In the design of roof, the major loads which are applied on roof are wind load and live

load. Normal
maintenance, repair, painting and minor repairs are the live loads acting on the roof structure. The action
of wind can be of the type of suction or pressure to our structures both externally or internally. However
these effects are more magnified for structures with more openings and large surface areas.

Some of the major factors that wind pressure depends on;

 Velocity of air
 Shape of the structure
 Density of air
 Stiffness of structure
 Angle of the induced wind
 Topography

To achieve the proper design (according to EBCS - 1 1995), the following conditions have to be taken into
account

 Turbulent wind acting over part or all of the structure

 Fluctuating pressures induced by the wake behind the structure
 Fluctuating forces induced by the motion of the structure

There are two methods for wind load analysis; simple procedures applied to the structural properties that
do not make them susceptible to dynamic excitation. The other method is detailed dynamic analysis. This
is applied to structures which are likely to be susceptible to dynamic excitation. The choice of analysis
from the above two methods depends on the value of the structure’s dynamic coefficient.

The dynamic coefficient depends on the type of structure, the height of the structure and its breadth. The
quasi-static method is used for structures whose Cd value is less or equal to 1.2.

In our case, the building variables are:

 Height of building =25.2 m

 Width of building = 21m,

From Figure 3.7 of EBCS-1 1995, the value of the dynamic coefficient of this building is; Cd =0.65, i.e. Cd <
1.2 and height of the building is less than 200m, this implies that the simple procedure that is provided in
EBCS method of analysis the appropriate method.

Our roof type is Duopich roof and under category- IV Urban Area from table 3.3[EBCS2, 1995] since our
building is located in Addis Ababa. Therefore the characteristic live load is:
 Qk=1KN qk = 0.25KN/m2

According to EBCS 1, Art 3.5.2, the wind pressure acting on the external surface of a structure shall be:

We=qref*Ce(Ze)*Cpe

And the internal pressure acting on the internal surfaces becomes,

Wi=qref*Ce(Zi)*Cpi

where: qref=reference mean wind velocity

Ce(Ze)= exposure coefficients for external pressure

Ce(Zi)=exposure coefficients for internal pressure

Ze,Zi= reference height defined in Appendix A of EBCS1

ρ
qref = 2 Vref2

where: ρ= air density in kg/m3

Vref = reference wind velocity. For Ethiopia Vref= 22m/s

Cdir = Ctemp = Calt = 1

Vref=Cdir*Ctemp*Calt*Vref=22m/s
Roof Category H [EBCS-1 Table 2.13]

Wind Pressure
External Pressure: We =qref*Ce (Ze)*Cpe [EBCS-1 Sec 3.5.2]

Internal Pressure: Wi =qref*Ce (Zi)*Cpi [EBCS-1 Sec 3.5.3]

qref = Vref2 reference mean velocity pressure

Vref = wind speed = 22 m/sec.

ρ = Air density = 0.94 Kg/m3 [EBCS-1 Table 3.1]
qref = 0.227 KN/m2

C e (Z e ) - Exposure Coefficient

[EBCS-1 Sec 3.8.5(2)]

Z = Height above the ground up to the top of the roof = 17.35 m

KT = Terrain factor
K T = 0.24
- for terrain category IV Zo = 1 [EBCS-1 Table 3.2]
Zmin = 16

Cr(Z) - roughness coefficient

for Zmin ≤ Z ≤ 200m [EBCS-1 Sec 3.8.2]

for Z < Zmin

Cr(Z) = 0.68

Ct(Z) - topography coefficient = 1.0

So, the exposure coefficient is:

Ce(Z) = 1.620

Cpe - external pressure coefficient:

The roof is duopitch roof with α = 15
 b w
Case1: Wind direction perpedicular to the ridge: θ = 0º Roof Area = 25.0 49.3

