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AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF CORROSION INHIBITOR
PERFORMANCE AND SLUG FLOW CHARACTERISTICS IN
HORIZONTAL MULTIPHASE PIPELINES/
A Thesis Presented to
The Faculty of the Russ College of Engineering and Technology
Ohio University
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirement for the Degree
Master of Science
by
-
Richard Joseph Menezes/
November, 1994
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I take this opportunity to express my sincere gratitude and appreciation to my advisor, Dr.
Paul Jepson, for his encouragement, patience, and guidance during the course of this project.
I would like to thank my laboratory co-workers and friends for their help and support
during my stay here at Ohio University.
Finally, I would like to thank my parents, Noel, Jenny, Rupa, and my friends in Baroda,
whose emotional support and encouragement made this degree possible.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.

...
LISTOFFIGURES ......................................... m
1. INTRODUCTION ........
2. LITERATURE REVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1 Flow Regimes and Slug How . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 Corrosion Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3 Measurement Techniques and Experimental Systems . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.4 Predictive Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.5 Corrosion Inhibition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND PROCEDURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

3.1 Description of the Flow Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.2 Description of the Test Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.3 Measurement Techniques and Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.3.1 Measurement Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.3.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.4 Test Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

4.1 Fluids without Corrosion Inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.1.1 Corrosion Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.1.2 Void Fraction / Oil Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.1.3 Pressure Drop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.1.4 Shear Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.1.5 Comparison between other Models and Data . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.2 Fluids with Corrosion Inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.2.1 Visual Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.2.2 Corrosion Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.2.3 Void Fraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.2.4 Pressure Drop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.2.5 Shear Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5. CONCLUSIONS ........................................... 86
6. REFERENCES ......................................... 89
7. APPENDMA .............................................. 94
ii
LIST OF TABLES
1. Table 3.1. List of Inhibitors used ................................ 31
2. Table 4.1. Corrosion rate data for mixtures of Brit01 50T oil and salt water ... 51
3. Table 4.2. Void fraction data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

4. Table 4.3. Average void fraction across the pipe diameter ............... 59
5 . Table 4.4. Variation of oil fraction across the pipe diameter ............. 63
6. Table 4.5. Pressure drop across the slug ........................... 65
7 . Table 4.6. Corrosion rate data for corrosion inhibitors .................. 71
8. Table 4.7. Void fraction data for corrosion inhibitors .................. 78
9. Table 4.8. Pressure drop data for corrosion inhibitors .................. 82

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
Flow patterns in horizontal pipelines (Water-Gas) ................ 6
Flow regime map for two-phase carbon-dioxide system. in a 10 cm pipe 7
Schematic of slug unit ................................... 8
Comparison between a real moving slug and a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

stationary hydraulic jump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Hydraulic jumps in open channel flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Layout of the experimental system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Schematic of test section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Variation of corrosion rate with time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Plot of corrosion rate vs velocity. at the bottom of the pipe. . . . . . . . . . . .
for full pipe flow of Brit01 50T / Saltwater mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Plot of corrosion rate vs % oil fraction. at the bottom of the pipe. . . . . . . .

for slug flow of Brit01 50T / Saltwater mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Plot corrosion rate vs Froude number. at the bottom of the pipe. . . . . . . . .

Plot of corrosion rate vs % oil. at the top of the pipe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Plot of corrosion rate vs Froude number. at the top of the pipe. . . . . . . .

Void fraction profile at 30 cm and 60 cm within the slug. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

for slug flow of 20% Brit01 50T / 80% Saltwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60


4.8a Oil fraction profile at 30 cm and 60 cm within the slug, . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
for slug flow of 20% Britol 50T / 80% Saltwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.8b Oil fraction profile at 30 cm and 60 cm within the slug, . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

for slug flow of 60% Britol 50T / 40% Saltwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.9a,b Pressure drop at 30 cm and 60 cm across the slug,

for slug flow of Britol 50T / Saltwater mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.10 Comparison between this study, and other predictive models . . . . . . . . 67
4.11 Comparison of corrosion rates, between Brit01 50T / LVT200 oils, . . . . . .

for slug flow at various oil / water compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.12a,b Comparison of void fraction profiles at 30 cm and 60 cm . . . . . . . . . . . .

within the slug for Britol 50T and LVT200 oils, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.13a,b Comparison of pressure drop at 30 cm and 60 cm across the slug . . . . . . .

for Britol 50T and LVT2OO oils, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.14 Change in corrosion rate with time on the addition of . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

50 ppm of inhibitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.15 Formation of protective film on coupon at lower Froude numbers . . . . 74
4.16 Formation of protective film on coupon at lower Froude numbers . . . . 74
4.17a,b Bubble collapse regions on coupon surface at higher Froude numbers . . 75
4.18a,b,c Effect of drag reducing agents on surface of coupon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

under slug flow conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.19a,b Effect of inhibitors on void fraction profiles, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

for 20% LVT200 / 80% Saltwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.19c,d Effect of inhibitors on void fraction profiles, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.20a,b Effect of inhibitors on pressure drop across the slug, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.20c,d Effect of inhibitors on pressure drop across the slug, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Internal corrosion of carbon-steel pipelines is a common problem encountered in
oil and gas production. This results in economic losses worth millions of dollars in
downtime, loss of production, overdesign, loss of efficiency and contamination of the oil-
gas mixture.
Many oil wells are located in remote areas (e.g. Alaska or subsea). For offshore
installations, a platform is often used to separate the oil and gas. They are then
transported onshore in single phase pipelines. However, many marginal oil fields are now
being discovered, and it is often uneconomical for each field to have its own separation
facility. Moreover, as the well gets depleted, enhanced oil recovery methods are used.
These include the injection of carbon dioxide and seawater into the reservoir. This helps
maintain the pressure within the reservoir. The water fraction can be as high as 80%.
Also, many of the existing oil fields are in decline and have platforms with spare
processing capacity. It often becomes practical to transport the oil and gas mixture in one
multiphase pipeline to a main gathering station where the oil-gas mixture is processed.
The mixture of these fluids are transported in pipelines hundreds of miles long before
they are separated.
This flow of the multiphase mixture creates a number of corrosion associated
problems in the pipelines. The carbon dioxide-water mixture forms a weak but corrosive
carbonic acid. This can result in high corrosion rates in the carbon steel pipelines. The
2
oil and gas mixture may also contain waxes, hydrates, hydrogen sulfide and sand. If the
pipelines carrying oil and gas are located in deep water or inaccessible places,
maintenance, and/or replacement and clean up of spills is difficult and expensive.
Consequently, it becomes important to understand the mechanisms of corrosion and the
factors affecting it.
The methods used to decrease corrosion-related problems include the selection of
a pipe-wall thickness with sufficient corrosion allowance, the use of corrosion resistant
alloy materials, the use of internally coated pipe, dehydration of the oil-water mixture and
the injection of corrosion inhibitors. Of these, the most widely used method is the
corrosion inhibitor injection. The inhibitors have organic polar molecules which adsorb
to the metal surface and form a film there or react with corrosion products to form a
protective layer. When selecting a corrosion inhibitor, it is essential to know how
effective it is in the specific service environment. Thus, a knowledge of the metal surface
condition, the operating temperature and pressure, fluid properties, the solution pH and
chemistry and the flow conditions are essential.
The corrosion processes in pipelines producing oil and gas involve the interaction
between the metal wall and the flowing fluids. It is seen that relative motion between the
fluid and the metal surface affects the rate of corrosion. Most work in understanding the
corrosion phenomena in oil and gas pipelines has been carried out with single phase,
water, or two phase, water-gas systems. Moreover, the apparatus used were either
rotating cylinder electrode, jet impingement, bubble tests and small diameter flow loops.
The data obtained through such systems and methods do not take into account the
3
presence of oil and the different regimes or flow patterns encountered in horizontal
oil/water/gas pipelines. Thus, the results obtained through such systems can lead to gross
errors when extrapolated to actual field conditions.
In horizontal pipelines, due to effect of gravity, there are sections of the pipe that
are not contacted with liquid. This results in asymmetrical flow regimes or flow patterns,
leading to different corrosion mechanisms than those in vertical pipelines. Figure 1.1
shows the different types of flow regimes seen for liquid and gas flowing simultaneously
in a horizontal pipe. These include smooth and wavy stratified, rolling wave, plug flow
(elongated bubbles), slug flow and annular flow. The type of flow regime existing in a
horizontal pipe depends upon the compositions of the oil and gas present, and the
velocities of the liquid and gas phase. A flow regime map depicts the type of flow
pattern present in a pipeline at a particular liquid and gas velocity. Such a map prepared
by Lee (1993) is shown in Figure 1.2. At low liquid and gas velocities, stratified or wavy
regimes exist. At low liquid flowrates on increasing the gas velocity rolling waves are
formed. For gas at constant velocity, increasing the liquid velocity leads to plug flow or
slug flow. Annular flow is seen at very high gas velocities.
As shown in Figure 1.2, slug flow exist. in pipelines carrying oil and gas when
high production of oil and gas are required. However, slug flow regime has been
associated with high corrosion rates and pipelines designed to last for 10 years need to
be replaced every 6 months. Slug flow is similar to stratified flow but is characterized
by the intermittent appearance of liquid slugs which propagate through the pipe. An
idealized slug unit is shown in Figure 1.3 and consists of four zones. Ahead of the slug
4
is a slow moving liquid film, with gas flowing above it. Waves form on the film and
grow to bridge the pipe. This is then accelerated to approximately the gas velocity and
forms the slug. The f ~ o n of

t the slug scoops up the slow moving film ahead of it and
assimilates it into the mixing zone creating a turbulent region. The highly turbulent
mixing zone entrains gas which is passed back into the slug body. After the slug has
passed, liquid is shed from the tail of the slug to a trailing film. This liquid mixes with
more incoming liquid to form a film on which the next slug will propagate. Kouba and
Jepson (1989) showed that high velocity slugs are highly turbulent and can thus reduce
the effectiveness of a corrosion inhibitor. Sun and Jepson (1992) further showed that
there are regions of high shearing forces which can destroy the liquid boundary close to
the wall. This makes the formation of a stable inhibitor film difficult. Moreover, it may
be possible to strip off the film and corrosion material already present. Thus it is
important to investigate slug characteristics such as slug length, void fraction, pressure
drop and shear stress in order to understand the relationship between slug flow and the
corrosion processes.
This work uses the concept of a stationary slug, first introduced by Jepson (1987).
A stationary slug or hydraulic jump has similar flow properties to a moving slug.
However, it is much easier to make measurements in a stationary slug than those in a
moving slug, since the flow is not intermittent. A comprehensive study of a low viscosity
oil (LVT200,2 cp at 40 C) and an intermediate viscosity oil (ARCOPAK90, 15 cp at 40
C) have been investigated by Zhou (1993) and Sun (1992) respectively, under several slug
flow conditions utilizing a stationary slug. Here the investigations will be further carried
5
out with a high viscosity oil (Brit01 50T,96 cp at 40 C) under full pipe flow as well as
under slug flow conditions using a stationary slug. Moreover, the effectiveness of six
corrosion inhibitors and one drag reducing agent will be studied under several slug flow
conditions to gain an understanding of their behavior in multiphase flow and their ability
to inhibit corrosion.
1 1 SMOOTH
- STRATIFIED
ROLLING
WAVE
-
0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 - - -bO-0 u~
000
SLUG
FLOW
Figure 1.1 Flow Patterns in Horizontal Pipelines (Water-Gas)

