessive angular rate of welding

Figure 30: Weld coupon exterior (a) and interior (b) We increase angular speed (welding velocity) in 25 mm/min.

¡ Purge gas flow: 20 L/min

¡ Preliminary purge gas flow: 5 L/min (preliminary purge time, min. 15 sec.)
¡ Shielding gas flow: 5 L/min
¡ Tungsten diameter: 1.6; sharp angle 20º
¡ Distance tungsten piece: 1.3 mm

Observations: The weld bead is slightly sunken and narrow. There is a lack
of penetration in several zones (Figure 35).

Figure 32: Weld coupon exterior (a) and interior (b)

Figure 31: Weld coupon exterior (a) and interior (b)

Figure 33: Weld coupon exterior (a) and interior (b)

Observations: The weld bead is breaking in with an excessive penetration.
In one weld coupon, the joint is perforated. The weld bead is a little wider
than in the correct weld coupon example (Figure 32).

Insufficient welding intensity

We decreased the welding intensity.

¡ Purge gas flow: 20 L/min

¡ Preliminary purge gas flow: 5 L/min (preliminary purge time, min. 15 sec.)
¡ Shielding gas flow: 5 L/min
¡ Tungsten diameter: 1.6; sharp angle 20º Figure 34: Weld coupon exterior (a) and interior (b)
¡ Distance tungsten piece: 1.3 mm

Observations: Visually the weld bead is very narrow. There is a lack of pen-
etration along the weld bead. One weld coupon not even get melt reaches
a part of the piece (Figure 33).

Insufficient angular rate of welding

We reduce angular speed (welding velocity) in 80 mm/min.

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Figure 35: Weld coupon exterior (a) and interior (b)
Figure 36: Weld coupon exterior (a), interior (b), and
preparation (c)
Figure 37: Weld coupon exterior (a), interior (b), and
preparation (c)
Figure 38: Weld coupon exterior (a), interior (b), and
preparation (c)
Tainted tungsten
We place tainted/contaminated tungsten with stainless steel filler rod.
Sharp electrode disappears.
¡ Purge gas flow: 20 L/min
¡ Preliminary purge gas flow: 5 L/min (preliminary purge time, min. 15 sec.)
¡ Shielding gas flow: 5 L/min
¡ Tungsten diameter: 1.6; Not sharpened.
¡ Distance tungsten piece: 1.3 mm
Observations: Weld bead irregular and rusty. In one of the three weld
coupons, we can observe an external lack of fusion in the joint zone. In the
12 | Pharmaceutical Engineering | September-October 2016
three weld coupons there is an overall lack of fusion in the entire internal
weld bead (Figure 36).
Insufficient distance between tungsten and piece
Distance between the tungsten and the piece to be welded is 0.5 mm.
¡ Purge gas flow: 20 L/min
¡ Preliminary purge gas flow: 5 L/min (preliminary purge time, min. 15 sec.)
¡ Shielding gas flow: 5 L/min
¡ Tungsten diameter: 1.6; sharp angle 20°
¡ Distance tungsten piece: 0.5 mm
Observations: In the weld coupon interior, we can observe that the weld
bead is sunken. Fault generated in the three weld coupons and the tungsten
gets stuck in the weld pool (Figure 37).
Excessive distance between tungsten and piece
Distance between the tungsten and the piece to be welded is 3 mm.
¡ Purge gas flow: 20 L/min
¡ Preliminary purge gas flow: 5 L/min (preliminary purge time, min. 15 sec.)
¡ Shielding gas flow: 5 L/min
¡ Tungsten diameter: 1.6; sharp angle 20º
¡ Distance tungsten piece: 3 mm
Observations: There is a lack of penetration and the root of the weld bead
is very narrow (Figure 38).
Correct Welding Sample
Correct welding sample of the weld coupon:
¡ Purge gas flow: 20 L/min
¡ Preliminary purge gas flow: 5 L/min (preliminary purge time, min. 15 sec.)
¡ Shielding gas flow: 5 L/min
¡ Tungsten diameter: 1.6; sharp angle 20º
¡ Distance tungsten piece: 1.3 mm
Observations: This weld coupon is without imperfections or fails. The weld
bead is plain, regular, and continuous, without breaking in. There is pene-
tration in all weld beads without internal and external oxidation (Figure 39).
Welding Track Sample
Welding track sample of the weld coupon:
¡ Purge gas flow: 20 L/min
¡ Preliminary purge gas flow: 5 L/min (preliminary purge time, min. 15 sec.)
¡ Shielding gas flow: 5 L/min
¡ Tungsten diameter: 1.6; sharp angle 20º
¡ Distance tungsten piece: 1.3 mm
Observations: The welding tracks have been realized at 30A, the weld bead
and the welding tracks have been completely melted. The welding tracks
have been realized with shielding gas and purge gas in order to avoid
permanent oxidations (Figure 40).