I
22.15
J
2.5

H
F G F
22.15

2.5

6.25 12.50 6.25

Wind direction

The regions are subdivided using EBCS-1

e = b or 2h whichever is smaller

b = 25.0 , 2h = 34.7 e = 25.00

e/4 = 6.25 e/10 = 2.5

Region αº F G H I J
Area 15.625 31.250 553.750 553.750 62.500
Cpe,10 5 -1.7 -1.2 -0.6 -0.3 -0.3
Cpe,1 5 -2.5 2.0 -1.2 -0.3 -0.3
5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Cpe,10 15 -0.9 -0.8 -0.3 -0.4 -1.0 [EBCS-1 Table A.4]
Cpe,1 15 -2.0 -1.5 -0.3 -0.4 -1.5
15 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.0
Cpe,10 α -0.900 -0.800 -0.300 -0.400 -1.000
Cpe,1 α -2.000 -1.500 -0.300 -0.400 -1.500
Cpe,10 α 0.200 0.200 0.200 0.000 0.000
Cpe,1 α 0.200 0.200 0.200 0.000 0.000
C pe α -0.900 -0.800 -0.300 -0.400 -1.000
C pe α 0.200 0.200 0.200 0.000 0.000
 Maximum negative Cpe = -1.000
Maximum positive Cpe = 0.200

-External Pressure We = -0.368 KN/m2

We = 0.074 KN/m2

-Internal pressure coefficient are C pi = 0.8 and Cpi = -0.5

Wi = 0.295 KN/m2
Wi = -0.184 KN/m2
Net Pressure:

Negative: -0.663 KN/m2

Positive: 0.258 KN/m2
 Case2: Wind direction perpedicular to the ridge: θ = 90º

F
6.25
G H I

49.3
G
Wind
H I
direction
F

6.25

2.50 10

Region αº F G H I
Area 15.625 46.000 246.500 308.125

Cpe,10 (5º) -1.6 -1.3 -0.7 -0.5

Cpe,1 (5º) -2.2 -2.0 -1.2 -0.5
Cpe,10 (15º) -1.3 -1.3 -0.6 -0.5 [EBCS-1 Table A.4]
Cpe,1 (15º) -2.0 -2.0 -1.2 -0.5

Cpe,10 α -1.300 -1.300 -0.600 -0.500

Cpe,1 α -2.000 -2.000 -1.200 -0.500
C pe α -1.300 -1.300 -0.600 -0.500
 Maximum negative Cpe = -1.300
Maximum positive Cpe = 0.000

-External Pressure We = -0.479 KN/m2

We = 0.000 KN/m2

-Internal pressure coefficient are Cpi = 0.8 and Cpi = -0.5

Wi = 0.295 KN/m2
Wi = -0.184 KN/m2

Net Pressure:

Negative: -0.774 KN/m2

Positive: 0.184 KN/m2
The principal function of roofing purlins is to transfer the forces on the roof of a building to its main
structure. The wall rails perform the same role on the facades. Purlins and wall rails are important
components in the secondary structure of a building.

The purlin structure of a building is designed in accordance with the type of roofing to be used. The
nature of the roofing, in particular, directly influences the spacing between purlins; it also determines
what purlin-roofing interaction we can expect for dimensioning the purlins.

The loads to be considered during design are primarily:

 the actual weight of the roofing, the purlins and their accessories
 the actual weight of any equipment carried by the roofing (if any)
 the imposed loads suspended inside (e.g. a sprinkler system, lighting, etc.)
 the maintenance load of the roofing
 snow
 wind

There are different types of purlins used in the market today. The most common ones are:

 Hot-rolled beam purlins

 Thin gauge cold-formed purlins
 Lattice purlins

Practically speaking, our building does not need a steel structure truss due to the very small load. But for
academic purposes, steel truss and purlins were designed. The purlin used in our building is a Lattice
Purlin.

The main issues involved in designing this type of purlin are those associated with the design of all lattice
beams:

 Controlling secondary deflection moments caused by:

o The continuity of bars or the end restraint of the bars on each other
o Any eccentricity in the diagrams of internal forces
o Loads applied between nodes
 Controlling additional movement due to the clearance in the bolted connections
Lattice purlin is used to connect trusses through a composition of structural steel and reinforcement bar.
Nowadays lattice purlin is widely used in the construction sector. The reason behind is its strength and
cost efficiency (economy). We chose to design a lattice purlin in order to improve our knowledge of steel
structure.

Wind load and roof cover load acts on the lattice purlin.

Purlin spacing = 1.25 m

Unit wt. of roof cover = 77 KN/m3

wt. of roof cover = 0.0231 KN/m2

DL/meter = 0.0289 KN/m [DL inaddition to its wt.]

