sustainability

Article
Effect of Phase Change Materials (PCMs) Integrated
into a Concrete Block on Heat Gain Prevention in
a Hot Climate
Ahmad Hasan *, Khaled A. Al-Sallal, Hamza Alnoman, Yasir Rashid and Shaimaa Abdelbaqi
College of Engineering, United Arab Emirates University, P.O. Box, Al Ain 15551, UAE;
k.sallal@uaeu.ac.ae (K.A.A.-S.); ha1987@uaeu.ac.ae (H.A.); yasir.rashid@uaeu.ac.ae (Y.R.);
200734406@uaeu.ac.ae (S.A.)
* Correspondence: ahmed.hassan@uaeu.ac.ae; Tel.: +971-56-8695917

Academic Editor: Andrew Kusiak

Received: 14 August 2016; Accepted: 21 September 2016; Published: 10 October 2016

Abstract: In the current study, a phase change material (PCM) contained in an insulated concrete
block is tested in extremely hot weather in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) to evaluate its cooling
performance. An insulated chamber is constructed behind the block containing PCM to mimic
a scaled down indoor space. The effect of placement of the PCM layer on heat gain indoors is studied
at two locations: adjacent to the outer as well as the inner concrete layer. The inclusion of PCM
reduced heat gain through concrete blocks compared to blocks without PCM, yielding a drop in
cooling load indoors. The placement of PCM and insulation layers adjacent to indoors exhibited
better cooling performance compared to that adjacent to the outdoors. In the best case, a temperature
drop of 8.5% and a time lag of 2.6 h are achieved in peak indoor temperature, rendering a reduction
of 44% in the heat gain. In the tested hot climate, the higher ambient temperature and the lower
wind speed hampered heat dissipation and PCM re-solidification by natural ventilation. The findings
recommend employing a mechanical ventilation in hot climates to enhance regeneration of the PCM
to solid state for its optimal performance.

Keywords: phase change material; thermal management; building insulations; air infiltration;
time lag; decrement factor

1. Introduction
World energy consumption increased two-fold from 1973 to 2012, reaching up to 8500 Mtoe
(million tons of oil equivalent) [1]. This has resulted in an increase of greenhouse gas emissions by
7.7% from 1990 to 2014 [2]. In the European Union, 40% of the total energy is consumed by buildings
for heating, cooling, and ventilation and is expected to increase further in future [3]. Out of the total
energy consumed by buildings in Canada, 81% is consumed by residential buildings mainly for space
and water heating needs [4]. The huge amount of energy consumption directly contributes to carbon
dioxide emissions leading to the greenhouse effect resulting in climate change [5]. In order to avoid
climate change, zero carbon homes becoming a target [6], mainly by passive means. In order to
meet the target of zero energy homes by avoiding excessive heat gain/loss, multi-layered insulated
and single-layered walls are being designed [7]. By selecting appropriate coating materials for the
outer surface of a wall, its absorption coefficient can be tuned inducing a time lag in the heat gain
and a drop in temperature swing [8]. The induced time lag further increases with the increase in
thermal inertia of the building materials [9]. Building envelopes with a higher thermal inertia are
considered to be more energy efficient specifically in a higher heat load condition [10,11]. Integration of
phase change materials (PCMs) into the building envelope [12] is increasingly replacing conventional,
costlier, and massive construction techniques [13], intended to increase thermal inertia. PCMs have

Sustainability 2016, 8, 1009; doi:10.3390/su8101009 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2016, 8, 1009 2 of 14

Sustainability 2016, 8, 1009 2 of 14

been integrated into building materials by direct immersion into concrete blocks, direct mixing into
insulations or integrating
been integrated of micro-capsulated
into building materials by direct PCMs into concrete
immersion into aggregates.
concrete blocks, Direct immersion
direct mixing causes
into
leakage of PCMs
insulations and moisture
or integrating transfer problems;
of micro-capsulated PCMstherefore, it is being
into concrete increasingly
aggregates. Directdiscarded
immersion [14].
Direct mixing
causes leakageof PCMs
of PCMs in and
insulation
moisture causes evaporation
transfer problems;(in the caseitofis inorganic
therefore, PCMs), degradation,
being increasingly discarded
and eventual
[14]. Direct dematerialization
mixing of PCMs in (ininsulation
the case ofcauses
organic PCMs) [15],
evaporation (inleading
the case to failures. Integration
of inorganic PCMs), of
degradation, and eventual
microencapsulated PCMs into dematerialization (in the case
the concrete aggregate of organic
causes unevenPCMs) [15], leading
distribution of PCM to failures.
inside the
Integration
concrete, of microencapsulated
thereby creating structuralPCMs into
failures the concrete aggregate causes uneven distribution of
[16].
PCMPCMsinside
havethebeen
concrete,
appliedthereby creating skin
to building structural failuresconfigurations
in different [16]. as shown in Figure 1A–E.
PCMs have been applied to building skin in different
Through a numerical model, a single PCM layer was optimized for the climatic configurations as shown in Figure
conditions of1A–E.
Quebec
Through a numerical model, a single PCM layer was optimized for the
City, Canada, as shown in Figure 1A. The study reported that PCM is functional only when there climatic conditions of Quebec exists
City, Canada, as shown in Figure 1A. The study reported that PCM is
a lesser temperature difference between outdoors and indoors [17]. A sandwich wall configuration asfunctional only when there
exists a lesser temperature difference between outdoors and indoors [17]. A sandwich wall
shown in Figure 1B [18] was studied to determine the effect of the melting point of PCMs on energy
configuration as shown in Figure 1B [18] was studied to determine the effect of the melting point of
saving. The research resulted in finding optimum melting points for various outdoor conditions.
PCMs on energy saving. The research resulted in finding optimum melting points for various
A wall section as presented in Figure 1C evaluated in winter and summer conditions of the UK through
outdoor conditions. A wall section as presented in Figure 1C evaluated in winter and summer
numerical simulation reported that a 20 mm thick PCM layer along with a 20 mm air cavity can
conditions of the UK through numerical simulation reported that a 20 mm thick PCM layer along
optimally achieve thermal comfort indoors [19]. A PCM vertical layer as shown in Figure 1D applied
with a 20 mm air cavity can optimally achieve thermal comfort indoors [19]. A PCM vertical layer as
to shown
south and west1D
in Figure walls damped
applied to southpeak
andheat
westflux
wallsbydamped
51% and peak30%,heatdelayed
flux by peak
51% andtime by delayed
30%, 6.3 h and
2.3peak
h, and reduced heat transfer by 27% and 4%, respectively [20]. A
time by 6.3 h and 2.3 h, and reduced heat transfer by 27% and 4%, respectively [20]. A PCMPCM based thermal energy
storage
based(PCMTS) as shown
thermal energy in Figure
storage 1E performed
(PCMTS) as shownoptimally
in Figurewhen placed inwards
1E performed nextwhen
optimally to theplaced
gypsum
wallboard, yielding an 11% reduction in heat flux in Kansas, USA [21]. A
inwards next to the gypsum wallboard, yielding an 11% reduction in heat flux in Kansas, USA [21].PCM configuration as shown
in A
Figure ◦
PCM 1F reported aas
configuration temperature
shown in Figure drop1Fofreported
7 C anda a time lag ofdrop
temperature 6 h at of maximum in the
7 °C and a time lagtypical
of 6
weather conditions
h at maximum of Tlemcen
in the (western
typical weather Algeria) of
conditions [22].
Tlemcen (western Algeria) [22].