Figure 39: Weld coupon exterior (a) and interior (b)
Figure 40: Weld coupon exterior (a) and interior (b)
Conclusion
In these studies, the GTAW/TIG orbital welding process is robust and reliable.
In many cases, it was very laborious to reproduce weld failures, even when
conditions and parameters were quite extreme. In some instances, it was
not possible to produce anticipated faults.
There are numerous factors that can affect weld quality, so systematic
quality control of the entire welding process—from preparing materials
and setting conditions to inspection of the welds obtained—is necessary.
In this regard, the importance of using visual systems like video endoscopy
demonstrated that in certain cases welds that appeared to be correct
externally were found to be nonconforming after inspection. For this reason,
tests based on inspection by noninvasive methods that do not provide
information on the inside finish should be considered as complementary,
but not as a substitute for internal visual inspection.
These studies also demonstrate the importance of purging with an
appropriate gas under correct conditions. Variations in gas characteristics
(quality, flow, and pressure) produce significant variations in weld quality.
We therefore recommend that this is one of the first points checked early
in the process. ¢
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge and greatly appreciate the effort and dedication
of Oerlikon (Spain) in carrying out the tests and trials, without whom this
study would not have been possible.
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References
1. US Code of Federal Regulations. Title 21, Part 210. “Current Good Manufacturing Practice in
Manufacturing, Processing, Packing, or Holding of Drugs; General.” http://www.accessdata.
fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch.cfm?CFRPart=210.
2. US Code of Federal Regulations. Title 21, Part 211. “Current Good Manufacturing Practice
for Finished Pharmaceuticals.” https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfCFR/
CFRSearch.cfm?CFRPart=211.
3. American Society of Mechanical Engineers. ASME Bioprocessing Equipment Standard: BPE-2014.
4. International Society for Pharmaceutical Engineering. Water and Steam Systems, 2nd ed.
ISPE Baseline® Guide, Volume 4. ISPE, December 2011.
5. 3A Sanitary Standards. “P3-A Pharmaceutical Standards.”
6. American Society of Mechanical Engineers. ASME B31.3-2002. “Process Piping.” Revision of
ASME B31.3-1999. 30 April 2002. http://www.iu.hio.no/~pererikt/Konstr/Konstr-design-II/
standarder/ASMEB31.3-1.pdf.
7. 2015 ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. Section IX: “Qualification Standard for Welding
and Brazing Procedures, Welders, Brazers, and Welding and Brazing Operators.” 07 July 2015
8. American Welding Society. D 18.1/D18.1M: 2.009. “Specification for Welding of Austenitic
Stainless Steel Tube and Pipe Systems in Sanitary (Hygienic) Applications.”
9. ———. AWS B2.1/B2.1M_BMG: 2009-ADD1. “Base Metal for Welding Procedure and
Performance Qualification.” March 2012. https://app.aws.org/technical/B2.1-B2.1M-BMG-
2009-ADD1.pdf.