LL/meter = 0.313 KN/m
WL/meter = -0.965 KN/m [Suction]
= 0.323 KN/m [Compression]

For academic purposes, three different purlins were designed using SAP v14. These purlins differ in their
depth. The depths used for analysis and design are:

 200mm
 250mm
 300mm

For analysis and design, there were 6 combinations that were used. These combinations are:

 COMB1 = 1.3DL + 1.6LL

 COMB2 = 0.85COMB1 + 1.6WINDS
 COMB3 = 0.85COMB1 + 1.6WINDC
 COMB4 = 1.3DL + 1.6CLL
 COMB5 = 0.85COMB4 + 1.6WINDS
 COMB6 = 0.85COMB4 + 1.6WINDC
Where DL – Own weight of the purlin

RDL – Dead load due to roof cover

LL – Live Load
 CLL – Concentrated live load
WINDS – Wind load (Suction)
WINDC – Wind load (Compression)

The materials used are 25x25x2.5 Rectangular Hollow Section (RHS) for the main steel structure and ф14
reinforcement bars to connect the main structure.

After comparing the results acquired from the software, it was found that COMB2 yielded the max result.
It was also found that the sections provided were of adequate in terms of strength, i.e. no failure will
occur.

 Main truss and lattice purlin will have roller and pin connection in two sides. Roller
connection will be standard bolt and the hole must have diameter of the bolt. Pin
connection will also be standard bolt but the hole must have longitudinal opening of
bolt diameter plus two times lateral deflection of the purlin or the truss.
 Purlin provided at a space of 1250mm and the roof will only be designed for wind load
and ignore rain load because it is insignificant. Besides, 25m of span length is
adequate enough for rain gutters at end points. Individual truss also spaced 5.5m
center to center along the long direction of the roof, which is an average value of the
standard spacing between 5m to 6m spacing.
 Purlin (200mm)

Figure 2-1: Purlin with depth 200mm

 Purlin (250mm)

Figure 2-2: Purlin with depth 250mm

 Purlin (300mm)

Figure 2-3: Purlin with depth 300mm

 Loads Of Purlin (300mm)

Weight Of Roof Cover = 0.03KN/M

Figure 2-4: Loads on Purlin (RDL)

Wind Load Suction = -0.965KN/M

Figure 2-5 Loads on Purlin (WINDS)

Wind Load Compression = 0.3225KN/M

Figure 2-6: Loads on Purlin (WINDC)

Live Load = 0.313KN/M

Figure 2-7: Loads on Purlin (LL)

Concentrated Live Load = 1KN At The Center Of The Purlin

Figure 2-8: Loads on Purlin (CLL)

Rectangular Hollow Section(RHS)

Figure 2-9: Rectangular Hollow Section (RHS)

 From the three different purlins analyzed, the purlin with 200mm depth was found to be
inadequate section, i.e. failure will occur. The purlin with 250mm depth was found to be partially
adequate section. When coming to the purlin with 300mm depth, it was found that it has sufficient cross
section for the applied load. So to be on the safe side, the purlin with 300mm depth is chosen to be used.

During analysis on SAP v14, 100x100x4.5 RHS section was found to be of adequate. Choosing the lattice
purlin of 250mm depth, the two purlins were compared by their weight and cost.

Mass comparison

i. Lattice Purlin
25x25x2.5 section
Length = 5.5 + 5.1 + (0.29*2) = 11.18
Total Mass = 11.18m *1.64kg/m = 18.33kg

∅14 reinforcement bar

No. = 34 pieces

Length = 34 * 0.29 = 9.86m

Total mass = 9.86 * 1.21kg/m = 11.93kg

𝚺Mass = 30.26kg

ii. Simple RHS section

Mass = 5.5m * 13.09kg/m = 71.99kg

The difference in mass

= 71.99kg – 30.26kg

= 41.73kg
Cost Comparison

Rebar
cutting,bending and Total direct
Item of work : fixing in position cost 50.49
Profit &
Performance/hr : 30.00 Kg/hr OH(30%) 15.15
Service tax
Direct unit cost: 49.50 (10%)
Small plants and tools cost (2%) 0.99 Aggregate 65.64
Material cost Labour cost Equipment cost
COST INDEXE HRLY
PER LABOUR BY Unit D HRY HRLY TYPE OF RENTAL HRLY
TYPE OF MATERIAL UNIT QTY RATE UNIT TRADE NO factor COST COST EQPT NO UF RATE COST
RHS and Reinforcement Bar(Ø14) Kg 1.00 30.00 30.00 Bar Professional 1.00 1.00 12.50 12.50 Grinder 1.00 1.00 0.00 0.00
Assistant 1.00 1.00 7.00 7.00 Electrod 1.00 1.00 0.00 0.00