Figure
Figure 1. 1.Previously
Previously investigated
investigated configurations of of
configurations integrating phase
integrating change
phase materials
change (PCMs)
materials in wall in
(PCMs)
sections,
wall sections,namely: (A) (A)
namely: a thin layerlayer
a thin of PCM between
of PCM two layers
between of insulation
two layers tested in
of insulation Quebec
tested City,
in Quebec
Canada [17]; (B) two layers of PCM impregnated wallboards applied as an exterior and an
City, Canada [17]; (B) two layers of PCM impregnated wallboards applied as an exterior and an interior interior
layer with thick insulation in-between, tested in a continental climate [18]; (C) a PCM and an air cavity
layer with thick insulation in-between, tested in a continental climate [18]; (C) a PCM and an air cavity
layer contained between two concrete blocks, tested in the cold climate of South East England, UK
layer contained between two concrete blocks, tested in the cold climate of South East England, UK [19];
[19]; (D) a PCM layer installed near the internal wallboard having multi-layers of insulation boards
(D) a PCM layer installed near the internal wallboard having multi-layers of insulation boards and
and sheathing towards the exterior, tested in Kansas, USA [20]; (E) various configurations of gypsum
sheathing towards the exterior, tested in Kansas, USA [20]; (E) various configurations of gypsum wallboard,
wallboard, cardboard, PCM layer, insulation layer and OSB layer, tested in Kansas, USA [21]; and (F)
cardboard, PCM layer, insulation layer and OSB layer, tested in Kansas, USA [21]; and (F) a simple wall
a simple wall assembly of brick and concrete, applying a PCM layer in-between, tested in West
assembly of brick and concrete, applying a PCM layer in-between, tested in West Algeria [22].
Algeria [22].
Sustainability 2016, 8, 1009 3 of 14

In the case where the cavity was filled in with microencapsulated PCM, conduction was found
to be the dominant mode of heat transfer during melting and solidification, which renders a drop in
sub-cooling effect compared to one free from PCMs [23]. Microencapsulated PCM-filled floor cavities
studied experimentally and numerically yielded a drop in indoor temperature swing by 1 ◦ C [24].
Integration of PCM in the building facades yielded an increased heat storage capacity of 2501.3 kJ
in 24 h, resulting in an increase in the indoor temperature in the colder climates of Coimbra [25].
Integration of PCM with air cavities in the attic roof employing a building-integrated photovoltaic
system reduced the roof-generated heating load by 30% in the winter and cooling load by 55% in the
summer [26]. For a wall outfitted with PCM, the space-cooling load was reduced by 10.4%, rendering
a 7.2% drop in annual energy consumption [27]. Cooling/heating performance of the PCM heavily
depends on its melting and solidification characteristics [28], placement [29], and the presence of an air
cavity adjacent to the PCM layer [30]. Some studies suggest that the PCM melting point should be
up to 3 ◦ C higher than the required indoor temperature [31]. Others recommend it to be near indoor
temperature to minimize thermal load [32]. Recent studies have linked PCM melting point to nighttime
ambient temperatures in order to regenerate the PCM passively at night in hot climates [33].
Summarizing the previous studies, PCM solidus temperature (Ts ) is desired to be higher than
the average ambient temperature during the nighttime of the summer months. This measure would
allow the PCM to release heat to ambient levels and get back to solid in critical summer conditions.
After reviewing Al Ain weather data from a climate consultant, Tamb-avg-nig in summer months was
found to be 34 ◦ C. The PCM properties were compared to determine an optimum PCM type for
the experiment. It was found that the paraffin waxes possess thermal conductivity (0.2 W/m·K)
comparable to fatty acids (0.14 W/m·K) and lower than salt hydrates (1.08 W/m·K); heat of fusion
(139 kJ/kg) comparable to salt hydrates (210 kJ/kg) and fatty acids (168 kJ/kg); density (0.88 kg/m3 )
comparable to fatty acids (0.89 kg/m3 ) and lower than salt hydrates (1.7 kg/m3 ). Paraffins showed
no sub-cooling, while the salt hydrates and fatty acids do show a stronger and a mild sub-cooling,
respectively. Paraffins were not corrosive to metals while salt hydrates and fatty acids do show
corrosion to the metals [33].
The current research investigates the effect of melting point and placement location of the PCM
on its cooling performance in the extremely hot weather conditions of UAE. Based on the criteria
suggested in the literature [34], a PCM was selected with the melting point of 37 ◦ C, being higher than
the average nighttime ambient temperature in summer (35.3 ◦ C) in Al Ain, UAE. A layer of the PCM is
added into a concrete block attached to a small, insulated cubic chamber representing the indoor space.

2. Materials and Methods

The research methodology entails the integration of a PCM into a concrete block in two arrangements
to study its cooling effect in extremely hot weather conditions. Heat stored in the melted PCM is
removed by natural convection through an air cavity. The cooling effect produced by the PCM is
quantified by temperature changes on the front and the back surfaces of the wall and ambient air
indoors. Cooling load saving achieved by inclusion of the PCM is represented by a reduced heat
transfer rate and a time lag in the peak indoor temperature.

2.1. Selection of Experimental Parameters

Three concrete blocks, one without PCM (block A) and the other two containing PCM (block B
and block C), are used in the experiment to compare their thermal performance as shown in Figure 2.
The thickness of the concrete, the PCM and the insulation layer is 2.5 cm, 5 cm and 1 cm, respectively.
A scaled down test chamber with dimensions of 40 × 40 × 40 cm3 is constructed behind the blocks
to mimic an indoor space. The test chambers are constructed from a 20 cm thick polystyrene sheet
to ensure adiabatic boundary conditions. The chambers are glued through the epoxy resin to ensure
impermeability. The total mass of polystyrene and epoxy is negligible compared to that of the concrete
blocks and the PCM; hence their thermal energy storage capacity is ignored. The set-up was tested
Sustainability 2016, 8, 1009 4 of 14
Sustainability 2016, 8, 1009 4 of 14
Sustainability 2016, 8, 1009 4 of 14
longitude: 55.74°E), with all the wall sections (with and without PCM) facing south direction. The
thickness of the PCM layer was determined based on solar◦heat gain during an average ◦ E), withsummer day.
longitude:
outdoors 55.74°E),
in Al with all
Ain, United the Emirates
Arab wall sections (with 24.21
(latitude: and without PCM) facing
N, longitude: 55.74south direction.
all theThe
wall
It was found that a 5 cm thick paraffin-based PCM layer was enough to absorb all of the incoming
thickness
sections (withofand
the PCM layer
without wasfacing
PCM) determined
south based on solar
direction. The heat gain during
thickness an average
of the PCM summer
layer was day.
determined
solar thermal
It was
energy at thethick
testedparaffin-based
site.
based on found thatgain
solar heat a 5 cm
during an average summer PCMday.
layerIt was
was enough to absorb
found that a 5 cmall of the
thick incoming
paraffin-based
solar thermal energy at the tested site.
PCM layer was enough to absorb all of the incoming solar thermal energy at the tested site.

Figure 2. Schematic
2.
Figure 2. Schematicdiagram
diagramand
andthe
theexperimental
experimental set-up of the
set-up of concreteblocks,
the concrete
concrete blocks,with
blocks, withconstruction
with construction
construction
layers and the test chamber.
chamber.
layers and the test chamber.