10. ———. AWS B4.0:2007. “Standard Methods for Mechanical Testing of Welds.” 2007. http://
bjchaozhan.com/admin/uploadpic/201292386223002249.pdf.
11. ———. AWS D18.2: 2009. Guías Para la Decoloración de la Soldadura en Tubos de Aceros
austeníticos.
12. American Society for Nondestructive Testing. Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A 2011.
“Personnel Qualification and Certification in Nondestructive Testing.”
13. British Standards Institution. BS EN 287-1:2004. Cualificación de Soldadores. Soldeo por
Fusión. Parte 1 Aceros.
14. Riesco, Gemán Hernández. Manual del Soldador. 16º edición. Cesol.
15. Gómez, Manuel Reina. Soldadura de los Aceros. 4ª edición.
16. Arc Machines, Inc. Seminario Soldadura Orbital.
17. Barbara K. Henon articles:
Henon, Barbara K, and Y.K. Tan. “Autogenous Orbital GTAW of Large, High-Purity Tubes.”
The Fabricator, 15 July 2010. http://www.thefabricator.com/article/arcwelding/autogenous-
orbital-gtaw-of-large-high-purity-tubes.
Henon, Barbara K. “Documenting Welds from an Orbital Welding Power Supply.”
Practical Welding Today, 12 February 2004. http://www.thefabricator.com/article/
tubepipefabrication/documenting-welds-from-an-orbital-welding-power-supply.
Henon, Barbara K. “Specifying the Sulfur Content of 316L Stainless Steel for Orbital
Welding.” TPJ: The Tube & Pipe Journal, 27 March 2003. http://www.thefabricator.com/
article/tubepipefabrication/specifying-the-sulfur-content-of-316l-stainless-steel-for-orbital-
welding.
About the authors
Jorge Domingo has a BSc in industrial engineering from Polytechnical University of Madrid
(UPM) and a Masters in sales and marketing management from ESDEN Business School.
He has more than 10 years of experience in process, high purity water, CIP and biowaste
technologies, acting as engineer and product manager in the pharmaceutical industry
sector. Until August 2015, as a Technology Unit Manager at Telstar he was responsible
for pharmaceutical and biotechnology process and high purity water systems. Presently
he combines the role as an Engineer Expert in Pharmaceutical Water Systems with this
position as the Asia Pacific Regional Office Manager at Telstar. He can be contacted by email
at jdomingo@telstar.com, and by post at Telstar, Av, Font i Sagué, 55 Terrassa Barcelona
08227, Spain.
Margarita Morquillas started her career as a draftsman designer and has developed
extensive experience in the design of pharmaceutical process installations. She has been
working in the biopharmaceutical industry for more than 19 years with more than 16 years
in the performance of welding works, welding documentation and welding inspection. She
is currently the TIG Welding Senior Expert, responsible for commissioning and start-up at
Telstar. She conducts welding inspections and performs commissioning plans for Telstar’s
project facilities. She can be contacted by email at mmorquillas@telstar.com, and by post at:
Telstar, Av, Font i Sagué, 55 Terrassa Barcelona 08227, Spain.
Pharmaceutical Engineering | September-October 2016 | 13
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Table A: Acceptance criteria for pipe welds