30.00 19.50 0.00

Table 2.1 Unit Cost

Currently in the market, unit cost of 1kg of steel is 65.64 birr. Then comparing the two purlins based on cost is

Lattice purlin = 30.26kg * 65.64birr = 1986.26birr

Simple RHS section = 71.99kg * 65.64birr = 4725.42birr

Difference in cost = 2739.16birr per purlin

Total Number of Purlins=Number of Nodes*Number of purlin space Length wise (Longitudinal) = 23*8=184

Total cost saved= Difference in cost*Total number of purlins=2739.16 birr/purlin*184purlins=504,005.44birr

As it’s shown above, there is a drastic difference both in weight and cost of the two purlins. Lattice purlin saves the client a substantial amount of
money. The increase in weight also adds to the dead load of the purlin, which is going to be transferred to the truss.
 A truss consists of straight members connected at joints. No member is continuous through a
joint. Bolted or welded connections are assumed to be pinned together. Forces acting at the member
ends reduce to a single force and no couple. Only two-force members are considered.

When forces tend to pull the member apart, it is in tension. When the forces tend to compress
the member, it is in compression.

Members of a truss are slender and not capable of supporting large lateral loads. Loads must be
applied at the joints.

Truss structure can be modified geometrically in a number of ways for stable and economic
design. End points can have a point connection or can be elevated for a standard value of 100mm to
200mm. Middle top structure of the truss can be triangular or flat and it have three main importance:-

(1) It decrease stress.

(2) Avoid truss congestion.
(3) Effectively prevent rain penetration.

Truss strength can be achieved in a number of ways:

Geometry – By modifying geometry of the truss which means by rearranging the number and location of
the purlins and inclined truss elements we can increase strength of the truss. Geometry solve truss
problem this is also the same for other structures Dome can be a perfect example. To cover large area
like top of a stadium if we use flat slab we can have a slab depth of greater than one meter which result in
excessive weight and reinforcement. However, dome structures that are curved in geometry are hard to
deflect and transfer the load by compression to side supports, as a result this a dome with 100mm
thickness is enough to cover a stadium. Egg shell can also be taken as for more elaboration, with almost
zero thickness it has high compression capacity because of it curve structure.

Cross Section – Increase the cross section of the purlin and truss elements will enable the structure to
have high capacity of Compression, Tension and Moment of Inertia.

Side Vertical Length – Increasing side length between 100mm to 200mm advance the carrying capacity of
the truss.
 Figure 2-9: Side Vertical Length

Truss and frame structures are different. Truss is a two force member which only carry tension or
compression forces. But Frames have moment carrying capacity in addition to tension and compression
strength.

We use a triangular truss structure for roof system because truss doesn’t have moment capacity.
If we design it as a frame structure the cross section will be subjected to moment and moment create
deflection. To control deflection we have to increase the depth which at the end result in excessive self-
weight that is too uneconomical. Designing the roof as a truss will avoid the problems related to moment
because truss doesn’t carry moment. We only design it for tension and compression. And the truss
constructed with pin and roller connection for moment release. Pin and Pin connection do not have a
means to release the moment however the roller support enable the truss horizontal freedom along the
truss direction for full moment release.

Note: Span length is 3m, 6m, 4.5m and 4.75m because top tie beam supported at those points by
columns. However, for academic purpose we used a 25m span length of steel truss which will be
supported by roller and pin connection, and providing elevating structures at support points to
avoid connection between top tie beam and ridge of the truss.
Truss Type One
Combination One

Combination Two
Combination Three

Combinaton Four
Combination Five

Combinaton Six
Truss Type Two
Combination One

Combination Two
Combination Three

Combination Four
Combination Five

Combination Six
Truss Type Three
Combination One

Combiation Two
Combination Three

Combination Four
Combination Five

Combination Six
To come up with the most efficient truss geometry for 25 m span, we use the same cross sectional area
and different geometry. The idea of using identical cross sectional area depends on location as follows:-

For outer members all around the truss at the top and bottom = 80x80x4.5
For inside inclined members = 80x80x4.5
For king post and middle top members = 50x50x4.0
For other standing purlins = 25x25x2.5
For other internal inclined members = 40x40x3.5

Then we subjected all truss types with the same roof dead load, live load, concentrated live load, wind
load suction and compression.