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter gives a detailed background on the work carried out by various
researchers on slug flow, the associated corrosion and its inhibition in multiphase, oil and
gas, pipelines.
2.1 Flow Regimes and Slug Flow
As discussed earlier for a liquid and a gas flowing in a horizontal pipe there are
different types of flow patterns and the type of flow pattern depends upon the
compositions of the different phases and their velocities.
Baker(1954) was one of the first to plot a flow regime map. Later, many
researchers such as Acikcoz (1992), Mandhane (1974), Govier (1962) investigated the
characteristics of gas-liquid flow in horizontal tubes and have given various flow pattern
maps for horizontal pipes. However, Dukler and Hubbard (1975) provided the first
accurate description of slug flow. They showed that a vortex at the front of the slug
scoops up the slow moving film ahead of it and entrains gas in the process. The
gashiquid mixture is then passed back into the slug body. After the slug has passed,
liquid is shed from the tail of the slug to a trailing film. This liquid mixes with more
incoming liquid on which the next slug propagates.
Due to the high velocities and transient nature of the slug flow regime, it was
difficult to acquire accurate experimental data. A radical change in the study of slug
10
flow was made by Jepson (1987). Jepson (1987) suggested that slugs were hydraulic
jumps which propagated along a pipe and introduced the concept of 'Stationary Slug'.
Experiments were conducted in a 10 m long, 10 cm diameter pipe. Hydraulic jumps were
formed and made stationary using a back pressure valve downstream in the pipeline. He
showed that a mixing vortex was present at the front of a stationary slug and that the
gashiquid flow in the body of the stationary slug were similar to those in moving slugs.
Figure 2.1 shows a comparison between a stationary slug and a true moving slug. The
front of a true moving slug has a translational velocity, V,. The slug body moves with
a velocity, V,, and the film before the front has a velocity, V, The stationary jump in
comparison has zero translational velocity and can be visualized as a slug where the
frame of reference is taken as moving with the translational velocity of the slug.
Jepson and Kouba (1989) showed that there are different kinds of slugs and the
strength of the slug is proportional to the Froude number calculated in the liquid film
ahead of the slug. Moreover, they showed that stationary slugs were identical to true
moving slugs at the same Froude number. Thus several aspects of slug flow could now
be easily examined using the stationary slug. The Froude number, Fr, before the Jump
is calculated as follows:-
where,
vt = Translational velocity of the slug
v, = Velocity of the film ahead of the slug

g
- Acceleration due to gravity
h, = Effective height of the film defined as the ratio of the wetted

area to the width of the gas-liquid interface of the film.
Figure 2.2 shows the strength of hydraulic jumps in open channel flow as a
function of Froude number, described by Chow (1959). It is seen that as the Froude
number increases the degree of turbulence in the mixing zone of the hydraulic jump
increases. At Froude numbers greater than six the mixing zone is well formed and at
Froude number 12 the mixing zone is highly turbulent in nature.
It was later confirmed by Fan, Jepson and Hanratty (1992), from pressure drop
measurements in horizontal pipe flow, that the front of the slug is a hydraulic jump.
They also developed a simple model for stationary slugs.
Thus, the concept of the 'Stationary Slug' made it easy to study slug flow and to
characterize the associated corrosion phenomena. It was now possible to carry out easily,
measurements such as wall shear stress, void fraction, pressure drops, oil-water fractions,
corrosion rates, adsorption, and stripping rate of a corrosion inhibitor at different locations
within the slug, Moreover, large amounts of gas needed to create true moving slugs were
not needed to study slug flow characteristics using stationary slugs.
2.2 Corrosion Mechanisms
It is seen that all corrosion processes involve an interaction between the metal
surface and a fluid. The Tate of corrosion depends on the relative motion between the
fluid and the metal surface. Sydberger (1987) introduced the term 'Flow related
12
corrosion' to describe the three corrosion mechanisms present in flowing systems
suggested by Ellison and Wen (1981), i.e. convective-mass-transfer controlled corrosion,
phase-transport-controlled corrosion and erosion corrosion. Convective-mass-transfer
controlled corrosion is the rate at which corrosive species or corrosion products are
transported towards or away from the metal surface. Phase-transport-controlled corrosion
depends on the wetting of the corrosive phase with the metal wall, and erosion corrosion
is the deterioration of the metal surface due to the relative motion between the metal wall
and the corrosive fluid.
King (1981) outlined five possible corrosion mechanisms for the cause of internal
corrosion of hydrocarbon pipelines, namely carbon dioxide corrosion, sulphide corrosion,
microbiological corrosion, acid corrosion and erosion corrosion. Corrosion is a
electrochemical reaction with water behaving as the conducting medium. Thus, in all
these cases, the one common factor is the quantity of water present in the system.
Carbon dioxide corrosion may occur alone or in combination with oxygen or
sulphide. The carbon dioxide dissolves in water to form a weak but corrosive carbonic
acid. The reactions occurring in a carbon-dioxide environment are presented below.
Hydrogen sulphide provides a highly corrosive environment even when present in trace
quantities. When hydrogen sulphide is present in the pipeline it is referred to as 'sour'
and in its absence is called 'sweet'. Oxygen occurs in dissolved quantities in sea water
used for injection into down the reservoir.
De Waard and Lotz (1993), Ikeda et al. (1985), Ogundele and White (1986), and
'Videm and Dugstad (1989) have investigated the mechanisms of carbon dioxide corrosion
13
on carbon steel under different conditions of pH, temperature, pressure, and oil-water
fractions. They have also proposed various models to predict carbon dioxide corrosion
of carbon steel. The different types of products formed on the pipe wall depend on the
experimental conditions. The corrosion products primarily found on the pipe wall are iron
carbonate (FeCO,), iron bicarbonate (Fe(HCO,)&, iron carbide (Fe,C) and a wide variety
of iron oxides. The various reactions occurring are listed below.
The carbon dioxide dissolves in water to form carbonic acid:
C02 + H20 e H2C03 ..(2.2)
The carbonic acid is a weak acid and dissociates as follows to form a carbonate
iron:
H2C03 w H + + HC03- ..(2.3)
However, deWaard and Milliams (1975) indicated that the undissociated acid
molecule in Equation (2.2) is directly absorbed on the metal surface and reduced there.
H2C03 + e - e H + HCO; ..(2.4)
'This is the rate determining step and the corrosion rate is correlated directly to the
concentration of the undissociated carbonic acid in solution.
The anodic reaction is given by:
F e w F e + ++ 2e- ..(2.5)
'This also consists of a number of steps and Bockris, Drazic and Despic (1962) have
showed that the rate controlling step depends on the pH. The overall reaction is given
by:
Fe + H,CO, w FeCO, + H2 ..(2.6)
DeWaard and Milliams (1975) further showed that the solubility of FeCO, is low and
decreases with an increase in temperature. They indicated that most of the dissolved
species is not FeCO, but Fe(HCO,),, which decomposes at higher temperatures.
Fe(HC0,) 2 o FeCO, + H2C03 ..(2.8)
Iron carbonate is usually the main corrosion product. The iron carbonate dissolves in the
solution until it reaches the solubility limit and thereafter precipitates on the metal wall.
The iron carbonate may form a protective film on the pipe wall depending on the pH of
the solution, temperature, pressure, and flowrate. However, if the gas phase contains
sulphur, oxygen, or chlorine, the products formed may be different.
Dugstad (1992) reported increased precipitation rates at higher temperatures which
resulted in low corrosion rates.
Efird and Jasinski (1989) conducted autoclave studies and showed that the
presence of crude oil has a significant effect on the corrosiveness of crude oillbrine
mixtures. Moreover, Jasinski (1986) indicated that the degree of protectiveness of the
film in crude oilbrine mixtures is dependent on the crystalline size of the corrosion
product. Thus, results obtained from experiments with brine only can lead to gross errors
when extrapolated to field conditions.