2.2.2.2.
2.2. Selection
Selection of of
Selection
of thethe
the Time forforExperimentation
Time
Time for Experimentation
Experimentation
The
TheTheyearly
yearly
yearly ambient temperature
ambienttemperature
ambient temperaturewas was reviewed
was reviewed for Al
reviewed for Al Ain.
Al Ain. Daytime
Ain. Daytimeand
Daytime andnighttime
and nighttimeaverage
nighttime average
average
ambient
ambient
ambient temperaturesfor
temperatures
temperatures fora
for a atypical
typicalday
typical dayof
day of each
of each month
each month are
month are presented
are presentedin
presented inFigure
in Figure3,3,
Figure 3,showing
showing
showing that thethe
that
that the
peak
peak summer
summer season
season spans
spans from
from May
May to
to August,
August, with
with similar
similar average
average
peak summer season spans from May to August, with similar average temperatures amongst the temperatures
temperatures amongst
amongst the four
the four
months
months
four months (~42
(~42 °C °C
(~42atat
◦Cday
day and
and
at day ~35
~35and °C~35
°C atatnight).
night). However,
◦ C atHowever, the
the nighttime
night). However,nighttime temperature
temperature
the nighttime ininAugust
August
temperature remained
inremained
August
slightly
slightly higher
higher than
than that
that ofof the
the rest
rest of
of the
the summer
summer months.
months. It
It was
was therefore
therefore decided
decided to conduct
to conduct thethe
remained slightly higher than that of the rest of the summer months. It was therefore decided to
experimentininAugust
experiment August tostudy study regeneration of of the
the PCM to
to solid
solid state atatthe
thewarmest night,
conduct the experiment to in Augustregeneration
to study regeneration PCM of the PCM state
to solid state warmest
at the warmest night,
representing
representing thethe worstcase.
worst case.ItItcan
can be seenthat that the
the weather
weather predominantly remains
remainshot forfor
the whole
night, representing the worst case.beItseen
can be seen that the predominantly
weather predominantly hot
remains the whole
hot for
year,
year, with
with average
average daytime
daytime temperatures
temperatures being
being above
above 27
27 °C,
°C, the
the upper
upper
◦ range
range ofof thermal
thermal comfort.
comfort.
the whole year, with average daytime temperatures being above 27 C, the upper range of thermal
Thus it was deduced that the findings for the extreme hot season would be applicable for the majority
Thus it was
comfort. Thusdeduced that the findings
it was deduced that the for the extreme
findings for the hot season
extreme hotwould
season bewould
applicable for the majority
be applicable for the
of the year.
of the year.
majority of the year.

Figure 3. The measured yearly ambient temperature for a typical day of each month represented by
average
Figure
Figure 3. daytime
3. The
The (Tamb-avg-day
measured
measured ) and
yearly
yearly averagetemperature
ambient
ambient nighttime (Tamb-avg-nig
temperature for
for a ) at theday
typical
a typical siteof
day of each
of the experiment.
each month represented
month represented by
by
amb-avg-day) and average nighttime (T(T
amb-avg-nig) at the
average daytime (Tamb-avg-day ) and average nighttime amb-avg-nig ) at site of the
the site of experiment.
the experiment.
Sustainability 2016, 8, 1009 5 of 14

2.3. Methodology
The paraffin-based commercial PCM RT42 was melted and filled in polymer containments
outfitted in an 2016,
Sustainability air 8,cavity
1009 within two concrete layers. A free space for PCM solidification 5 of 14 is left
on the upside of the containment intended to accommodate volume changes and release trapped air
during2.3. Methodology
successive melting and solidification cycles. The fabrication materials and their thermo-physical
propertiesTheare given in Tablecommercial
paraffin-based 1. PCM RT42 was melted and filled in polymer containments
outfitted in an air cavity within two concrete layers. A free space for PCM solidification is left on the
Table
upside of the 1. Thermo-physical
containment intended toproperties of thevolume
accommodate materials used and
changes in the experiments.
release trapped air during
successive melting and solidification cycles. The fabrication materials and their thermo-physical
properties Melting in Table 1. Latent Heat Specific Heat
are given Congealing Heat
Density Volume Flash
Properties Point Capacity Conductivity
Point (◦ C) (KJ/kg) (kg/m3 ) Expansion Point (◦ C)
(◦ C) (KJ/kg·K) (W/m·K)
Table 1. Thermo-physical properties of the materials used in the experiments.
PCM-RT42 [35] 38–42 42–37 145% ± 7.5% 2 0.2 880 s 760 l 12.5% 186
Polystyrene 240 Melting NA NA 1.3–1.5
Specific Heat 0.032
Heat NA NA Flash 350
Congealing Latent Heat Density Volume
Epoxy Resin
Properties 130 Point NA NA 1
Capacity 1.26
Conductivity 2.09 3 34 × 10−6 /K Point 350
Point (°C) (KJ/kg) (kg/m ) Expansion
(°C) (KJ/kg·K) (W/m·K) (°C)
Note: s solid; l liquid.
PCM-RT42 [35] 38–42 42–37 145% ± 7.5% 2 0.2 880 s 760 l 12.5% 186
Polystyrene 240 NA NA 1.3–1.5 0.032 NA NA 350
Epoxy Resin 130 NA NA 1 1.26 2.09 34 × 10−6/K 350
Multiple t-type copper–constantan thermocouples calibrated in an ice-bath with a measurement
Note: s solid; l liquid.
error of ±0.3 ◦ C were employed to m neasure temperature. The thermocouples were attached to
the blocksMultiple
(A, B and t-type
C) copper–constantan
at the front surface, thermocouples
the back surface calibratedand in inside
an ice-bath
the withtest achamber,
measurement as shown
in Figure 4. This figure shows the setup for block C, with the same setup used for thetorest
error of ±0.3 °C were employed to m neasure temperature. The thermocouples were attached the of the
blocks (A, B and C) at the front surface, the back surface and inside the test chamber, as shown in
blocks. The thermocouples were fixed with epoxy glue, shielded from direct irradiation, and monitored
Figure 4. This figure shows the setup for block C, with the same setup used for the rest of the blocks.
continuously to ensure fixation.
The thermocouples were fixedAwith
self-powered
epoxy glue,Apogeeshieldedpyranometer (model # SP-110
from direct irradiation, with 0.2 mV
and monitored
per Wm − 2 sensitivity ±5% calibration
and fixation. uncertainty) [36] was installed
continuously to ensure A self-powered Apogee pyranometer (model # to measure
SP-110 with 0.2global
mV solar
radiation
per Wmintensity (G). All
−2 sensitivity andof thecalibration
±5% sensors were connected
uncertainty) [36] wasto an NI compact
installed to measure Rioglobal
(NI cRIO-9073)
solar
data acquisition system
radiation intensity (G).having ansensors
All of the error were
of 0.03%connectedat roomto an temperature
NI compact Rio[37]. A weather
(NI cRIO-9073) datastation
(Starmeter-WS1041), having a temperature resolution of 0.1 C, a temperature accuracy of ±1 ◦ C,
acquisition system having an error of 0.03% at room temperature ◦ [37]. A weather station (Starmeter-
a windWS1041), having a temperature
speed measurement range of resolution
0–50 m/s, of 0.1
and°C,aawind temperature accuracy of of
speed resolution ±1 0.1
°C, m/s,
a wind speed
was installed
measurement range of 0–50 m/s, and a wind speed resolution of 0.1 m/s, was installed to measure
to measure ambient temperature (Tamb ) and wind speed (vw ). The temperatures were measured at the
ambient temperature (Tamb) and wind speed (vw). The temperatures were measured at the front
front surfaces of block A (T block
surfaces of block A (Tαf), αf
), block B (T ) and block C (T ), at the back surfaces of block A (Tαb ),
B (Tβf) andβfblock C (Tγf), at theγfback surfaces of block A (Tαb), block B
block B (T
(Tβb) βb ) and block C
and block C (Tγb), and(T γb inside the test the
), and inside test chamber
chamber for block A for(Tblock A (Tαi βi),) block
αi), block B (T
B (TCβi(T
and block ) and block C
γi). All
(Tγi ). All
the the temperatures
temperatures were were measured
measured at threeatlocations
three locations
and were and were averaged.
averaged. Every measurement
Every measurement was
was logged
logged with
with aatime-step
time-stepof 5of
min5 min
since since the weather
the weather is stable andis stable and novariation
no reasonable reasonable variation was
was observed
observedwithwith
lesserlesser
time-steps.
time-steps.