The four criterions used to compare the truss types are:-

(1) Force Developed (Tension or compression)

(2) Ease of fabrication
(3) Economy comparison and
(4) Deflection.

We compare three types of truss based on above four criterions as follows:-

(1) Based on Force Developed (Tension or compression)

Comparing the magnitude of force developed on three truss and ignoring force direction;
truss type three have the highest members 20 which are subjected to lowest force. Truss
type two have the second highest members 15 which are subjected to lowest force, lastly
truss type one have least number of members 10 that are subjected to lowest force.
(2) Based on Ease of Fabrication
Truss type three is easily constructible than truss type one and two. As it is clear from
detail connection truss type three king post generally top middle part of the truss is
congested like type two.
(3) Based on economy
Truss type comparison based on economy is done by comparing their dead weight. Since
steel is sold per kilogram of steel, the weight was computed by summing the two
reaction forces.
  Truss Type One
o Weight = 2 * 4.46
= 8.92kN
o Mass = 8.92kN/9.81
= 909.27kg
o Cost per truss = 909.27kg * 37.90birr/kg

= 34,461.33birr

 Truss Type Two

o Weight = 2 * 4.4
= 8.8kN
o Mass = 8.8kN/9.81
= 897.04kg
o Cost per truss =897.04kg * 37.90birr/kg

= 33,997.96birr

 Truss Type Three

o Weight = 2 * 4.32
= 8.64kN
o Mass = 8.64kN/9.81
= 880.73kg
o Cost per truss = 880.73kg * 37.90birr/kg

= 33,379.81birr

(4) Based on deflection: The following are deflection results acquired from the SAP analysis
of the trusses:
 Truss Type One
o DL = -4.078mm
o RDL = -7.4593 mm
o LL = -12.1163 mm
o CLL = -7.0444 mm
o WINDS = 40.8574 mm
 o WINDC = -12.539 mm
 Truss Type Two
o DL = -2.9491mm
o RDL = -6.0315 mm
o LL = -11.0454 mm
o CLL = -6.4217 mm
o WINDS = 37.246 mm
o WINDC = -11.4307 mm
 Truss Type Three
o DL = -2.8857 mm
o RDL = -3.0922 mm
o LL = -11.0803 mm
o CLL = -6.442 mm
o WINDS = 37.3039 mm
o WINDC = -11.4668 mm
Where –ve sign shows downward direction
+ve sign shows upward direction

As it’s seen from the results, truss type one deflects the largest while truss type three yields the least
defection.

In the end, we chose to design the roof structure with type three truss since it was found to be better
than the other two types of trusses based on the above stated criterions.
 Providing 200mm side vertical length at the corners of the
truss decrease the stress occurred at the sides of the
truss. Truss type two and three have shown a major
decrease in tension or compression force at the opposite
side of the truss compare to truss type one.
 Deflection is maximum at the middle of the truss as it is
symmetry and to avoid the problem we need to provide
vertical purlin at the middle of the truss which is called
King Post.
 Arrangement of vertical standing purlins play a major role
in minimizing deflection and insure stability.
 Cross section has an effect on stress sharing for member
that have a common initial point but it is insignificant.
 Loads Of Truss Type Three
Roof Dead Load (RDL=0.48)

Live Load (LL=1.72)

Concentrated Live Load (CLL=1.00)

Wind Load Suction (WLS=5.80)

Wind Load Compresion (WLC=1.78)
 We design roof for lateral wind load in two direction, lateral and perpendicular to the ridge of the
main truss. Even if it is considered perpendicular to the ridge, we are designing for an area which is
located at the top surface area of the roof which indicates we ignored the main truss when it is subjected
to lateral force perpendicular to the main truss. Therefore, to resist the lateral force on the front
members of main truss, truss bracing is provided.

It is structurally efficient to brace the main truss by counting six. And we can use Ø14 or Ø16 bars
to brace main truss in crisscross pattern from node of side main truss to opposite main truss node.

Figure2-10: Truss Bracing

Camber
Truss camber must be provided if the maximum deflection is greater than total length divided by 250
(LTotal /250).

Truss Length=25m, Deflection=25,000mm/250

Deflection =100mm

Truss type three maximum deflection equals to 37.3039 mm which is less than 100mm, therefore there is
no need to provide truss camber