15
Videm and Kvarekval (1994) conducted experiments in brine, saturated with
carbon dioxide containing small amounts of hydrogen sulphide and . They observed that
on addition of very small concentration of sulphide to brine, protective corrosion films
were formed rapidly on the carbon steel specimens. Further addition of sulphide had little
effect.
2.3 Measurement Techniques and Ex~erimentalSystems
A number of techniques are available to monitor corrosion rates in various test
systems. These include weight loss measurements using coupons, electrical resistance
(ER.) probes, linear polarization resistance probes (LPR) probes, electrochemical
impedance spectroscopy and electrochemical noise techniques. The LPR, electrochemical
impedance spectroscopy, and electrochemical noise techniques are based on the
conductivity of the solution and cannot be easily used when oil is present in the flowing
system.
Mckenzie and Vassie (1985) discussed the use of weight loss coupons and ER
probes in corrosion testing. The results obtained by these two methods complement each
other and thus increase the value of the data obtained. They also suggested that weight
loss method was best suited for measuring corrosion rates over a long period of time,
while the ER probes were best suited for shorter term measurements.
In the literature, many types of test systems have been used to correlate or predict
the corrosion rates obtained in the laboratory with those of the field. Of these, the most
common are the bubble test, stirred beakers, rotating cylinder electrode, jet impingement
16
loop and recirculating flow loops. De Waard and Milliarns (1975) performed experiments
in stirred beakers to obtain corrosion rate data in carbon dioxide systems. Nesic and
Lunde (1993), performed similar experiments but in recirculating flow loops. The effect
of temperature and carbon dioxide pressure on corrosion rates obtained by them were
similar to De Waard, Lotz and Milliams. However, they showed that the corrosion rate
depended on the velocity of the flowing system, and increased with an increase in liquid
velocity. Efird et al. (1993) indicated the importance of using flow loops to simulate
pipeline conditions. They used three types of test systems, namely flow loops, rotating
cylinders and jet impingement systems. They showed that the corrosion rates obtained
from rotating cylinders were much lower compared to those obtained by flow loops.
However, they found a correlation between flow loops and the jet impingement
technique.
Later, Jepson and Sun (1992), Zhou (1993), Kanwar and Jepson (1994) and
Vuppu and Jepson (1994) further showed the importance of using flowloops to study
corrosion in pipelines. The experiments were conducted in 10 cm internal diameter
pipelines under several, full pipe and slug flow conditions for low (2 cp) and intermediate
(15 cp) viscosity oils. They confiied that velocity is a major factor to be considered
in corrosion studies. The results indicated that corrosion rate increased with an increase
in the velocity of the liquid phase. Moreover, they showed that the results obtained from
small diameter (eg. 2.54 cm and 5 cm) flowloops cannot be correlated to large diameter
pipelines as the flow mechanisms in both the systems are entirely different.
Their results, also indicated that corrosion rates obtained under slug flow
17
conditions could be a magnitude higher than full pipe flow conditions. The corrosion rate
increased with an increase in Froude number. Sun (1992) and Zhou (1993), showed that
as the Froude number increased the shear force at the bottom of the pipe increased. This
corresponded with the increase in turbulence at higher Froude numbers which destroyed
and prevented any protective corrosion product formation. Moreover, the pressure drop
across the slug increased with an increase in Froude number indicating a larger turbulent
zone.
Vuppu and Jepson (1994) later confirmed through scanning electron microscopy
studies, that the turbulence and shear forces at the wall of the pipe at high Froude
numbers (eg. Froude number 12) prevented adequate corrosion inhibitor film formation
and destroyed the protective film already formed. Thus, results obtained from full pipe
experiments should not be used for field conditions where pipelines are rarely under full
pipe flow conditions.
They also showed the importance of a thud phase, oil. They showed that the
presence of oil had a significant effect on the corrosivity of the system. In general, they
noticed that the corrosion rate increased with and increase in the fraction of oil in the
liquid phase upto 60% oil fraction and at higher compositions was negligible. This was
contrary to the concept previously thought that the corrosion rate decreased with the
addition of oil to the system.
2.4 Predictive Models
A model to predict the corrosion rates in carbon dioxide systems was put forth by
De Waard and Milliams (1975).
log ic = -(1.3)(pH) + B
where,
ic = corrosion rate in mm/yr
pH = pH of the solution
B = constant
This model predicted corrosion rates to increase with an increase in temperature
and also with an increase in partial pressure of carbon dioxide. The effect of temperature
and pressure were incorporated in the pH term of the equation. However, the influence
of flow rates, presence of corrosion products on the pipe wall and influence of oil were
not considered.
De Waard et al. (1991), later simplified the model to predict 'worst case' corrosion
rates for systems saturated with the Fe2+ corrosion product. They applied correction
factors to the basic equation to account for different environmental parameters and
formation of iron product layer described earlier.
1710
= 5.8 -
log Vnomo -T
+ 0.67 log(Pco2)
where,
vnomo
= the corrosion rates in mrn/yr.
T - temperature in K.
19
Pco, = partial pressure of carbon dioxide, in bars
They temperature at which protective scales begin to form on the metal surface is given
by:
where,
T,,,, = temperature at which scales begin to form, K.
fco, = fugacity of carbon dioxide in bars.
If the operating temperature was above the temperature at which scales begin to form then
the corrosion rate obtained by Equation 2.5 was multiplied by a correction factor F,.
The maximum value of F, is 1.
The De Waard et al. (1991) model had major drawback. The model did not
account for flow and predicted same corrosion rates at different velocities. However, De
Waard and Lotz (1993) revised the model and introduced the effect of flow velocity. The
model had two terms, a mass transfer model which accounted for the flow velocity of the
system and the reaction model which accounted for the chemistry of the system.
where,
V,, -
- corrosion rate in mm/yr.
V, = corrosion rate due to chemistry of the system, rnrn/yr.
vmms-- corrosion rate due to flow of the system, mm/yr.
C - constant.
The mass transfer term is given by Equation 2.14.
vms = 0.023 (D)0.7(U)O.* [H2C03]/ (v)'.~
where,
D - diffusion coefficient in m2/s.
u - liquid flowrate in m/s.
[H,CO,]= concentration of carbonic acid.
d - hydraulic diameter in m.
v = kinematic viscosity in m2/s.
And the reaction term is given by Equation 2.15.
1543
log (V,,&,) = 5.8 - - + 0.67 log (fco,) ..(2.15)
T
Efird et al. (1993) in their model showed that corrosion rates could be correlated
with the wall shear stress as:
Rmr = a tv
where,
KO, = corrosion rate in rnrn/yr.

T* = shear stress at the pipe wall in N/m2.
a,b = constants
Thus, the results from small diameter pipes could be extended to larger diameter
pipelines. However, the model developed by them was for brine only and if it was to be
other systems, different values of a and b were needed.
Kanwar and Jepson (1994), conducted experiments in a 10 cm diameter pipe at
pressures upto 0.79 MPa using two oil of 2 and 18 cp and ASTM saltwater. Using the
concept introduced by Efird et al (1993) introduced a similar model.
12.94- 5041
CR = (PY ( z ) ~(e 7
where,
CR = Corrosion rate in mm/yr.
P = carbon dioxide partial pressure in MPa.
Z -
- shear stress in N/m2.
b,c = constants.
However, the model did not consider the formation of protective scales at temperatures
greater than 60 C and thus could not be used for temperatures higher than 60 C.
2.5 Corrosion Inhibition
One of the most effective way to reduce or prevent corrosion in multiphase oil and
gas pipelines is the use of corrosion inhibitors. The corrosion inhibitors are organic
compounds which adsorb to the pipewall to form a protective barrier between the
corrosive flowing medium and the metal wall. King (1981) indicates that the thickness
and quality of the adsorbed layer depends on the characteristics and the concentration of
the corrosion inhibitor in the bulk phase. In addition, below a certain critical inhibitor
concentration, the metal surface is not covered continuously and an imperfect inhibitor
film is formed which allows the corrosion reactions to proceed.
Harrop (1993) classified the different types of corrosion inhibitors available in the
market and the different types of applications for each of them. The inhibitors can be
classified in many different ways. For example, they can be classified in terms of
mechanism, environment to which they are added, metal to be protected, or mechanism.
Some of the commonly used inhibitors are classified as anodic, cathodic, passivating,
oxidizing, film forming, organic, vapor phase, and volatiles. Depending upon the type
of application, the inhibitors are made up of chromates, nitrites, phosphates, sulphites,
amines, imidazolines, and quaternaries.
Harrop (1993) outlined the various test methods available to study the performance
of corrosion inhibitors and the study of in oil and gas pipelines. These include the bubble
test, rotating cylinder electrode, jet impingement loop, and recirculating flow loops. The
bubble test, rotating cylinder electrode, and the jet impingement loop are used for the
initial screening of corrosion inhibitors. The main limitation of these tests is that they do
not represent the actual flowing conditions present in a pipeline and the results obtained
through these tests can lead to gross errors in knowing the effectiveness of a corrosion
inhibitor.
Pettus (1974) indicates the various factors to be considered for the proper selection
23
of corrosion inhibitors for the field. Two main factors to be considered are the amount
of waterloil present in a system and the type of flow, to determine whether to use an oil
soluble, water soluble or oil soluble-water dispersible corrosion inhibitor. He showed that
presence of 10% oil can reduce the effectiveness of a water soluble corrosion inhibitor
by as much as 80%.
Mercer (1985), lists the different types of test parameters such as choice and
preparation of test specimens, test media and equipment to be used to assess the
effectiveness of corrosion inhibitors. Also listed are the available standard and non
standard procedures and techniques for testing various types of corrosion inhibitors.
Virk (1975) examined the phenomenon of drag reduction caused in turbulent flow
by certain additives in pipelines carrying multiphase fluids. He showed that the skin
friction caused by turbulent flow of an ordinary liquid is reduced significantly by the
additives.
Sedahmed et al. (1979), showed that drag reducing polymers can be used as
corrosion inhibitors. In the conditions tested they found that the corrosion rates were
reduced upto 70%. However, in the laminar range the effectiveness of the polymer was
reduced drastically to nearly 5%.

Mixing
Zone
+Vo
-
Vt Vs
- -
Vt Vg
Vt-Vo
Figure 2.1 Comparison between a real moving slug (top)

and a stationary hydralic jump (bottom)
HYDRAULIC JUMPS IN OPEN CHANNEL FLOW
Fr - 1 - 1.7 Undular jump

r
-
Frf= 1.7 2.3 Weak jump
Roller
- -
Fry= 25-45 Oscillating jump
Fr,= 4.5 - 9.0 Steady jump
Fry, 9.0 Strong jump
Figure 2.2
CHAPTER 3
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND PROCEDURE
The experiments were carried out in a facility similar to that developed and
constructed by Jepson (1987). This facility was used to study slug flow characteristics
and the corresponding corrosion phenomena associated in such flow regime. Moreover,
the facility was used to study the effectiveness of corrosion inhibitors under several slug
flow conditions.
3.1 Description of the Flow Loop
The experimental setup is shown in Figure 3.1. The system consists of a 1.2 m3
316 stainless steel tank which serves as a storage and separation unit for the mulitphase
oil/water/gas mixture. The temperature in the system is maintained by two Chromalox
3.75 kw heaters present in the stainless steel tank. A 3.73 kw.Vertiflo centrifugal pump,
pumps the oil and water mixture into a 7.6 cm ID PVC pipeline. The flowrate is
controlled by valves and a bypass. The flowrate is measured by an orifice meter in the
PVC section.
The liquid is then forced under a gate into the 10 m long, 10.1 cm ID plexiglass
pipeline where it forms a fast moving liquid film.
Carbon dioxide from compressed cylinders is allowed to first pass through an
expansion tank before it enters the system. The carbon dioxide enters at H, downstream
of the gate G. The carbon dioxide is also used to pressurize the system. The system
27
pressure is monitored by gauge B.
Oil, salt-water and carbon dioxide are used as the working fluids. By measuring
the wetted perimeter of the pipe that is contacted with liquid and the film depth, the area
of flow and the mean velocity of the liquid film is calculated. The liquid film velocity is
used to calculate the Froude number as described earlier.
Downstream of the gate G a stationary slug is generated. The hydraulic jump is
maneuvered and kept stationary at the test section by controlling the gas flowrate into the
pipeline at J1 and by the back-pressure valve. A Cole-Palmer rotameter is used to
measure the gas flowrate into the system. The liquidlgas mixture flows into the storage
tank where the gas is released into the atmosphere while the oil-water mixture is
recirculated.
3.2 Description of the Test Section
The test section is illustrated in Figure 3.2. It consists of a 2 m long, 10.1 cm ID
plexiglass pipe. At position A and B, flush mounted Electrical Resistance (E.R.) probes,
manufactured by Rohrback Cosasco, are inserted to measure the corrosion rate at the top
and the bottom respectively. At position B a coupon holder is inserted. The coupons
are flush mounted and are used for weight-loss measurements and for Scanning Electron
Microscopy (SEM) studies. The coupons are made of 1 cm diameter, 0.4 cm thick 1018
carbon steel to simulate pipeline conditions. Four coupons are placed on a holder and,
inserted flush with the pipe wall.
At position E, a flush mounted TSI hot-film sensor is used to measure the wall
28
shear stress and turbulent intensity of the flow at the wall of the pipe.
Pressure tappings are located at points D and measure the pressure drop across and
within the slug body using an U tube manometer. The manometer is filled with a Meriarn
blue colored fluid of specific weight 1.75.
Probe C consists of a 6 mm. diameter sampling probe which is used to withdraw
fluid samples to measure the void fraction and oil-water fractions across the slug body.
This tube is also used to test the pH as well as the concentration of oxygen, and iron
ions present in the system.
3.3 Measurement Techniques and Procedure
The methods used to measure the various parameters and the procedure undertaken
to carry out the experiments are outlined in this section.
3.3.1 Measurement Technique
Corrosion Rate Measurement
The corrosion rates are measured using Electrical resistance probes, model CK-3
Conosometer from Rohrback Corporation. The E.R. probes work on the principle of the
wheatstone bridge and the fact that the electrical resistance of a metal sheet is inversely
proportional to its thickness. As the metal is gradually corroded and becomes thinner, its
resistance shows a corresponding increase. The probe is constructed in such a way that
it forms two arms of a bridge network. One element is flush mounted and allowed to
corrode whilst, the other is insulated and is used as a reference. From the ratio of the two
resistance elements of the probe, the corrosion rate can be calculated. The corrosion rate
is calculated by the following equation:
Corrosion Rate = *M 24*365 *ps