FigureFigure 4. Schematic
4. Schematic diagram
diagram of experimental
of the the experimental setup
setup showingthe
showing theconfiguration
configuration of
of block
block C
C (the
(the same
same set-up is used for block A and block B).
set-up is used for block A and block B).
Sustainability 2016, 8, 1009 6 of 14

3. Results
Experimental results of weather data, surface temperatures and indoor temperatures are presented
in the following section. Peak and average values of data from 14 days are summarized in Table 2
and their mean, standard deviation (SD) and coefficient of variation (CV) are calculated to evaluate
consistency and repeatability of the experiment. The results reveal that there is a repetition of the
weather and resulting temperatures across different days, with marginal variations in the magnitude.
In order to avoid repetition and ensure better readability, the results for one sample day (2 August 2015)
are discussed along with the average of the 14 days through transient curves in Figures 5–9 (A and B),
respectively. The weather data and temperatures for each day of the test duration are summarized in
Table 2.

3.1. Weather Data

Figure 5 presents global solar radiation intensity (G) and wind speed (vw ) for the selected day
and average of the 14 days of the experiment. Figure 5A depicts that for the sample day, the G
remained fairly stable, being 230 W/m2 at 07:00 and increasing afterwards with a stable gradient,
reaching the peak value of 944 W/m2 at 12:10. The G remained above 600 W/m2 for 6.3 h on the
selected day. A similar trend in G is observed for the average of the 14 days, with the start value of
205 W/m2 at 07:00 and the peak value of 930 W/m2 at 12:10 as shown in Figure 5B. Table 2 shows
that the peak time G value was the highest (958 W/m2 ) on day 11 and the lowest (907 W/m2 ) on
day three with the coefficient of variation (CV) of 2.5%, which highlights the stability of weather
conditions. The fluctuations in solar radiation profile are damped when presented as an average of
14 days. Total solar energy received by the concrete surface is calculated using Equation (1).
n
Qin = ∑ Gi × A × ϕ × ti (1)
i =1

where Qin is the solar energy absorbed by concrete blocks (Wh/day), G is the global solar radiation
intensity incident on the surface (W/m2 ), A is the surface area of the concrete block facing south
(40 × 40 cm2 ), ϕ is the absorptance of the concrete (0.65) and t is the time in hours. The Qin ranged
from 679 Wh/day to 740 Wh/day between the tested days with a mean value of 709 Wh/day and CV
of 1.9% as presented in Table 2.
On the sample day, vw was 2.8 m/s at 07:00. However, it kept increasing with a varying profile
afterwards, reaching the peak value of 7.2 m/s at 10:05, with a daily average value of 1.9 m/s. The vw
remained generally higher during daytime and dropped to 0 m/s at nighttime. The vw showed daily
fluctuations but exhibited a smooth profile when averaged for 14 days as shown in Figure 5B. The daily
maximum and daily average vw are presented in Table 2, with CV of 21.4% and 21.8%, respectively,
representing a variable wind speed.
The wind direction is considered to be at 90◦ to the normal of the wall and correlations are applied
pertaining to the wind speed in the range of 3 m/s to 6 m/s. Equations (2) and (3) are used to calculate
the heat transfer coefficient (hc ) by applying linear and power regression [38]. The hc is calculated
to be used in Equation (4) to determine heat loss from the outer surfaces to get an insight into the
wind-driven heat removal at the site. Due to a large difference in magnitude of the vw during nighttime
and daytime, the averages are calculated separately for day and night being 0.95 m/s and 2.28 m/s,
respectively. The hc remained, on average, at 9.6 W/m2 ·K and 14.1 W/m2 ·K for nighttime and daytime,
governing heat loss and the self-cooling mechanism.

hc = 3.3 vw + 6.5 (2)

hc = 9.5 v0.48
w (3)
Sustainability 2016, 8, 1009 7 of 14
Sustainability 2016, 8, 1009 7 of 14

Solar irradiance Wind speed Solar irradiance Wind speed

1000 8 1000 8

800 800
6 6
Intensity (W/m2)

Intensity (W/m2)
Velocity (m/s)

Velocity (m/s)
600 600
4 4
400 400

2 2
200 200

0 0 0 0
7:00 11:00 15:00 19:00 23:00 3:00 7:00 7:00 11:00 15:00 19:00 23:00 3:00 7:00
Time (hours) Time (hours)

(A) (B)

Figure5.5. Global
Global solar
solar radiation
radiationintensity (G)(G)
intensity and wind
and speed
wind (vw) (v
speed for )(A) the sample day and (B)
Figure w for (A) the sample day and
average of the 14 days.
(B) average of the 14 days.