Welds on process contact surfaces Welds on nonprocess contact surfaces
Discontinuity Welds left in the Prior to finishing After postweld Welds left in the After postweld
as-welded condition (as welded) finishing as-welded condition finishing
Cracks None None None None None
Lack of fusion None None None None None
Incomplete penetration None None on product contact None on product contact See notes 1 and 2 See notes 1 and 2
side; otherwise, see note 1 side; otherwise, see note 1
Porosity None open to the surface; See note 1 None open to the surface; None open to the surface; None open to the surface;
otherwise see note 1 otherwise see note 1 otherwise see note 1 otherwise see note 1
Inclusions: metallic (e.g., None open to the surface; See note 1 None open to the surface; None open to the surface; None open to the surface;
tungsten) or nonmetallic otherwise see note 1 otherwise see note 1 otherwise see note 1 otherwise see note 1
Undercut None See note 1 None See note 1 See note 1
Concavity See note 1 See note 1 See note 1 See note 1 See note 1
Fillet weld convexity 1/16 inch (1.5 mm) max. See note 1 1/32 inch (0.8 mm) max. See note 1 See note 1
Discoloration: HAZ may be permitted to N/A, see note 3 HAZ may be permitted to Per customer specification Per customer specification
heat-affected zone have light straw to light blue have light straw to light blue
color (see Figs. MJ-8.4.2 and color (see Figs. MJ-8.4.2 and
MJ-8.4.3). Any discoloration MJ-8.4.3). Any discoloration
present must be tightly present must be tightly
adhering to the surface adhering to the surface
such that normal operations such that normal operations
will not remove it. In any will not remove it. In any
case, the HAZ shall have no case, the HAZ shall have no
evidence of rust, free iron, or evidence of rust, free iron, or
sugaring. See note 3. sugaring. See note 3.
Discoloration: weld bead None allowed. For welds in N/A, see note 3 None allowed. For welds in Per customer specification Per customer specification
nickel alloys, and for welds in nickel alloys, and for welds in
superaustenitic alloys made superaustenitic alloys made
with nickel alloy inserts or with nickel alloy inserts or
filler metals, slag is permitted filler metals, slag is permitted
as long as it is silver to light as long as it is silver to light
gray in color and adherent to gray in color and adherent to
the surface. See note 3. the surface. See note 3.
Reinforcement See note 1 See note 1 1/32 inch (0.8 mm) max. See note 1 See note 1
Tack welds Must be fully consumed by Must be fully consumed by Must be fully consumed by Per customer specification Per customer specification
final weld bead final weld bead final weld bead
Arc strikes None None None None None
Overlap None None None None None
Weld bend width N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Minimum fillet weld size See note 1 See note 1 See note 1 See note 1 See note 1
Misalignment (mismatch) See note 1 See note 1 See note 1 See note 1 See note 1
NOTES
1. The limits of ASME B31.3 shall apply
2. Does not apply to insulation sheathing and similar welds
3. Special surface preparation may be needed to meet criteria. Welds on piping that has been in service may require unique criteria.
Source: Reprinted from ASME BPE-2014 (Table MJ-8.3-1), by permission of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. All Rights Reserved. No further copies can be made without written
permission.