At 1000
where,
AR - Change in dial reading.
At - Corresponding time in hours.
PS - Probe Span
24 - Number of hours in a day
365 - Number of days in a year
1000 - Maximum life of the probe
The probe span depends upon the sensitivity of the probe and is directly
proportional to the probe life. There are three kinds of probes S-10, S-20 and S-40
having a span of 5, 10 and 20 respectively. Thus, an S-40 probe has a life four times
greater than an S-10 probe or under the same conditions an S-10 probe would get worn
out four times faster than an S-40 probe. Thus, the S-40 probes are used in more
corrosive environments or when the experiments are carried out for prolonged periods of
time.
Shear Stress Measurement
The TSI hot-film sensors work on a heat transfer technique which gives a
correlation between flow conditions and the rate of heat transfer from the surface of the
probe. The sensors are used to measure the instantaneous wall shear stress and turbulent
intensity of the flow at the pipe wall. Care should be taken that the probes are not
30
covered by gas pockets for prolonged periods of time as this would burn them out. The
voltage signal from each probe is sent to an IFA 100 anemometer system which converts
the analog signals through a Metrabyte's model DAS20 AD converter and stores the data
in digital form. The data is processed using the Anemometry Software Package on a
computer. By moving the slug at different positions from the probe, the wall shear can
be calculated before, at the front of, and within the slug. The probes were calibrated in
order to calculate the wall shear under slug flow conditions. Details about the calibration
of the hot-film sensors are presented in Appendix A.
Void Fraction and Oil-Water Concentration
Void fraction and oil-water compositions were obtained at five positions across
the vertical diameter and at two positions, 30 cm and 60 cm, into the slug for Froude
numbers 6, 9, and 12. The fluid samples are drawn isokinetically into a 1 m. long
graduated transparent tube having a fixed volume of 63.5 ml. The valves at the ends of
the tube are closed simultaneously and by measuring the height of the liquid in the tube
the volume of the liquid and gas can be easily calculated:
63.5 - V,
Void Fraction =
63.5
where,
V, = Total volume of liquid in the tube (ml).
To measure the owwater ratio in the slug fluid samples are drawn directly into a
graduated cylinder. The mixture is allowed to separate and the oil concentration is
calculated as follows:
Oil Concentration = VL - v w
Vr.
where,
V, = Total volume of liquid in the graduated cylinder (ml).
V, = Volume of water in the graduated cylinder (rnl).
Pressure Drop Measurement
The pressure drop was measured at two positions, 30 cm and 60 cm across the
slug body at Froude numbers 6,9, and 12. The pressure drop across the slug body was
calculated by noting the difference in the height of the blue fluid between the two arms
of the manometer.
Pressure drop = h *g *(p, -P ),
where,
h = difference in height of blue fluid between the arms of manometer (m).
g = gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s2)
p, = density of blue fluid (1750 Kg/m3)
p, = density of water (1000 Kg/m3)
Chemistry Composition Measurement
Since existence of oxygen in the system affects corrosion measurement a
deoxygenation procedure is used. Carbon dioxide is fed into the system to purge out the
oxygen. The level of oxygen in the system is monitored using CHEMets Dissolved
Oxygen Test Kits, Models 0-40 & 0-100 ppb. The concentration of oxygen in the system
is reduced from 100 ppb to 10 ppb after the deoxygenation procedure.

32
The presence of iron can significantly affect the corrosion rate in flowing systems.
The iron concentration in the system is monitored by using CHEMets Dissolved Iron Kits,
Models 0-100 ppm. When the iron concentration increases above 30 ppm the salt water
is drained from the system and filled again with fresh salt water.
3.3.2 Procedure
The artificial sea water is prepared by dissolving ASTM standard salt in a
measured quantity of de-ionized water. The 1.2 m3 tank is then filled with appropriate
amounts of salt water and oil depending on the composition of the mixture to be tested.
When a oil needs to be tested at different oillwater compositions, it is logical to start with
a lower concentration of oil. On completion of the experiment a known amount of water
is drained from the tank and more oil is filled into the system to increase the oillwater
concentration for the next experiment. The pump is then, started and with the help of the
bypass the flowrate of liquid into the test section is controlled. Carbon dioxide is
introduced into the system at a constant flowrate to purge the oxygen and bring down the
oxygen concentration in the system to acceptable levels. The airfcarbon-dioxide mixture
leave through the vent. This procedure takes approximately 2 hours. The ER probes are
inserted only after the deoxygenation procedure is completed. However, the other
experiments as shear stress, void fraction measurement and pressure drop across the slug
may be carried out without the deoxygenation procedure. The iron content in the system
is checked periodically. It is noticed that at the beginning when the system is filled with
fresh salt water the iron concentration in the system is close to 0 ppm and slowly builds
33
up over time. When the concentration of iron in the system increases above 30 ppm the
saltwater is drained and replaced with fresh saltwater.
3.4 Test Matrix
The main purpose of this project was to study the corrosion mechanisms in slug
flow. The temperature in the system was maintained at 40 C and the pressure .I34 MPa.
The following measurements were carried out in the stationary slug at different flowrates
of oil/water/gas:
1) Corrosion Rate
2) Pressure Drop
3) Void Fraction
4) Oil-Water Fraction
5) Shear Stress and Turbulent Intensity
The oils used are :-
1) Conoco LVT200 (density 800 KgIrn3, viscosity 2 cp at 40 C).
2) Brit01 50T (density 875 Kglm3, viscosity 96 cp at 40 C).
Zhou (1993) has studied the slug flow characteristics for LVT200 oil at different
Froude numbers and different owwater compositions. Experiments for LVT200 were
carried out to study the performance of 5 corrosion inhibitors and 1 drag reducing agent
and compared with Zhou. The inhibitors tested were 2 oil soluble, 2 water soluble and
1 water dispersible corrosion inhibitor. The experiments will be performed at 2 oil
fractions, 20% and 60%, at Froude number 6 and Froude number 12. The corrosion
inhibitors supplied by the companies sponsoring this project are as follows.
Table 3.1 List of Inhibitors used
i. Drag Reducing Agent, Triton X-100, oil dispersible.

..
11. Inhibitor A, oil soluble and water dispersible.
...
111. Inhibitor B, water soluble.
iv. Inhibitor C oil soluble and water dispersible.
v. Inhibitor D water soluble
vi. Inhibitor E oil soluble
The high viscosity oil Brit01 SOT was studied under full-pipe flow and slug
flow conditions. For full pipe flow the liquid velocities were maintained at 1.0 m/s
and 1.8 4 s . and under slug flow conditions the Froude numbers 6, 9, 12, and 14
were studied at oil fractions of 2096, 4091, 60% and 80%.

Lavout o f The Ex~erimentalSvstem
H I
A. Liquid Tank F. Test Section 4" Plexiglass