3.2. Temperature Drop

3.2. Temperature Drop
The measured front surface temperatures of the reference block A (Tαf), block B (Tβf), block C (Tγf)
andThethemeasured front surface(Ttemperatures
ambient temperature of the reference block A (Tαf ),14block
amb) for the sample day and average of the daysBare ), block Cin
(Tβfpresented (Tγf )
and the ambient
Figures temperature
6A,B, respectively. (Tamb6A
Figure ) for the sample
shows that theday Tamband average
started at 35 of
°Ctheand14increased
days areafterwards
presented in
Figure 6A,B, respectively. Figure 6A shows that the T started at 35 ◦ C and increased afterwards
with a stable gradient to the peak value of 50.7 °C at 15:35. amb The Tamb stayed above 42 °C (upper limit
with a stable
of the gradientrange)
PCM melting to thefor peak
10.3value of 50.7 a◦ C
h, indicating at 15:35.time
sufficient Thefor Tamb
PCM stayed
to getabove
melted42
◦ C (upper limit
by the ambient
ofheat.
the PCM
The Tmelting
amb startedrange) for at
to drop 10.3 h, indicating
16:35 and reached a sufficient
the minimum timevalue
for PCM of 32to°Cget at melted
05:50. At bynighttime,
the ambient
heat.
the The Tamb started
Tamb stayed belowtoPCM dropsolidus
at 16:35temperature
and reached ofthe
37 °Cminimum
for 9.8 hvalue of 32 ◦time
(sufficient C at to05:50. At nighttime,
get solidified),
the Tambduring
while stayedthe below
daytimePCMitsolidus temperature
stayed above PCM liquidus ◦
of 37 Ctemperature
for 9.8 h (sufficient
of 42 °C for time to hget
10.3 solidified),
(sufficient
timeduring
while to get melted).
the daytime Thisitshows
stayedthat abovethe PCM
PCM liquidus
melting point is optimal
temperature of 42for◦ C
melting
for 10.3during daytime
h (sufficient time
toand
get solidification
melted). This during
shows nighttime.
that the PCM melting point is optimal for melting during daytime and
The effect
solidification of inclusion
during nighttime. of the PCM in the concrete blocks can be observed by comparing
temperatures at the front
The effect of inclusion of the surface of the
PCM three inblocks, A (Tαf), Bblocks
the concrete (Tβf) andcanC be(Tγf).observed
At the start,by the three
comparing
temperaturesatwere
temperatures almostsurface
the front the same (34 three
of the °C), however,
blocks, Aas(Tthe day progressed, the Tβf and the Tγf
αf ), B (T βf ) and C (Tγf ). At the start, the
showed a decrement and time lag compared to
◦ the T αf. The observed decrement and time lag in Tβf
three temperatures were almost the same (34 C), however, as the day progressed, the Tβf and the Tγf
and Tγfacan
showed be attributed
decrement and totimethelagcooling effect produced
compared to the Tαfby . Thetheobserved
PCM containeddecrement in theandblockstimeB and
lag inC, T
βf
respectively. A similar trend in the evolution of temperatures can be observed for the average of the
and Tγf can be attributed to the cooling effect produced by the PCM contained in the blocks B and C,
14 days, with relatively smoother curves as shown in Figure 6B. The temperature drop yielded by
respectively. A similar trend in the evolution of temperatures can be observed for the average of the
block B and block C (Tβf and Tγf) compared to the reference block A (Tαf) is presented in the inset
14 days, with relatively smoother curves as shown in Figure 6B. The temperature drop yielded by block
windows of Figure 6A,B. The temperature drop is negligible at the start of the experiment, however,
B and block C (Tβf and Tγf ) compared to the reference block A (Tαf ) is presented in the inset windows
it increased gradually reaching the peak value of 2.3 °C and 4.1 °C for blocks B and C, respectively at
of15:10.
FigureBlock
6A,B.CThe temperature
achieved higherdrop is negligible
cooling during daytimeat the start of the experiment,
compared to block B mainly however, dueit increased
to the
gradually reaching the peak value of 2.3 ◦ C and 4.1 ◦ C for blocks B and C, respectively at 15:10.
placement location of the PCM. In the case of block C, the PCM layer was placed closer to the outer
Block C achieved higher cooling during daytime compared to block
concrete layer, while in the case of block B, the PCM was placed closer to the inner concrete layer. B mainly due to the placement
location
Both the ofarrangements
the PCM. In the havecase of block
an air cavity C, in the PCM layer
proximity was placed
for natural closerThis
ventilation. to the outer concrete
highlights that
layer, while of
placement inthe
thePCM
case layer
of blockcan be B, an
theimportant
PCM was placed closer
consideration to the
while inner concrete
integrating PCM into layer. Both the
buildings,
arrangements
depending onhave an airheat
whether cavity
needs in to
proximity
be retained for(cold
natural ventilation.
climate) or removed This (hot
highlights
climate) that placement
[20,28]. After of
the PCM layer can be an important consideration while integrating
16:00, the temperature difference started decreasing and became negative at 22:20, as shown in the PCM into buildings, depending
onwindow
whethergraph
heat needs to be6A,B.
of Figure retainedThe (cold
window climate)
graphsor removed
present the (hotdifference
climate) [20,28]. Aftersurface
of the front 16:00, the
temperatures
temperature of block Bstarted
difference (Diff Tβfdecreasing
= Tαf − Tβf) and andCbecame
(Diff Tγf =negative
Tαf − Tγf) atto 22:20,
those ofasthe reference
shown in theblock A.
window
The negative temperature drop at night shows a slower self-cooling
graph of Figure 6A,B. The window graphs present the difference of the front surface temperatures of of blocks B and C (due to higher
heatBretention)
block (Diff Tβf =compared
Tαf − Tβf )toand block A [39].
C (Diff TγfHeat
= Tαfabsorbed
− Tγf ) toin the PCM
those of thecan be circulated
reference block A. indoors in a
The negative
colder climate
temperature drop(oratwinter
night season)
shows atoslower reduceself-cooling
heating load of[40].
blocksIn aBhotandclimate,
C (due the challenge
to higher heatposed is
retention)
to discard the heat absorbed by the PCM to regenerate the PCM to
compared to block A [39]. Heat absorbed in the PCM can be circulated indoors in a colder climate solid and avoid overheating in the
(orbuilding
winter [41].
season) to reduce heating load [40]. In a hot climate, the challenge posed is to discard the
heat absorbed by the PCM to regenerate the PCM to solid and avoid overheating in the building [41].
Sustainability 2016, 8, 1009 8 of 14
Sustainability 2016, 8, 1009 8 of 14

Figure 6. Evolution of the front surface temperature of reference block A (T ), block B (T ) and block
Figure 6. Evolution of the front surface temperature of reference block A (Tαfαf), block B (Tβf
βf) and block
C (Tγf ), along with Tamb for (A) the sample day and (B) average of the 14 days, while the difference
C (Tγf), along with Tamb for (A) the sample day and (B) average of the 14 days, while the difference of
of the front surface temperatures of blocks B and C from the reference block A are presented in the
the front surface temperatures of blocks B and C from the reference block A are presented in the
corresponding inset graphs.
corresponding inset graphs.