One of the most critical activities on projects with high sanitary

requirements in the life sciences and other industries is related
to the bonding or welding processes used in the construction of
distribution systems for utilities.

14 | Pharmaceutical Engineering | September-October 2016

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Table B: Visual examination acceptance criteria for groove welds on tube-to-tube butt joints
Includes all products (e.g., tubes, fittings, castings, forgings, and bars) whose final dimensions meet Part DT requirements
Discontinuities Welds on product contact surfaces Welds on nonproduct contact surfaces
Cracks None None
Lack of fusion None None
Incomplete penetration None [see Fig. MJ-8.4-1, illustration (e)] None [see Fig. MJ-8.4-1, illustration (e)]
Porosity None open to the surface; otherwise, see note 1. None open to the surface; otherwise, see note 1.
Inclusions [metallic (e.g., tungsten) or nonmetallic] None open to the surface; otherwise, see note 1. See note 1
Undercut None See note 1
Concavity 10% TW max. [see Fig. MJ-8.4-1. Illustrations (c) and (d). 10% TW max. [see Fig. MJ-8.4-1, illustrations (c) and (d)] over
However, O.D. and I.D. concavity shall be such that the wall entire circumference with up to 15% of the nominal wall thick-
thickness is not reduced below the minimum thickness ness permitted over a maximum of 25% of the circumference
required in DT-3 [see note 2] [see note 2].
Convexity 10% TW max. [see Fig. MJ-8.4-1, illustration (f)] [See note 2] Maximum of 0.015 in. (0.38 mm) [see Fig. MJ-8.4-1, illustration
(f)] [See note 2].
Discoloration (heat-affected zone) Heat affected zone (HAZ) may be permitted to have light Discoloration level will be agreed upon between the owner/
straw to light blue color (see Figs. MJ-8.4-2 and MJ-8.4-3). user and contractor. Postweld conditioning may be allowed
Any discoloration present must be tightly adhering to the to meet discoloration requirements at the discretion of the
surface such that normal operations will not remove it. In owner/user. See note 3.
any case, the HAZ shall have no evidence of rust, free iron, or
sugaring. See note 3
Discoloration (weld bead) None allowed. For welds in nickel alloys, and for welds in Discoloration level will be agreed upon between the owner/
superaustenitic alloys made with nickel alloy inserts or filler user and contractor. Postweld conditioning may be allowed
metals, slag is permitted as long as it is silver to light gray in to meet discoloration requirements at the discretion of the
color and adherent to the surface. See note 3. owner/user. See note 3.
Reinforcement See Convexity See Convexity
Tack welds Must be fully consumed by final weld bead [see note 4] Same as product contact side.
Arc strikes None See note 5
Overlap None None
Weld bead width No limit provided that complete joint penetration is achieved. If process contact surface cannot be inspected (such as I.D. of
a tube beyond the reach of remote vision equipment), then
the nonproccess contact surface weld bead shall be straight
and uniform around the entire weld circumference [see Fig.
MJ-8.4-1, illustration (g)]. The minimum weld bead with
shall not be less than 50% of the maximum weld bead width
[see Fig. MJ-8.4-1, illustration (h)]. The maximum weld bead
meander shall be 25% of the weld bead width, measured as a
deviation from the weld centerline, as define in Fig. MJ-8.4-1,
illustration (i).
Minimum throat N/A N/A
Misalignment (mismatch) 15% TW max. [see Fig. MJ-8.4-1, illustration (b)], except Same as process contact surfaces
that 4 in. tube may have a maximum of 0.015 in. (0.38 mm)
misalignment on the O.D and 6 in. tube may have a maximum
of 0.030 in. (0.76 mm) misalignment on the O.D. Figure
MJ-8.4-1, illustration (b) does not apply to 4 in. and 6 in. tube
[see note 2].
General note: Includes all product forms (e.g.: tube, fittings, castings, forgings, and bar) whose final dimensions meet Part DT requirements.
NOTES
1. The limits of ASME B31.3 shall apply
2. TW is the nominal wall thickness of the thinner of the two members being joined. Weld metal must blend smoothly into base metal.
3. Welds on tubing that has been in service may require unique criteria.
4. Any weld that shows unconsumed tack welds on the nonproduct contact surface must be inspected on the product contact surface; otherwise they are rejected. If the weld cannot be
inspected on the product contact surface, rewelding per MJ-8.4.2 is not allowed. Rewelding per MJ-8.4.2 is allowed if the weld can be inspected on the product contact surface after rewelding.
5. Arc strikes on the nonproduct contact surface may be removed by mechanical polishing as long as the minimum design wall thickness is not compromised.
6. Note that misalignment is controlled on the O.D. and is based on allowable O.D. dimensions and tolerances of fittings and tubing. The owner/user is cautioned that this can result in
greater ID misalignment because this also takes into consideration that wall thickness dimensions and tolerances of fittings and tubing. However, there are no specified ID misalignment
acceptance criteria.
Source: Reprinted from ASME BPE-2014 (Table MJ-8.4-1), by permission of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. All Rights Reserved. No further copies can be made without written
permission.

Pharmaceutical Engineering | September-October 2016 | 15