-
B. Pressure Gauges & Back Pressure G. FLOWHeight Control Gate
Regulator H. C 0 2 Feed Line
C. Liquid Recycle I. VENT wlvalve
D. Liquid Feed 3"PVC
- J. Heater
J E. Orifice Plate Manometer K. Safety Valve
D
-
Figure 3.1
TEST SECTION
FLOW DIRECTION
B. ER PROBES
C. SAMPLING TUBE
D. PRESSURE TAPS
\E. SHEAR STRESS PROBES
Figure 3.2
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A comprehensive study of a low viscosity oil (LVT200,2 cp) and an intermediate
viscosity oil (ARCOPAK90, 15 cp) have been investigated by Zhou (1993) and Sun
(1992) respectively, under full pipe and several slug flow conditions. Here, results for
a high viscosity oil (Britol 50T, 96 cp) under full pipe flow as well as under slug flow
conditions using a stationary slug are presented. Corrosion inhibitor studies are also
presented using LVT200 as the oil.
4.1 Fluids without Corrosion Inhibitors
The results of the experiments carried out with Britol 50T at 20%,40%, 60%, and
80% oil fractions at a pressure of 136 kPa and 40 C under full pipe flow and slug flow
conditions, at different oiVwater concentrations and different Froude numbers, are
presented in this section.
4.1.1 Corrosion Rate
The equilibrium corrosion rates for the various working fluids under different flow
conditions are presented in Table 4.1. A typical graph of change in corrosion rate with
time is shown in Figure 4.1. At the beginning of an experiment since the surface of the
Electrical Resistance (ER.) probe is clean, the surface corrodes quickly and corrosion rates
are high. As corrosion products begin to form on the probe surface, the corrosion rate
decreases and finally attains an equilibrium value with the flowing fluid. These
38
equilibrium corrosion rates are reported in Table 4.1. As shown in Figure 4.1 at Froude
number 12 for a fluid composition of 20% oil and 80% water, the corrosion rate is 5.5
d y r at the start of the experiment and gradually reaches an equilibrium corrosion rate
of 3.73 mm/yr after approximately 4 hrs and continues at this rate.
Full P i ~ eFlow
Figure 4.2 indicates that, for full pipe flow for the two velocities considered the
corrosion rate increases as the velocity of the liquid phase is increased. The equilibrium
corrosion rate for a fluid composition of 20% oil and 80% water increases from 2.36
rnm/yr at 1.0 m/s to 4.37 mrn/yr at 1.8 m/s . Also at liquid velocity of 1.0 rnls, as the
oil fraction in the liquid phase is increased, the corrosion rate increases. At 1.0 rnls liquid
velocity as the oil fraction in the liquid phase increased from 20% to 6096, the
equilibrium corrosion rate increased from 2.36 mm/yr to 3.56 d y r respectively.
However, at 1.8 m/s liquid velocity the amount of oil present in the liquid phase doesn't
have much effect on corrosion rate. The equilibrium corrosion rate drops from 4.5 Wyr
to negligible values when the oil fraction the liquid phase is changed from 60% to 80%.
This is due to the oil contacting the probe and thus inhibiting corrosion.
Slug Flow
Figure 4.3 indicates that for slug flow, at the bottom of the pipe, as the oil fraction
in the liquid phase is increased the equilibrium corrosion rate increases. This is seen at
each Froude number. For Froude number 6, for water only, the corrosion rate is 2.0
39
mm/yr whereas the corrosion rate is 4.2 mrn/yr when 60% oil is present in the liquid
phase. For 60% oil, the corrosion rate has similar value of 4.2 mm/yr at each Froude
number. However, as shown in Table 4.1, at Froude number 14 the corrosion rate
increased to nearly 5 mm/yr. Beyond 60% oil fraction in the liquid phase corrosion rate
decreases rapidly to negligible levels.
Figure 4.4 indicates that as Froude number increases the corrosion rate increases.
The largest increase is seen above Froude numbers of 9. For 20% oil fraction in the
liquid phase, the corrosion rate increases from about 2.5 mm/yr to 3.8 mrn/yr when the
Froude number is increased from 6 to 14, respectively. At lower Froude numbers (eg.
Froude number 6 & 9), there is little turbulence in the mixing zone of the slug. However,
at the higher Froude numbers (eg. Froude numbers 12 & 14), the intensity of turbulence
in the mixing zone of the slug is increased. This results in enhanced corrosion rates at
higher Froude numbers.
At the top of the pipe, Figure 4.5 shows that again the corrosion rate increases up
to 60% oil. It then tends to zero at higher oil percentages. Moreover, Figure 4.6
indicates that for the top of the pipe also, as Froude number increases corrosion rate
increases. The corrosion rate for a fluid composition of 20% oil changes from 2.5 mm/yr
at Froude number 6 to 3.5 W y r at Froude number 14.
4.1.2. Void Fraction / Oil Concentration
The void fraction data measured at different positions in the stationary slug for
different fluid compositions are presented in Table 4.2. while the average void fractions
40
across the center line are presented in Table 4.3. The average void fraction was obtained
by integrating the local values using the trapezoidal rule.
The void fraction profiles at 30 cm and 60 cm in the slug for oil cuts of 20%,
40% and 60% are shown in Figures 4.7 (a),(b),(c),(d),(e) and (0. These indicate that, in
each case, the void fraction at the bottom of the pipe is less than at the top. At 30 cm
in the slug, at the bottom of the pipe is 0.11, 0.08, 0.04 for Froude number 12 at 2096,
40% and 60% oil at the bottom of the pipe whilst at the top of the pipe values of 0.48,
0.57 and 0.42 are recorded respectively. At the same liquid composition, as the Froude
number increases the local and average void fraction increases. For 20% oil, the average
void fraction is only 0.09 at Froude number 6, whereas it is 0.21 at Froude number 12.
At higher Froude numbers, the mixing process in the slug is enhanced and allows more
gas to be entrained in the slug. The degree of turbulence in the slug increases and due
to the increased scouring effect the corrosion rate increases.
As the oil percentage is increased the void fraction in the lower half of the pipe
decreases. Figure 4.7 (a) and 4.7 (f) indicate at Froude number 12, 30 cm in the slug,
when 20% oil is present in the liquid phase the void fraction at the bottom of the pipe is
0.11 whereas when 60% oil is present in the liquid phase the void fraction is only 0.04.
This may be expected, since at higher oil percentages, the degree of turbulence decreases.
However, it is seen that the average void fraction was almost unchanged with an increase
in oil percentage. At Froude number 12, the average void fraction measured 30 cm
within the slug for 20% 40% and 60% oil cut are 0.21, 0.24 and 0.21 respectively.
As seen in Figures 4.7 (a) through 4.7 (f),at 60 cm in the slug it is seen that the
41
void fraction profiles in the lower half of the pipe are similar to those measured at 30 cm
within the slug. However, in each case, at the top pipe the void fraction for Froude
number 6 is greater than that at Froude number 12. This is to be expected because the
mixing zone of the slug for Froude number 6 is small compared to that at Froude number
12, and all the gas has passed towards the top of the pipe. Moreover, this also indicates
that since the mixing zone for Froude number 6 is so small, the corrosion rate
experiments for Froude number 6 should be carried out within 30 cm of the slug.
The oil concentration measured at different positions in the slug for various fluid
compositions are presented in Table 4.4. The oil concentration at 30 cm in the slug for
2096, and 60% oil for Froude number 6, 9, and 12 across the pipe diameter are shown in
Figure 4.8 (a) and (b). The results indicate that the stationary slug produced a good
mixing. The oil fraction was nearly constant across the pipe cross section and was equal
to the oil fraction of the bulk fluid.
4.1.3 Pressure Drop
The results of the pressure drop measured over the slug front are presented in
Table 4.5. The pressure drop at 30 cm and 60 cm across the slug are shown in Figure
4.9 (a) and Figure 4.9 (b). Figure 4.9 (a), (b) indicate that as the Froude number is
increased the pressure drop across the slug front increases. For 20% oil at 60 cm into the
slug, the pressure drop increases from 1.61 kPa to 4.27 kPa as the Froude number is
increased from 6 to 12. At lower Froude numbers, there is little change in the pressure
drop measured at 30 cm and 60 cm within the slug body. Whereas at Froude number 12
42
there is an appreciable change in the pressure drop at the two positions. This indicates
that as the Froude number is increased the amount of turbulence in the slug increases and
thus the length of the mixing zone increases.
4.1.4 Shear Stress
Several problems were encountered while trying to measure shear stress at the wall
for different composition of Britol 50T using a hot film sensor. The main cause of the
problems seemed to be the high viscosity of Britol SOT. The oil stuck to the probe while
acquiring shear stress data and seemed to burn out in a matter of seconds. Zhou (1993)
used a similar kind of probe to measure the wall shear stress under slug flow conditions.
However, she used a low viscosity oil (2cp at 40 C) to form the multiphase oillwater
mixture, and did not encounter such problems. TSI, Incorporated, the suppliers of the hot
film sensors, manufactured a new, more rugged probe using a different manufacturing
process. The data obtained during the calibration process using this probe was highly
erratic and could not be used to calculate instantaneous shear stress values. Further, TSI
manufactured another probe which was coated with Teflon to give it a non-stick effect.
However, this effort also proved futile and no useful data could be obtained.
4.1.5 Comparison between other Models and Data
In this section, the results obtained from experiments carried out with Britol 50T
under different flow conditions are compared with other available data and models. The
Kanwar (1994) (Equation 2.17), and deWaard (1993) (Equation 2.13) models which are
43
used to predict corrosion rates for full pipe flow are shown in Figure 4.10. It is seen that
both the models underpredict the corrosion rate obtained at higher velocities for Brit01
SOT. At a velocity of 1.8 m/s the corrosion rate obtained by this study for a fluid
composition of 20% oil and 80% salt water is approximately 4.8 mm/yr. The deWaard
(1993) model predicts a very low corrosion rate of 1.35 mm/yr. The Kanwar model is
much better and predicts a conosion rate of 3.2 mrn/yr. This model was developed by
carrying out experiments, in a 4 inch high pressure flowloop, with low (2cp) and
intermediate viscosity (15 cp) oils. Moreover, Kanwar carried out experiments only upto
a full pipe liquid velocity of 1.0 m/s. Thus, the Kanwar model predicts corrosion rates
fairly well at lower velocities. However, the effect of higher viscosity and higher
velocities still need to be incorporated in the model. The deWaard (1994) model, which
grossly underpredicts conosion rates obtained from this experiment, was based on
experiments carried out in stirred beakers. The deWaard model predicts that corrosion
rate decrease with an increase in the percentage of oil in the liquid phase, which is
contrary to results obtained by this study and Kanwar (1994). The Kanwar model
introduced the effect of viscosity and presence of oil in his model, on corrosion rates and
showed the dependence of corrosion rates on the wall shear stress. This is directly
proportional to the viscosity and velocity of the flowing system. It is clearly seen that
the effect of viscosity, due to the presence of oil, is one major factor that needs to be
incorporated in new models.
In Figures 4.11 through 4.13, a comparison is drawn with the data obtained by
Zhou (1993) and this study. Zhou (1993) studied a low viscosity 2cp oil at a pressure of
44
136 kPa and temperature of 40 C.
Figure 4.11 shows the effect of Froude number on corrosion rates. It is seen that
in both the studies, with an increase in Froude number corrosion rate increases. The
corrosion rates at Froude Number 6 and 12 for a fluid composition of 20% Britol are 2.54
mrn/yr, and 3.18 mm/yr and for 20% LVT200 are 1.4, and 1.9 mrn/yr, respectively. In
case of Britol SOT as shown earlier in section 4.1.1, the corrosion increases with an
increase in oil concentration which is similar to results obtained by Kanwar (1994).
The effect of viscosity on void fraction is shown in Figure 4.12 (a) and 4.12 (b).
LVT200, the low viscosity oil (2 cp), entrains more amount of gas in the slug compared
to Britol 50T. At a Froude number of 12, 30 cm within the slug for 20% oil cut, Britol
50T entrains 21% gas in the mixing zone while LVT200 entrains nearly 50% gas in its
mixing zone. Moreover, it is seen that in case of LVT200 the amount of gas entrained
in the slug increases with an increase in oil concentration. Whereas, for Britol 50T there
is little change in the amount of gas entrained across the cross-section.
At 60 cm within the slug it is seen in Figure 4.12 (b) that, for Britol 50T at each
oil concentration the Froude number has little effect on the average void fraction. As
explained earlier, this is to be expected as most of the gas for the lower Froude number
(6 and 9) have passed towards the top of the pipe and occupies a substantial part of the
pipe cross section.
The pressure drop at 30 cm and 60 cm within the slug is shown in Figure 4.13
(a) and 4.13 (b). The pressure drop across the slug is higher in case of Britol 50T
compared to LVT200. This is due to the higher viscosity of the oiywater mixture in case
45
of Brit01 50T. Zhou (1993) also showed that the length of the mixing zone increases with
an increase in Froude number.
Thus, at the same oil composition, an increase in Froude number increases the
corrosion rate, and this is manifested by an increase in void fraction and pressure drop
in the slug. However, at higher oil fractions, the amount of gas entrained in the slug
decreases and the corrosion rate still increases. This maybe due to the effect of viscosity
or increased shear stresses at the pipewall. Thus, two factors can be outlined, namely
void fraction and viscosity of the oiywater mixture, which directly influence corrosion
rates in multiphase pipelines.
4.2 Fluids with Corrosion Inhibitors
The results of the experiments carried out with six corrosion inhibitors, and one
drag reducing agent under several slug flow conditions, at different oiVwater
concentrations are presented in this section. The experiments were carried out at 20%,
and 60% oil fractions in the liquid phase. The LVT200 oil was used to study the effect
of corrosion inhibitors under different owwater concentrations.
4.2.1 Visual Observations
Visual observations showed that several of the inhibitors affected the flow
characteristics. In most cases, a frothy emulsion was often formed and when samples
were taken from the system, the emulsion did not break to reform the original liquid
mixture. The change in flow properties were particularly noticed for Inhibitors B and C.
46
On addition of these inhibitors to the liquid mixture the flow became very frothy and it
was not possible to conduct experiments at a Froude number 12. The increase in
turbulence and frothiness of the flow noticed visually are apparent in the void fraction and
pressure drop measurements presented below. The inhibitors also changed the color of
the oiVwater mixture. The inhibitor B which was supposed to be water soluble seemed
to disperse into the oil phase. This was noticed by the change in color of the oil from
colorless to reddish yellow.
4.2.2 Corrosion/Erosion Rate
The effect on the change in the corrosion rates of the working fluids, under slug
flow conditions, due to the addition of corrosion inhibitors is presented in Table 4.6.
During these experiments coupons of 1018 carbon steel were introduced in the test-section
to simulate pipeline conditions. Vuppu (1994) studied these coupons using the scanning
electron microscopy technique to study the surface of the coupons in order to characterize
the effect of corrosion inhibitors in multiphase oil/water/gas pipelines. The results
obtained by Vuppu (1994) will be compared with corresponding corrosion rates obtained
under the same conditions
The corrosion inhibitors A,B,E, and F were effective in reducing the corrosion
rates to less that 0.13 mm/yr under all the test conditions. For 20% oil in the liquid phase
at Froude number 12, in the absence of corrosion inhibitors, the corrosion rate is 1.91
m d y r . However, on adding 50 ppm of corrosion inhibitors A,B,E, and F under the same
conditions, the corrosion rate was reduced to less than 0.13 Wyr. These corrosion
47
inhibitors were highly effective. On the addition of 50 ppm of these inhibitors, the
corrosion rates were instantaneously reduced and there was no lag time before these
inhibitors started to become effective in the service environment. Figure 4.15 illustrates
the surface of a 1018 carbon steel coupon introduced in a system containing 20% water
and 80% oil and 50 ppm Inhibitor A under slug flow condition of Froudc number 6. The
surface of the coupon appears to have a stable corrosion inhibitor film present and thus
inhibiting corrosion. In all the other cases, where corrosion rates were negligible the
results obtained from the SEM studies showed the surface of the coupon to have a stable
protective layer.
The Inhibitor C was effective at lower Froude numbers, but at F~oudenumber 11
at 20% and 60% oil cuts, the corrosion rates were still substantial. At Eioude number 6
for 20% and 60% oil in the liquid phase, on addition of 50 ppm of Inhibitor C, the
corrosion rates were reduced from 1.35 mm/yr and 0.92 mm/yr. respectively, to less than
0.13 mm/yr. However, at Froude number 12 at 20% oil cut with 50 ppm of corrosion
inhibitor, the corrosion rate changed from 1.91 mm/yr to 2.00 W y r . This shows that
at this concentration, the Inhibitor C was not enough in reducing the corrosion rate. At
Froude number 11, for 60% oil at 50 ppm inhibitor the corrosion rate was reduced from
1.47 mm/yr to 0.63 rnrn/yr. Thus, at these conditions there was app:roximately 50%
reduction in corrosion rate. Moreover, as shown in Figure 4.14 there is a lag time before
Inhibitor C becomes effective. At the start of the experiment the corrosion rate is 2.5
mm/yr and after, approximately after 3 hours the corrosion rate reaches an equilibrium
of 0.63 mm/yr with the flowing fluid. On the further addition of 50 ppnl of Inhibitor C,
48
thus making the total concentration of Inhibitor C 100 ppm, the corrosion rate was
reduced instantaneously from 0.63 mm/yr to less than 0.13 rnmlyr. At lower Froude
numbers (eg. Froude number 6), there is little turbulence in the mixing zone of the slug.
Thus, the inhibitor can form an protective coating and reduce the corrosion rate. As
shown in Figure 4.16 for 20% oil at Froude number 6, the surface of the coupon is
covered with a thin protective film of inhibitor. However, at the higher Froude numbers
(eg. Froude numbers 12 ), the intensity of turbulence in the mixing zone of the slug is
vastly increased. The bubbles impinge at the bottom of the pipe at a higher frequency
and with a stronger force. Consequently, the formation of a stable inhibitor film becomes
difficult and corrosion rates remain high. These bubble impact regions are seen in Figure
4.17 (a), and (b) and show the entire surface covered with large number of circular bubble
impact regions.
Inhibitor D, behaved similar to Inhibitor C and was ineffective in reducing the
corrosion rate at Froude number 12 for 20% oil in the liquid phase. At Froude number
12 for a liquid composition of 20% oil, 80% salt water the corrosion rate changed from
1.91 mm/yr to 1.0 mm/yr. Thus, it was effective in reducing the corrosion rate by
approximately, 50% on addition of 50 ppm of Inhibitor D. At 60% oil cut, the Inhibitor
D worked fairly well and reduced the corrosion rate to less than 0.13 W y r .
The drag reducing agent (DRA) proved to be an inefficient way in reducing
corrosion rates in multiphase oil/water/gas pipelines. On addition of 50 ppm of DRA to
20% oil and 80% salt water, at Froude number 6,9, and 12, the corrosion rate changed
from 1.35 mm/yr, 1.52 mmlyr, and 1.91 d y r to 0.92 mm/yr, 1.2 mm/yr, and 1.47
49
W y r , respectively. The drag reducing agent was effective in reducing the corrosion
rates only by small amounts. This shows that a drag reducing agent might help in
reducing the corrosion rate slightly but it cannot be the only ingredient to be added in a
pipeline to combat the problem of corrosion. Similarly, trends were seen when 50 ppm
of DRA was added to 60% oil and 40% salt water at Froude numbers 6, 9, and 12. A
photograph of the SEM studies done by Vuppu (1994) on a liquid composition of 60%
oil and 40% oil under Froude number 12, and 6 shown in Figure 4.18 (a), (b), and (c).
Figure 4.17 (a), and (b) show that at Froude number 12 the surface of the coupon is not
entirely covered with a protective film, and some parts the film seems to be have tom
apart under the constant impact or cavitation of the bubbles at the bottom of the pipe.
However, as shown in Figure 4.17 (c) at Froude number 6, that although the corrosion
deposit is removed from large areas, circular impact regions seen at Froude number 12
are not observed here.
4.2.3 Void Fraction
Table 4.7 represents the cross-sectional void fraction data at 30 cm and 60 cm
within the slug in the presence of 50 ppm concentration of the corrosion inhibitors.
As shown in Figure 4.19 (a), (b), (c), and (d) that, in some cases the void fraction
of the was changed on the addition of the inhibitors. At 20% oil concentration, 30 and
60 cm within the slug, it is seen that at Froude number 6 the void fraction was increased
but at Froude number 12 the void fraction was decreased, except for Inhibitor F. This
change in void fraction is noticed quite clearly at 60% oil concentration. In each case,
50
on the addition of 50 ppm of inhibitor, the void fraction 60 crn within the slug, at Froude
number 12 changed from 0.47 to values below 0.27. Similar trends were also noticed at
30 cm within the slug front.
4.2.4 Pressure Drou
The pressure drop measured at 30 cm and 60 cm within the slug in the presence
of 50 ppm of corrosion inhibitors at different flow conditions is presented in Table 4.8.
The effect on the pressure drop across the slug due to the addition of inhibitors is
presented in Figures 4.20 (a), (b), (c) and (d). It is seen for the oil concentration studied,
on adding inhibitors the pressure drop across the slug increased in most cases. This
shows that the mixing zone of the slug became longer and more turbulent on adding
inhibitors. And it was also noted visually that on adding the inhbitors the mixing zone
became frothy and longer.
Thus, inhibitors may change the flow properties of the fluid and at times make the
flow frothy in nature. This is indicated by the change in void fraction and pressure drop
of the flowing fluid. Care should be taken that the system in which they flow does not
get choked by the formation of froth.
4.2.5 Shear Stress
The shear stress measurements at the pipe wall could not be carried out in the
presence of corrosion inhibitors. On addition of inhibitors, the probes seemed to get
contaminated and no useful data could be obtained.