Heat absorbed
Heat absorbedininthe thePCM PCM resulted
resulted in reduced
in reduced heat transfer to the interior
heat transfer layers, which
to the interior layers, rendered
which
a drop in the back surface temperatures
rendered a drop in the back surface temperatures of blocks of blocks B (T ) and C
βb B (Tβb) and (T ) compared to
γb C (Tγb) compared to block block A (TαbA),
presented in Figure
(Tαb), presented 7. The7.TThe
in Figure αb , TTβb αb,and Tγb T
Tβb and were
γb were33 ◦33C,°C,33 ◦33C °C
andand 36 36◦ C, respectively, at the start of
°C, respectively, at the start
thethe
of experiment,
experiment, asasshown
shown ininFigure
Figure7A. 7A.TheThethree
threetemperatures
temperaturesdiffereddifferedin inthe
the subsequent
subsequent transient
transient
◦ ◦ ◦
temperature rise,
temperature rise,with withthethepeakpeakvaluesvalues of of
52.4 52.4 C, 50.7
°C, 50.7 °C and C and
48.3 48.3 C, respectively.
°C, respectively. The Tγb wasTγb
The was
higher
higher at the start of the experiment due to higher heat retention
at the start of the experiment due to higher heat retention in block C compared to blocks A and B [40] in block C compared to blocks A
and B [40] on the previous night. The window graphs in Figure
on the previous night. The window graphs in Figure 7 present the difference of the back surface 7 present the difference of the back
surface temperatures
temperatures of blocksofBblocks (Diff TB = Tαb T−βb
βb (Diff Tβb=) T
andαb − C T(Diff
βb ) and
Tγb =CT(Diff
αb − T Tγbγb) with − Tγb ) to
= Tαbrespect with
the respect
reference to
the reference block A. A temperature drop of 4.5 ◦ C at the back surface is achieved at the peak time
block A. A temperature drop of 4.5 °C at the back surface is achieved at the peak time in blocks B and
in compared
C blocks B and to blockC compared to blocktemperature
A. The average A. The average temperature
rise for the 14 daysrise for the 14
presented days presented
in Figure 7B showsin a
Figure 7B shows a similar profile as well. It is observed that
similar profile as well. It is observed that block C generally achieved a higher temperature drop block C generally achieved a higher
temperature
during daytime drop (5 during
°C at the daytime (5 ◦ C at the
peak) compared topeak)
block compared
B (4 °C at the to block (4 ◦ C at the
peak),Bhowever, thepeak),
trend however,
reversed
thenighttime.
at trend reversed The lowerat nighttime.
temperature The lower temperature
achieved by blockachievedB at night by can
block beBexplained
at night can bybetheexplained
relative
positioning of the insulation, the PCM and the concrete layers in the two blocks. In the case of In
by the relative positioning of the insulation, the PCM and the concrete layers in the two blocks. the
block
case of block B, the insulation layer adjacent to the indoor air retained
B, the insulation layer adjacent to the indoor air retained minimum heat due to a lesser thermal mass minimum heat due to a lesser
thermal
and masstransmits
thereby and thereby transmits
more heat tomore indoorsheatduring
to indoors the during
daytime, theyielding
daytime,less yielding less temperature
temperature drop. At
drop. At nighttime, the opposite happened, as the insulation layer
nighttime, the opposite happened, as the insulation layer retained the least amount of heat to transmit retained the least amount of heat to
transmit thereby
indoors, indoors, achieving
thereby achieving higher temperature
higher temperature drop. Indrop. blockInC,block C, the concrete
the concrete layer adjacent
layer adjacent to the
to the indoors retained more heat during daytime and reduced
indoors retained more heat during daytime and reduced heat transmission indoors, achieving higher heat transmission indoors, achieving
higher temperature
temperature drop. Atdrop. night,At night, however,
however, the storedthe stored
heat heat wastoreleased
was released the indoors, to thethereby
indoors, thereby
increasing
increasing
indoors indoors temperature
temperature and yieldingand yielding
a negative a negativedifference
temperature temperature compareddifference
to the compared
reference.toThis, the
reference. This, therefore, emphasizes that although block C achieved
therefore, emphasizes that although block C achieved better cooling during daytime and at peak, it better cooling during daytime
and at peak,
cannot it cannot
sufficiently sufficiently
discard the absorbed discard theto
heat absorbed
the outdoor heatambient
to the outdoor
through ambient
naturalthrough
convection natural
and
convection
would needand would need
additional additional
mechanical mechanical
ventilation ventilation
for better overallfor better overall performance.
performance.
The reduced
The reduced back back surface
surface temperatures
temperatures resulted resulted in in aa drop
drop in in indoor
indoor temperature
temperature in in the
the test
test
chambers BB (T
chambers (Tβiβi) )and
andCC(T(T γi ),
γi), compared
compared to tothethe testtest chamber
chamber A (T Aαi),(Tasαi ),shown
as shown in Figure
in Figure 8A,B.8A,B.The
The
windowwindow graphs graphs in Figure
in Figure 8 present 8 present the difference
the difference of the indoor
of the indoor temperaturestemperatures
of chambers of chambers
B (Diff TB βi
(Diff T
= Tαi − T = T
βiβi) and −
αi C (DiffT ) and C (Diff
βi Tγi = Tαi − Tγi) with T γi = T
respect
αi − T to) with respect to the reference.
γi the reference. At the start, the temperature At the start, the
in the
temperature
test chamber in C the
(Tγi)testwaschamber
higher than C (Tγi ) was
that higher
of the testthan that ofAthe
chambers (Tαitest
) and chambers A (Tαi )due
B (Tβi) mainly andto B heat
(Tβi )
mainly due to heat transmitted by the concrete layer during
transmitted by the concrete layer during the previous night. It was observed that chambers B and the previous night. It was observed thatC
started to lag in temperature by 0.3 h and 1 h, respectively, compared to chamber A, with the peak
values of 51.6 °C, 50.8 °C and 49.4 °C, respectively. The temperature drop in chambers B and C with
Sustainability 2016, 8, 1009 9 of 14

chambers B and C started to lag in temperature by 0.3 h and 1 h, respectively, compared to chamber A,
with the peak values of 51.6 ◦ C, 50.8 ◦ C and 49.4 ◦ C, respectively. The temperature drop in chambers B
Sustainability 2016, 8, 1009 9 of 14
and Sustainability
C with respect 2016, 8, to the reference chamber A is plotted in inset Figure 8A,B. According to 9the
1009 of 14inset
graph of Figure 8B, the difference was negative at the start of the experiment and
respect to the reference chamber A is plotted in inset Figure 8A,B. According to the inset graph of became positive
respect
at 08:50 to
for8B, the of
both reference chamber A is Chamber
the configurations. plotted in inset Figure 8A,B. According to the inset graph of
Figure the difference was negative at the startBofyielded generally
the experiment anda lower
becametemperature drop
positive at 08:50 forwith
Figure 8B, the difference was negative at the start of the experiment and became positive at 08:50 for
a maximum
both of the value of 1.4 ◦ C, nevertheless,
configurations. it stayed
Chamber B yielded positive
generally for most
a lower of the day
temperature and
drop night.
with Chamber C
a maximum
both of the configurations. Chamber B yielded generally a lower◦temperature drop with a maximum
rendered
value aofhigher
1.4 °C,temperature
nevertheless, drop, with
it stayed the peak
positive valueofofthe
for most 3.1day
C,and
however, it stayedCpositive
night. Chamber rendered mainly
a
value of 1.4 °C, nevertheless, it stayed positive for most of the day and night. Chamber C rendered a
during thetemperature
higher daytime updrop, to 12with
h. The configuration
the peak of°C,
value of 3.1 chambers
however,Bitand C achieved
stayed a 5.4%during
positive mainly and 8.5%
higher temperature drop, with the peak value of 3.1 °C, however, it stayed positive mainly during
the cooling
higher daytimeeffectup toindoors
12 h. The
onconfiguration
average, of chambers
respectively, B and C achieved
compared to the a 5.4% and
reference 8.5% higher
chamber A during
the daytime up to 12 h. The configuration of chambers B and C achieved a 5.4% and 8.5% higher
cooling effect indoors on average, respectively, compared to the reference chamber A during the daytime.
the daytime.
cooling effect indoors on average, respectively, compared to the reference chamber A during the daytime.

Figure 7. Evolution
7. Evolution of the
of of
the back
back surface temperatures of
surface of reference block AA(T(T
αb), block B (T ) and
Figure
Figure 7. Evolution the back surfacetemperatures
temperatures of the referenceblock
the reference blockA ), block
(Tαb),αbblock B (TBβbβb(T βb ) and
) and
blockblock
C (TCγb(T
) γb) for
for (A)(A)
thethe sampleday
sample dayand
and(B)
(B) average
average ofof the
the14
14days,
days,while
while thethe
difference
difference of the
of backback
the
block C (Tγb) for (A) the sample day and (B) average of the 14 days, while the difference of the back
surface
surface temperatures
temperatures of test blocks
of test B and BB and C from the reference block are in presented in the
surface temperatures of blocks
test blocks C from
and Cthefrom
reference block are block
the reference presented the corresponding
are presented in the
corresponding
insetcorresponding
graphs. inset graphs.
inset graphs.

