Observational Seismology

Lecture 4
Surface Waves and Dispersion

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 Surface Wave Dispersion

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 Observations
stretched stretched dispersed

P S SS SSS
wave packet surface waves

Body waves Impulsive, short period (but later arrivals are stretched
out due to attenuation). Higher frequencies make waves “sharper”.

Surface waves Dispersed, arrive in wave packets. But note a wave

packet might be a single wavelet (oceanic arrivals).

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 Reminder

Period T Phase velocity v = f λ

Amp
f – frequency = 1/T (s-1)
λ - wavelength (m)
t

But a whole spectrum of different period or frequency waves are emitted

from an earthquake because earthquake rupture is a complex fracture
process.

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 Body waves
Body waves all travel at the same velocity even if they are different
frequencies, as travelling through the body of the Earth where
velocity changes are gradual (except for major discontinuities).

Reminder
1/ 2
⎛ K S + 4 .µ ⎞
α = ⎜⎜ 3 ⎟
⎟
ρ ↓v increasing
⎝ ⎠
1/ 2
⎛µ⎞
β = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ρ⎠

Velocity just depends on local elastic properties, e.g, of core

or mantle
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 Types of surface waves
Love wave

Rayleigh wave

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 Surface waves
Surface waves travel close to surface

depth z Amplitude of surface waves decays

exponentially with depth

Amplitude A( z ) = A0 e − Z Z 0 Characteristic depth

Amplitude at surface of penetration

At Z = Z0 A(z) = A0 / e ~ A0 / 2
i.e., the amplitude at the characteristic depth of penetration is
approx. half surface amplitude

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 Particle motion of Rayleigh waves
rolling surface wave

Retrograde ellipse

amplitude
decays - Z0 A = A0/2
exponentially
with depth

Characteristic depth of penetration is proportional to wavelength of surface wave

Z0 ∝ λ ∝ T ∝ 1/f - the longer wavelength the deeper it will penetrate

e.g., for T = 20s, v ∼ 4km/s, then λ ∼ 80km, c.f. lithospheric thickness

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 Dispersion
Short T Long T
Short λ Long λ
High f Low f
surface
Low speed
Moho lithosphere
High speed

Penetrates deeply into high speed layer so will travel faster

So long period waves, as they penetrate deeply into the Earth travel at
higher velocities; short period waves travel at slower velocities
This is normal dispersion

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 Dispersion measured from seismograms

Surface waves are a complex superposition of simple harmonic waves.

Complex because earthquake source and lithospheric structure are complex.
Oceanic Dispersion

Rayleigh wave

Long T This peak travels at group velocity vG

arrives first

They travel at a group velocity because each peak can

represent a group of S.H.M.

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 Types of dispersion
a) v gradually increasing with depth
v Long T arrives fist
Long period
travelling at high
velocity

z Normal dispersion
b) v gradually decreasing with depth
v Short T arrives first

Long period
travelling at low
velocity
z Reverse dispersion
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 Types of dispersion
c) velocity constant
v

z Impulsive arrival - all

frequencies arrive together

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 Types of dispersion
P wave velocity
d) Oceanic dispersion
1.5 4 6 8
v km/s
water 1.5 km/s
10 km Moho
10 km sediments
oceanic crust 6-8 km/s Not
Sediments smooth particularly
upper mantle 8 km/s
z out layering sharp
Large change in velocity in
just 10 km - lots of dispersion
1) Lot of Rayleigh waves because big change in velocity in short depth.
Wave train very dispersed.
2) Less Love waves because no distinct layering (no distinct Moho),
thinner crust. (No shear waves in water anyway.)

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 Types of dispersion
e) Continental dispersion P wave velocity
“Not seen” 6 8
sediments (ignore) v km/s
upper crust
Conrad
30 km
lower crust
Distinct
mantle 30 km Moho
z
1) Less Rayleigh because smaller change in velocity in greater depth.
Continents do not provide big enough velocity difference for great dispersion.
not so dispersed
Some low frequency,
long period responding
to gradual increase in v
beneath Moho Airy phase responding to 6
km/s thick continental crust
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 Types of dispersion
d) Continental dispersion
Trapped SH Continental crust →
crust 6 km/s distinct layer “trap” for
waves
Love waves
mantle 8 km/s

Before advent of exploration and use of aftershock seismic arrays, surface

waves were the main means for determining the structure of the lithosphere
on a regional scale. Surface waves directly sample the lithosphere.

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 Dispersion

Note that phase and group velocity are strongly

dependent on period especially at low frequency
Note that the phase velocity is faster than the group
velocity

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