Brit01 50T Oil / Flow Condition Equilibrium Corrosion
Salt Water Rate
TOP Bottom
Full Pipe V = 1.0 m/s 1.96 2.36
V = 1.8 m/s 3.07 4.37
20% / 80% Fr = 6 2.69 2.54
Slug Flow
Fr = 9 2.46 2.57
Fr = 12 3.05 3.18
Fr = 14 3.68 3.81
Full Pipe V = 1.0 d s 0.56 3.26
V = 1.8 d s 4.32 5.0
40% / 60% Fr = 6 3.84 3.07
'
Slug Flow
Fr = 9 3.5 1 3.23
Fr = 12 4.19 3.73
Full Pipe V = 1.0 m/s 0.58 3.56
V = 1.8 4 s 4.45 4.5
60% / 40% Fr = 6 3.18 4.22
'
Slug Flow
Fr = 9 3.89 4.22
Fr = 12 4.06 4.24
Fr = 14 4.60 4.95
Full Pipe V = 1.0 m/s 0 0
V = 1.8 d s 0 0
80% / 20% Fr = 6 0 0
Slug Flow
Fr = 9 0 0
Fr =12 0 0
Table 4.1
CORROSION RATE DATA
FOR MIXTURES OF BRITOL SOT OIL AND SALT WATER
Temperature = 40 C, Pressure = 136 kPa
Time (hr)
Figure 4.1 CORROSION RATE VS TIME
Froude Number 12
Britol 20% Salt Water 80%
L L L
2Q bQ E
Q
3 3 3
L L L
E E E
t g :
8 8 8
0 0 0
* a m
-13 5- -13
8 8 8
0 0 0
a*CY
O o a
Froude Oil Location 20% Oil & 40% Oil & 60% Oil &
No. (YD) 80% water 80% water 40% water
30cm 60cm 30cm 60cm 30cm 60cm
0.23 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.00 0.00
TABLE 4.2
VOID FRACTION DATA
Temperature = 40 C Pressure = 136 kPa
Brit01 SOT / Froude Average Void Fraction
Salt Water No.
30 cm 60 cm
6 0.09 0.15
9 0.14 0.13
20% / 80%
12 0.21 0.13
6 0.07 0.15
9 0.1 1 0.09
40% / 60%
12 0.24 0.09
6 0.05 0.07
9 0.14 0.05
60% / 40%
12 0.21 0.08
TABLE 4.3
AVERAGE VOID FRACTION ACROSS THE PrPE DIAMETER
Void Fraction
Figore 4.7a VOID FRACTION ACROSS THE PIPE DIAMETER

BRITOL 2 0 8 , SALT WATER 8 0 8
3Ocm within the slug
Void Fraction
Figure 4.7b VOID FRACTION ACROSS THE PIPE DIAMETER
BRITOL 20%. SALT WATER 80%
60cm witkin the slog
Vold Fraction
Figore 4 . 7 ~ VOID FRACTION ACROSS THE PIPE DIAMETER
BRITOL 4096, SALT WATER 60%
30cm within Ule slug
Vold Fraction
Figure 4.7d VOID FRACTION ACROSS THE PIPE DIAMETER