Figure 8. Evolution
8. Evolution of the
of of
the indoor temperaturefor
indoor for the reference
reference chamber AA(T(T
αi), chamber B (Tβi) and
Figure
Figure 8. Evolution the indoortemperature
temperature for the chamberA
the reference chamber ), chamber
(Tαi),αichamber Bβi(T
B (T βi ) and
) and
chamber
chamber C (TC (T
) γi) for (A) the sample day and (B) average of the 14 days while the difference of the
for (A) the sample day and (B) average of the 14 days while the difference of the
chamber Cγi(Tγi) for (A) the sample day and (B) average of the 14 days while the difference of the
indoor temperatures of the test chambers B and C from the reference chamber are presented in the
indoor temperatures
indoor temperatures of of
the test
the testchambers
chambers BB and
and C from
from the
thereference
referencechamber
chamber areare presented
presented in the
in the
corresponding inset graphs.
corresponding inset
corresponding graphs.
inset graphs.

Table 2 contains a summary of the solar radiation intensity (G), wind speed (vw), ambient
Table
Table 2 contains
2 contains a summaryofofthe
a summary thesolar
solar radiation
radiation intensity (G), wind
windspeed (vw(v
), ambient
temperature (Tamb), temperatures at the front surfaces (Tαfintensity
, Tβf and T(G), speed
γf), temperatures at w ), ambient
the back
temperature (Tamb), temperatures at the front surfaces (Tαf, Tβf and Tγf), temperatures at the back
temperature (T
surfaces (Tαb,amb ), temperatures at the front surfaces (T , T and T
Tβb and Tγb) and air temperature indoors (Tαi, TβiαfandβfTγi) for the γf 14 days of the experimentback
), temperatures at the
surfaces (Tαb, Tβb and Tγb) and air temperature indoors (Tαi, Tβi and Tγi) for the 14 days of the experiment
surfaces (T
with mean, , T and
standard
αb standard
βb T ) and
deviation
γb air temperature indoors (T
(SD) and coefficient of variation , T
(CV).
αi (CV).
βi and Tγi ) for the 14 days of the
with mean, deviation (SD) and coefficient of variation
experiment with mean, standard deviation (SD) and coefficient of variation (CV).
Sustainability 2016, 8, 1009 10 of 14

Table 2. Summary of the weather data, temperatures of the blocks A, B and C and the indoor temperatures for the consecutive 14 days with statistical analysis.

Days 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Mean SD 1 * CV 2 *
G Total (Wh/day) 717 713 679 713 740 722 704 727 709 705 727 717 719 711 709 14 1.9%
Max. (Wm−2 ) 944 917 907 922 980 950 919 975 907 914 958 950 939 934 944 23 2.5%
Max. 7.2 6.1 5.2 5.3 4.1 5.3 5.3 3.6 3.4 3.3 3.5 5.6 5.7 5.1 5.2 1.1 21.4%
vw (m/s)
Avg. 1.9 1.6 2.1 2.3 1.8 1.8 1.6 1.1 1.2 1.1 1.5 2.0 1.9 1.2 1.7 0.4 21.8%
Max. 50.7 50.6 51.1 48.9 48.8 48.2 48.8 50.7 50.6 50.6 49.7 49.1 49.7 51.0 49.6 0.9 1.9%
Tamb (◦ C)
Min. 31.9 32.3 31.5 30.9 31.1 31.2 33.1 33.0 32.9 33.1 34.0 33.9 33.7 33.2 32.4 1.0 3.2%
Avg. 40.6 40.5 39.7 38.5 38.5 38.2 40.0 41.2 40.8 41.1 40.9 40.3 40.3 41.2 39.7 1.0 2.5%
Max. 58.0 58.2 58.1 56.8 56.5 56.4 56.6 59.3 57.7 58.9 58.0 57.0 57.9 59.9 58.1 1.0 1.8%
Tαf (◦ C)
Avg. 42.6 43.1 42.7 41.5 41.3 41.4 42.6 43.5 43.2 43.9 43.7 43.0 42.9 43.7 42.6 0.8 1.9%
Max. 55.9 55.8 56.1 54.3 54.0 53.8 54.3 57.1 55.5 56.9 56.2 55.0 55.6 57.8 55.8 1.2 2.1%
Tβf (◦ C) Avg. 42.3 42.7 42.4 41.0 40.8 40.8 42.3 43.1 42.7 43.4 43.3 42.5 42.5 43.2 42.1 0.9 2.1%
Diff. 2.3 2.5 2.2 2.8 2.5 2.7 2.5 2.6 2.2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.6 2.3 2.5 0.2 8.3%
Max. 55.6 55.4 56.4 54.2 54.5 53.8 54.9 56.8 56.5 57.7 56.7 56.4 56.3 58.6 56.2 1.3 2.3%
Tγf (◦ C) Avg. 42.1 42.4 41.8 40.7 40.5 40.5 42.0 42.9 42.6 43.4 43.2 42.4 42.3 43.4 41.9 1.0 2.3%
Diff 4.1 4.3 3.9 4.5 4.1 4.7 4.7 4.1 3.3 4.2 3.7 3.6 3.7 3.6 4.0 0.4 10.2%
Max. 52.4 52.7 52.8 51.5 50.7 50.9 51.1 53.2 52.0 53.4 52.7 51.4 52.1 54.3 52.5 1.0 1.9%
Tαb (◦ C)
Avg. 41.6 41.9 41.4 40.2 40.1 40.0 41.5 42.5 42.1 42.6 42.7 41.9 41.8 42.6 41.1 0.9 2.2%
Max. 50.7 50.4 51.0 49.2 48.4 48.3 48.6 51.2 50.2 50.9 50.3 49.3 49.7 51.4 49.9 1.0 2.0%
Tβb (◦ C) Avg. 40.5 40.8 40.1 38.8 38.8 38.6 40.3 41.4 41.1 41.5 41.3 40.6 40.6 41.4 40 1.0 2.4%
Diff. 4.5 4.2 4.6 4.6 4.6 5.6 4.0 5.0 4.2 4.4 4.3 4.0 4.3 5.0 4.6 0.4 9.3%
Max. 48.3 48.3 48.0 46.5 45.9 45.4 46.3 47.9 47.6 47.3 47.3 47.0 47.3 49.1 47.2 1.0 2.1%
Tγb (◦ C) Avg. 41.5 41.7 41.0 39.7 39.6 39.2 40.7 41.6 41.1 41.3 41.6 41.0 41.2 42.1 40.6 0.8 2%
Diff 4.5 4.7 5.3 5.2 5.0 5.7 5.2 5.8 4.7 6.3 5.6 4.6 5.1 5.6 5.1 0.5 9.7%
Max. 51.6 51.3 51.9 50.4 49.5 49.6 50.0 52.7 51.6 52.2 51.6 50.6 50.8 53.1 51.3 1.1 2.1%
Tαi (◦ C)
Avg. 40.9 41.1 40.5 39.4 39.3 39.2 40.7 41.8 41.6 42.0 41.9 41.1 41.1 41.9 40.6 0.9 2.3%
Max. 50.8 50.6 51.1 49.4 48.4 48.3 48.7 51.2 50.4 51.1 50.3 49.4 49.6 51.3 49.8 1.0 2.0%
Tβi (◦ C) Avg. 40.4 40.7 40.0 38.7 38.7 38.5 40.1 41.3 41.0 41.3 41.2 40.5 40.5 41.3 39.9 1.0 2.4%
Diff. 1.7 1.6 1.6 1.9 1.8 2.1 1.7 2.4 2.1 2.8 1.9 2.1 2.1 2.5 2.2 0.3 15.5%
Max. 49.4 49.3 49.0 47.7 46.8 46.5 47.3 49.2 48.6 48.2 48.3 47.9 48.0 49.6 48 1.0 2.0%
Tγi (◦ C) Avg. 40.9 41.2 40.4 39.1 39.0 38.8 40.3 41.4 41.1 41.3 41.4 40.7 40.8 41.6 40.2 0.9 2.3%
Diff 3.3 3.0 3.8 3.4 3.7 3.9 3.4 4.2 3.7 4.4 3.9 3.2 3.5 3.9 3.7 0.4 10.2%
1 *—Population standard deviation; 2 *—coefficient of variation.
Sustainability 2016, 8, 1009 11 of 14