BRITOL 4046, SALT WATER 60%
60cm within the slug
t . I I I ' I I I I
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Void Fraction
Mgore 4.7e VOID FRACTION ACROSS THE PIPE DIAMETER

BRITOL 60%.SALT WATER 40%
3Ocm within Ule slug
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

Void Fraction
Figure 4.R VOID FRACTION ACROSS THE PIPE DIAMETER

BRITOL 60%, SALT WATER 40%
6Ocm within the slug
Froude Oil Location 20% Oil & 40% Oil & 60% Oil &
No. (Y/D)* 80% water 80% water 40% water
30cm 60cm 30cm 60cm 30cm 60cm
0.07 0.20 0.21 0.37 0.38 0.62 0.60
0.29 0.23 0.22 0.39 0.39 0.63 0.65
Fr=6 0.49 0.21 0.21 0.39 0.37 0.70 0.70
0.73 0.23 0.20 0.42 0.4 0.56 0.55
0.93 0.20 0.21 0.39 0.41 0.70 0.72
B
R
I
T
Fr=9
L
5
0
T 0.07 0.18 0.17 0.34 0.36 0.50 0.55
0.29 0.21 0.20 0.39 0.40 0.54 0.52
Fr=12
0.49 0.20 0.21 0.38 0.38 0.53 0.55
0.73 0.21 0.20 0.41 0.42 0.61 0.65
0.93 0.19 0.19 0.40 0.42 0.56 0.54
* Is the dimensionless height measured from the bottom of the pipe.
TABLE 4.4
VARIATION OF OIL FRACTION ACROSS THE PIPE DIAMETER
0 1 1 Fraction
Fignre 4 . h OIL FRACTION ACROSS THE PIPE DIAMETER
BRITOL 20%. SALT WATER 80%
30rm within tbe slug
0 Frt 12
O Frt 9
A FrX 6
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Oil Fraction
Figure 4.8b OIL FRACTION ACROSS THE PIPE DIAMETER
BRITOL 60%, SALT WATER 40%
SOEm witbin the slug
Brit01 50T oil / Froude Pressure drop within the slug front (kPa)
Salt Water No.
30 cm 60 cm 9Ocm
6 1.49 1.61 1.66
20% / 80% 9 2.29 2.35 2.60

12 3.8 1 4.27 4.56
14 5.12 5.26 5.63
6 1.42 1.52 1.56
40% / 60% 9 2.4 1 2.73 2.76

12 3.59 4.06 4.14
14 4.79 5.26 5.38
6 1.47 1.52 1.58
60% / 40% 9 2.32 2.70 2.79

12 3.47 4.06 4.14
14 4.56 5.25 5.41
TABLE 4.5
PRESSURE DROP ACROSS THE SLUG
-
--42- 40% oil 60% water
I I I 1 I
Froude Number
Figure 4.9a PRESSURE DROP VS FROUDE NUMBER
Slug Flow
30 cm to the slug tront
---I)-- 40% oil 60% water
Froude Number
Figure 4.9b PRESSURE DROP VS FROUDE NUMBER
Slug Flow
60 cm to the slug front
__C
20% oil*
- 40% oil
- 60% oil
20% oil Kanwar
* 40% oil Kanwar
---El- 60% oil Kanwar
-+20% oil deWaard
40% oil deWaard
- 60% oil deWaard
* Oil -- Britol 50T

0 I I I I
1.O 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0

Velocity (mls)
Figure 4.10 CORROSION RATE VS VELOCITY
Comparison between this study, deWaard (1993), and Kanwar (1994)
Pressure = 136 kPa Temperature =40 C
, .,
60% LVT200
40% LVT2W
60- 20% LVT200
'
+ 20% Brltol 50T
50 - -43-40% Britol 50T
+ 60% Brltol 50 T
40 -
20 -
Froude Number
Figure 4.12a VOlD FRACTION VS FROUDE NUMBER
Slug Flow
60% LVT200
40% LVT2W
* 20% LVT200
-0- 20% Britol SOT
--4l- 40% Britol SOT
--A- 60% Brltol 50 T
Froude Number
Figure 4.12b VOlD FRACTION VS FROUDE NUMBER
Slug Flow
60 t m to the slug front
- - ---
40% Britol 50T

* 60% Britol SOT
20% LVT200
--.)-- 40% LVTPOO
Froude Number
Figure 4.13a VOlD FRACTION VS FROUDE NUMBER
Slug Flow
-0- 40% Britol SOT

* 60% Britol 50T
-
k
20% LVT2OO
5
8
6
0
L
2
V)
0
&
Froude Number
Figure 4.13b VOlD FRACllON VS FROUDE NUMBER
Slug Flow
Fluid Composition Froude Equilibrium Corrosion
Number rate ( ~ P Y )
Salt Water (80%) + LVT200 Oil
(20%)
-- --
Salt Water (40%) + LVT200 Oil 6 0.92

(60%)
9 1.27
12 1.47
Salt Water (80%) + LVT2OO Oil 6 1.27
(20%) + ~ r & ~ e d u c i nAgent
~
9 1.50
(50 P P ~ )
12 1.47
Salt Water (40%) + LVTZOO Oil 1 6 1 0.92 1
(60%) + Drag Reducing Agent
9 1.45
(50 ppm)
12 1.40
(20%) + Inhibitor A (50 ppm)

12 Negligible
Salt Water (40%) + LVT200 Oil 6 Negligible
12 Negligible
(20%) + Inhibitor B (50 ppm)
L
9 Negligible
Salt Water (40%) + LVT200 Oil 6 I
Negligible
- -
I
12 I
Negligible
Less than 0.13 mm/yr
TABLE 4.6
CORROSION RATE DATA FOR CORROSION INHIBITORS
Fluid Composition Froude Equilibrium Corrosion
Number rate (mm)
(20%) + Inhibitor C (50ppm)
12 0.63
(60%) + Inhibitor C (50 ppm)
11 2.00
Salt Water (80%) + LVT2OO Oil 6 Negligible
(20%) + Inhibitor D (50ppm)
12 1.oo
12 Negligible
(20%) + Inhibitor E (50ppm)
12 Negligible
12 Negligible
(20%) + Inhibitor F (50ppm)
12 Negligible
12 Negligible
TABLE 4.6 (contd.)

CORROSION RATE DATA FOR CORROSION INHIBITORS
1 2
Time (hr)
Figure 4.14 CORROSION RATE VS TIME

Froude Number 12
Oil 20%, Salt Water 80%. 50 ppm Inhibitor C
Figure 4.15 Mild bubble impacts at Froude No. 6 for 20% oil with
inhibitor A at 40C and 0.14 MPa. No corrosion found
inside the circular impact areas. CR = negligible
Figure
-
e for
20% oil with 50 ppm inhibitor C at Froude No. 6,40C
0.14 MPa. CR = negligible
- -
Figure 4.17 (a) Coupon surface covered with a large number 01 au bble
collapse areas where the inhibitor fdm is destroyed at
Froude No. 11, for 60% oil with 50 ppm inhibitor (:: and
40C, 0.14 MPa. CR = 2 mmlyr
Figure 41.17 (b) Higher magnification photograph shows that the il

fdm is torn off in the bubble collapse areas and cor
appears to be taking place.
Figure 4.18 (a) A thin layer of corrosion deposit covering the surface for
60% oil with 50 ppm drag reducing agent. Slug flow at
Froude No. 12, at 40C and 0.14 MPa. CR = 1.4 mmlyr
Figure 4.18 (b) Circular bubble impact points in the corrosion deposit
observed for slug flow conditions. Compare the area
inside and outside the bubble impact region
Figure 4.18 (c) Surface covered with corrosion deposit in the form of folds
Bottom area shows bare metal after the deposit is removed
' Slug flow for 60% oil with 50ppm drag reducing agent, a t
Froude 6,40C, 0.14 MPa. CR = 0.9 mm/yr
78
Fluid Composition Froude Cross-Sectional Void

Number Fraction
30 cm 60 cm
Salt Water (80%) + LVT200 Oil 6 0.08 0.07
(20%)
9 0.17 0.12
12 0.38 0.26
(60%)
9 0.43 0.3 1
12 0.47 0.37
9 0.26 0.16
(50 P P ~ )
12 0.34 0.21
9 0.14 0.14
(50 ppm)
12 0.16 0.13
12 0.3 1 0.23
12 0.30 0.18
9 0.26 0.19
12 0.35 0.27
TABLE 4.7
VOID FRACTION DATA FOR CORROSION INHIBITORS
Fluid Composition Froude Cross-Sectional Void
Number Fraction
30 cm 60 cm
12 0.27 0.16
Salt Water (40%) + LVT2OO Oil 6 0.20 0.2 1
11 0.29 0.23
12 0.28 0.23
Salt Water (40%) + LVT2OO Oil 6 0.15 0.17
12 0.25 0.22
12 0.30 0.25
12 0.30 0.26
(20%) + Inhibitor F (5Oppm)
12 0.33 0.34
12 0.23 0.26
TABLE 4.7 (contd.)

VOID FRACTION DATA FOR CORROSION INHIBITORS
0.5
lnhibitor A
A lnhibitor B
+ inhibitor C
lnhlbitor D
0.3
A Inhibitor E
0
0.2
A
B
0.1-
+
*
0.0 I I 1 I
Froude Number
Figure 4.19 (a) AVERAGE VOlD FRACTION VS. FROUDE NUMBER
Oil (m%), Saltwater (80%), 50 ppm Inhibitor
30 cm to the slug tront
0.5 -
lnhibitor A
A lnhibitor B
+ Inhibitor C
lnhibitor D
0.3
A lnhibitor E
0
0.2
A
0 +
0
0.1-
0.01 I I I I
4 6 8 10 12 14
Froude Number
Figure 4.19 (b) AVERAGE VOlD FRACTION VS. FROUDE NUMBER
Oil (M%), Ssltwater (80%). 50 ppm Inhibitor
Figure 4.19 (c) AVERAGE VOlD FRACTION VS. FROUDE NUMBER
Oil (60%), Saltwater ( a % ) , 50 ppm lnhibior
0.5
0.4-
Uninhibited
0 DRA
lnhibitor A
0.3 -
A lnhibitor B
+ lnhibitor C
lnhibitor D
0.2-
A lnhibitor E
lnhibitor F
0.1-
0.0 I I I I
4 6 8 10 12 14
Froude Number
Figure 4.19 (d) AVERAGE VOlD FRACTION VS. FROUDE NUMBER
Oil (60%), Saltwater (a%), 50 ppm lnhibitor
-
Fluid Composition Froude Pressure Drop across the
Number slug (kPa)
30 cm 60 cm
(20%)
10 1.55 2.66
12 1.78 3.41
(60%)
10 1.57 2.21
12 1.91 2.98
9 1.75 2.26
(50 P P ~ )
12 2.72 3.72
9 2.23 2.35
(50 P P ~ )
12 2.91 3.25
12 3.00 3.84
' (60%) + Inhibitor A (50 ppm)
12 2.67 4.27
9 3.77 4.76
12 1.31 2.08
TABLE 4.8
PRESSURE DROP DATA FOR CORROSION INHIBITORS
Fluid Composition Froude Pressure Drop across the
Number slug (kPa)
30 cm 60 cm
12 2.68 4.07
11 1.99 2.94
12 2.83 4.25
Salt Water (40%) + LVT200 oil' 6 ' 1.03 1.21
12 2.52 3.69
12 2.87 4.0 1
12 2.35 3.57
12 2.25 3.75
12 2.54 3.56
*
TABLE 4.8 (contd.)

PRESSURE DROP DATA FOR CORROSION INHIBITORS
5
A Inhibitor B A
+ Inhlbitor C
A Inhibitor E 8
1-
0- I I I I
4 6 8 10 12 14
Froude Number
Figure 4.20 (a) PRESSURE DROP VS. FROUDE NUMBER

Oii (20%), !%Itwater ( a m ) ,50 ppm inhibitor
Froude Number
Figure 4.20 (b) PRESSURE DROP VS. FROUDE NUMBER

Oil (20%), Saltwater (am),50 ppm Inhibitor
Figure 4.20 (c) PRESSURE DROP VS. FROUDE NUMBER
011 (60%)Saltwater
, (a), 50 ppm Inhibitor
Froude Number
Figure 4.20 (d) PRESSURE DROP VS. FROUDE NUMBER
Oil (a%) Saltwater
, (a%), 50 ppm Inhibitor
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS
6.1 Study of High Viscosity Oil (Britol 50T)
The conclusions obtained by studying Britol 50T at various oiVwater compositions
and under different conditions are presented in this section.
Full Pipe Flow
For full pipe flow, the corrosion rate increases with an increase in velocity.
However, above 80% oil there is no effect of velocity on corrosion rates; at these
concentrations the corrosion rate is less than 0.1 mm/yr.
The de Waard (1993) model, which was based on experiments carried out in
stirred beakers, grossly underpredicts corrosion rates obtained from this study. However,
the Kanwar (1994) model, which was based on experiments carried out in large diameter
pipes, predicted the corrosion rates fairly well. Thus, corrosion rates obtained from
apparatus which does not take into effect the flow conditions existing in pipelines can
lead to large errors when extrapolated to field conditions.
Slug Flow
With an increase in Froude number corrosion rate increases. The high rates of
shear and increased turbulence present at higher Froude number lead to enhanced
corrosion rates.
87
As the oil fraction in the liquid phase is increased the equilibrium corrosion rate
increases. This trend is seen upto 60% oil in the liquid phase. Thereafter, the corrosion
rate begins to decrease and is nearly zero when 80% oil is present in the liquid phase.
This result is similar to results obtained by Kanwar (1994) in his study with low and
intermediate viscosity oils.
On increasing the Froude number the void fraction and pressure drop within the
slug increase. This indicates that the amount of gas entrained in the slug increases with
an increase in Froude number and makes the mixing zone of the slug larger and turbulent.
This increase in turbulence can lead to higher corrosion rates.
The comparison of results obtained by Zhou (1993) with this study indicate that
higher corrosion rates were observed for the more viscous oil Britol 50T than for
LVT200. Moreover, at the same oil composition, an increase in Froude number increases
the corrosion rate. This was manifested by an increase in void fraction and pressure drop
across the slug. However, for Britol 50T, the amount of gas entrained in the slug
decreased with increase in oil concentration, but the corrosion rate obtained with this oil
were higher than those obtained with LVT200. This may be due to effects of viscosity
and increased shear stresses at the pipe wall. Thus, two factors can be outlined, namely
void fraction and viscosity of the oillwater mixture, which directly influence corrosion
rates in multiphase pipelines.
6.2 Corrosion Inhibition
The conclusions obtained by the addition of corrosion inhibitors to oillwater

88
mixtures under different flow conditions are presented in this section. The oil used was
a low viscosity 2cp (LVT2.00) oil.
Visual observations showed that several of the inhibitors affected the flow
characteristics. In most cases, a frothy emulsion was formed and when samples were
taken from the system, the emulsion did not break to reform the original liquid mixture.
The change in flow properties of the fluids due to the addition of inhibitors were
further confirmed by the change in void fraction and pressure drop across the slug.
All the inhibitors reduced the corrosion rate to less than 0.13 m d y r at the Froude
number of 6. However, at the Froude number of 12, Inhibitor C and D were not effective
in reducing the corrosion rate to negligible amounts.
The addition of drag reducing agent proved to be ineffective in reducing corrosion
rates. Also change in flow properties were observed by the addition of the drag reducing
agent
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) studies done by Vuppu (1994), indicate that
the coupons were covered with a thin inhibitor film in cases where the corrosion rates
were negligible. However, in cases where substantial corrosion rates were obtained even
on the addition of the inhibitor the steel coupons showed occurrences of bubble impact
at the bottom of the pipe, which prevented the formation of any protective film. At
higher inhibitor concentrations, the corrosion rate was reduced substantially.

89
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Efird, K.D., Wright, E.J., Boros, J.A, and Hailey, T.G. (1993). Wall Shear Stress
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steels. Advances in CO, Corrosion, L, 39-51, NACE, Houston, Texas.
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~ e ~ s o W.P.
n , (1987). The Flow Characteristics in Horizontal Slug Flow. 3rd
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Paper F2.
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Jepson, W.P. (1989). Modelling the Transition to Slug Flow in a Horizontal
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multiphase flow in horizontal pipelines. Corrosion/94, 24/1-24/12.
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2
McKenszie, M., and Vassie, P.R. (1985). Use of weight loss coupons and
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92
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93
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7-
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94
APPENDIX A
Calibration of the Hot film Sensor to Measure the Shear Stress and Turbulent
Intensity at the Wall of the Pipe, Sun (1992).
In the usual mode of operation of hot film sensors, the sensor temperature is
maintained at a constant value by a standard hot-film anemometry circuit. A laminar
thermal boundary layer grows on the probe in the direction of flow and the instantaneous
average heat transfer coefficient for the probe is proportional to the square of the voltage
drop across the sensor. In an ideal developing laminar boundary layer, the heat transfer
coefficient for the probe is proportional to one third of the surface shear stress. Since the
sensor temperature is high enough the ambient temperature variations have a little effect
on the system calibration parameters. Usually in that case, only the constants A and B
in the calibration equation need to be determined.
(T,)'~ = Av2+ B
where: xw = Mean wall shear stress

V = anemometer bridge voltage
The hot film sensor was calibrated under fully developed turbulent flow conditions in the
pipe for each fluid. The fluid temperature was maintained at 40 C during both the
calibration and measurement.
For fully develop flow within a smooth pipe:
where: Ve = superficial velocity of the liquid ( d s )

p = Density of the liquid (Kg/m3)
f = friction factor
95
The friction factor can be calculated by the Prandtl's smooth circular tube equation:
f 0.5 = 41ogI0(2Rep5)- 1.6
where Re is the Reynolds number.

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\

PERFORMANCE AND SLUG FLOW CHARACTERISTICS IN

HORIZONTAL MULTIPHASE PIPELINES/

The Faculty of the Russ College of Engineering and Technology

of the Requirement for the Degree

during my stay here at Ohio University.

whose emotional support and encouragement made this degree possible.

LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.

3 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND PROCEDURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

1. Table 3.1. List of Inhibitors used ................................ 31

3. Table 4.2. Void fraction data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

6. Table 4.5. Pressure drop across the slug ........................... 65

7 . Table 4.6. Corrosion rate data for corrosion inhibitors .................. 71

8. Table 4.7. Void fraction data for corrosion inhibitors .................. 78

9. Table 4.8. Pressure drop data for corrosion inhibitors .................. 82

Flow patterns in horizontal pipelines (Water-Gas) ................ 6

Flow regime map for two-phase carbon-dioxide system. in a 10 cm pipe 7

Schematic of slug unit ................................... 8

Comparison between a real moving slug and a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Hydraulic jumps in open channel flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Plot of corrosion rate vs % oil fraction. at the bottom of the pipe. . . . . . . .

Plot corrosion rate vs Froude number. at the bottom of the pipe. . . . . . . . .

Plot of corrosion rate vs % oil. at the top of the pipe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Plot of corrosion rate vs Froude number. at the top of the pipe. . . . . . . .

Void fraction profile at 30 cm and 60 cm within the slug. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Void fraction profile at 30 cm and 60 cm within the slug. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Void fraction profile at 30 cm and 60 cm within the slug. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.8b Oil fraction profile at 30 cm and 60 cm within the slug, . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.9a,b Pressure drop at 30 cm and 60 cm across the slug,

4.10 Comparison between this study, and other predictive models . . . . . . . . 67

4.11 Comparison of corrosion rates, between Brit01 50T / LVT200 oils, . . . . . .

4.12a,b Comparison of void fraction profiles at 30 cm and 60 cm . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.13a,b Comparison of pressure drop at 30 cm and 60 cm across the slug . . . . . . .

4.14 Change in corrosion rate with time on the addition of . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.15 Formation of protective film on coupon at lower Froude numbers . . . . 74

4.16 Formation of protective film on coupon at lower Froude numbers . . . . 74

4.17a,b Bubble collapse regions on coupon surface at higher Froude numbers . . 75

4.18a,b,c Effect of drag reducing agents on surface of coupon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.19a,b Effect of inhibitors on void fraction profiles, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.19c,d Effect of inhibitors on void fraction profiles, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.20a,b Effect of inhibitors on pressure drop across the slug, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.20c,d Effect of inhibitors on pressure drop across the slug, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Internal corrosion of carbon-steel pipelines is a common problem encountered in

they are separated.

This flow of the multiphase mixture creates a number of corrosion associated

maintenance, and/or replacement and clean up of spills is difficult and expensive.

Consequently, it becomes important to understand the mechanisms of corrosion and the

factors affecting it.

The methods used to decrease corrosion-related problems include the selection of

protective layer. When selecting a corrosion inhibitor, it is essential to know how

chemistry and the flow conditions are essential.

errors when extrapolated to actual field conditions.

slug flow. Annular flow is seen at very high gas velocities.

forms the slug. The f ~ o n of

However, it is much easier to make measurements in a stationary slug than those in a

oil (LVT200,2 cp at 40 C) and an intermediate viscosity oil (ARCOPAK90, 15 cp at 40

Figure 1.1 Flow Patterns in Horizontal Pipelines (Water-Gas)

2.1 Flow Regimes and Slug Flow

compositions of the different phases and their velocities.

incoming liquid on which the next slug propagates.

Experiments were conducted in a 10 m long, 10 cm diameter pipe. Hydraulic jumps were

vt = Translational velocity of the slug