Sustainability 2016, 8, 1009 11 of 14

3.3. Reduction in Heat Gain
3.3. Reduction in HeatinGain
The reduction heat gain by the blocks containing PCM was calculated by comparing the
resulting indoor temperatures
The reduction in heat gain by by
each configuration
the given by
blocks containing PCMEquation (4).
was calculated by comparing the
resulting indoor temperatures by each configuration given by Equation (4).
Q = hc × A × ( Tb − Ti ) (4)
=ℎ × ×( − ) (4)
where Q is the heat transfer rate from the back surface to indoors, h is the convective heat transfer
where Q is the heat transfer rate from the back surface to indoors, hcc is the convective heat transfer
coefficient (between the back surface and the indoors in this case), T is the back surface temperature
coefficient (between the back surface and the indoors in this case), Tbb is the back surface temperature
and T is the indoor air temperature. The hc value at the back surface facing indoors was found to
and Tii is the 2indoor air temperature. The hc value at the back surface facing indoors was found to be
be 6.5 W/m ·K, calculated by assuming free cooling, employing zero air velocity in Equation (2).
6.5 W/m2·K, calculated by assuming free cooling, employing zero air velocity in Equation (2). Cooling
Cooling load saving is calculated by the difference of heat transfer rates between the back surface
load saving is calculated by the difference of heat transfer rates between the back surface and the
and the indoors for the reference (A) and the blocks containing the PCM (B and C). Figure 9 shows
indoors for the reference (A) and the blocks containing the PCM (B and C). Figure 9 shows that block
that block B, with the PCM layer closer to the interior, achieves a higher reduction in heat transfer
B, with the PCM layer closer to the interior, achieves a higher reduction in heat transfer compared to
compared to block C, with the PCM closer to the outer layer. The reduction in the heat transfer on
block C, with the PCM closer2 to the outer layer. The reduction in the heat transfer on 24 h balance
24 h balance was 137 Wh/m and 32 Wh/m2 for block B the block C, respectively. The heat gain
was 137 Wh/m2 and 32 Wh/m2 for block B the block C, respectively. The heat gain reduction was 44%
reduction was 44% by the block B and 10.5% by the block C on 24 h basis compared to the block A.
by the block B and 10.5% by the block C on 24 h basis compared to the block A. The results were
The results were found to be in agreement with the previously reported literature findings [26,27].
found to be in agreement with the previously reported literature findings [26,27]. In [26], a PCM-
In [26], a PCM-integrated, building-integrated photovoltaic system reduced roof-generated heating
integrated, building-integrated photovoltaic system reduced roof-generated heating loads by 30% in
loads by 30% in the winter and cooling load by 55% in the summer. In [27], a wall outfitted with a PCM
the winter and cooling load by 55% in the summer. In [27], a wall outfitted with a PCM reduced
reduced space-cooling load by 10.4%.
space-cooling load by 10.4%.

Figure 9.
Figure Average cooling
9. Average cooling load
load reduction
reduction achieved
achieved by
by block
block B
B and
and block
block C
C compared
compared to
to the
the reference
reference
block A
block A for
for 24
24 h
h and
and for
for daytime
daytime only.
only.

Research Limitations
3.4. Research
The research and findings have following limitations:

(1)
(1) The
The experiments were carried
experiments were carriedoutoutininthe
thepeak
peak summer
summer conditions
conditions andand
are are limited
limited to 14todays
14 days
only.
only. Although the prevalent weather in Al Ain is hot, there are months that are mild
Although the prevalent weather in Al Ain is hot, there are months that are mild to cool. Therefore, to cool.
Therefore,
the net heatthe netprevented
gain heat gain in prevented
the peak ofin the peak
summer of summer
is expected is expected
to drop to drop for
when aggregated when
the
aggregated
whole year.for the whole year.
(2)
(2) The
Theexperiments
experimentswerewere conducted
conducted without
without studying
studying leakage
leakage of
of the
the PCM
PCM over
over repeated
repeated cycles
cycles at
at
the time scale of a year. This will be an important consideration for future
the time scale of a year. This will be an important consideration for future research. research.
(3) Natural or forced convection heat removal from the air cavity is not incorporated in the research,
(3) Natural or forced convection heat removal from the air cavity is not incorporated in the research,
undermining the PCM re-solidification.
undermining the PCM re-solidification.
(4) The scale of the experiment is very small and would be less representative of a building.
(4) The scale of the experiment is very small and would be less representative of a building.
(5) The authors plan to address all the stated limitations in future research.
(5) The authors plan to address all the stated limitations in future research.
4. Conclusions
Concrete blocks containing PCM (blocks B and C) in two different arrangements—by relocating
PCM and insulation layers—were investigated to compare their cooling performance with a block
Sustainability 2016, 8, 1009 12 of 14

4. Conclusions
Concrete blocks containing PCM (blocks B and C) in two different arrangements—by relocating
PCM and insulation layers—were investigated to compare their cooling performance with a block
without PCM (the block A). The inclusion of the PCM reduced heat transmission to indoors by 44%
(block B) and 10.5% (block C) at 24 h energy balance and delayed the peak temperature by 2.6 h at the
maximum. Block B remained cooler compared to the reference block A during daytime and most of
the nighttime. Block C remained cooler than the reference block A during daytime and warmer during
nighttime. Both the PCM inclusion arrangements, however, prevented 137 Wh/m2 and 32 Wh/m2
heat transmission based on 24 h energy balance for block B and block C, respectively. In the current
research, the PCM is passively cooled by an airflow cavity without mechanical ventilation. The current
research finds that passive heat removal from PCM through natural ventilation alone is insufficient in
hot climates even with a higher PCM solidus temperature (37 ◦ C), which limits the PCM performance.
Future research will investigate active means for removing the heat retained in the PCM. The design
will involve linking the air stream through the cavity wall containing PCM to the air circuitry in the air
conditioning system.

Acknowledgments: The authors would like to express their appreciation to United Arab Emirates University
(UAEU) for funding the research through National Research Foundation (NRF-31N103) and Program for Advanced
Research (31N204). The authors would also extend thanks to the Faculty of Engineering at UAE University for the
support to conduct experimentation.
Author Contributions: Ahmad Hasan and Khaled A. Al-Sallal conceived and designed the experiments;
Ahmad Hasan and Hamza Alnoman performed the experiments; Yasir Rashid analyzed the data; Shaimaa Abdelbaqi
contributed in data acquisition; Yasir Rashid wrote the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature

A Surface area of the concrete block (m2 )

CV Coefficient of variation (%)
G Global solar radiation intensity incident on the surface (W/m2 )
hc Convective heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 ·K)
HVAC Heating, ventilation & air conditioning
m Mass of the concrete block (kg)
PCM Phase change material
Q Heat transfer rate (W/m2 )
Qin Incident solar energy (Wh/m2 )
SD Population standard deviation
T Temperature (◦ C)
t time (h)
vw Wind speed (m/s)
Subscripts
α Reference block A
β Block B
γ Block C
f Front surface
b Back surface
i Indoor air

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