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RHEOLOGICAL BEHAVIOUR OF BITUMINOUS

BINDERS FOR INDIAN CONDITIONS

A THESIS

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the


requirements for the award of the degree
of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
A*uWL ***
in

CIVIL ENGINEERING '&

By

KHWAIRAKPAM LAKSHMAN SINGH

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING


INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE
ROORKEE-247 667 (INDIA)
JUNE, 2006
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE, 2006
ALL RIGHT RESERVED
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE
ROORKEE

CANDIDATE'S DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the work which is being presented in the thesis entitled
"RHEOLOGICAL BEHAVIOUR OF BITUMINOUS BINDERS FOR INDIAN
CONDITIONS" in fulfilment of the requirements of the award of the degree of Doctor of
Philosophy and submitted in the Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of
Technology Roorkee, Roorkee is an authentic record of my own work carried out during a
period from July 2002 to June 2006 under the supervision of Dr. H.C. Mehndiratta and Dr.
Praveen Kumar.

The matter presented in this thesis has not been submitted by me for the award ofany
other degree of this or any other University/Institute.

(KHWAIRAKPAM LAKSHMAN SINGH)


This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidate-is correct to the best
of our knowledge.

(Dr. Praveen Kumar) (Dr. H.C. Mehndiratta) ^M » C


Associate Professor Professor
Deptt. ofCivil Engineering Deptt. ofCivil Engineering
IIT Roorkee HT Roorkee
Roorkee (INDIA) Roorkee (INDIA)
bate 30-OG- Q.OOC
The Ph.D. Viva-Voce examination of Mr. Khwairakpam Lakshman Singh,
Research Scholar, has been held on

Signature of Supervisor(s) Signature of External Examiner


ABSTRACT

India has large highways and road networks and the total length of the country's

roads exceeds 3.31 million kilometers. The increase in India's road transport during the

last two decades is likely to continue unabated in the coming years as well. The traffic

on Indian highways is mixed and quite different in character as compared to many other
countries. In India, about 98 percent of the roads are of flexible type, therefore bitumen

as a binder plays a key role in the performance related properties of bituminous mixes.
The failures of the bituminous pavements are not only due to increase in traffic butalso

due to extreme climatic conditions prevailing in the country. There is a very high and

very low pavement temperatures existed in some parts of the country. Thus climatic
conditions play an important role in selecting the type of materials to be used in road

construction. In order to increase the life of bituminous pavement, quality of bitumen

needs to be enhanced. To achieve the improvement of binder, it is necessary to add the

polymers to bitumen. By adding small amount of polymers to bitumen, the properties


can be enhanced over wide range temperatures in road applications and the life span of

the road pavement increases considerably.

In India, the rheological characterization of bituminous binders is based on the

properties such as penetration, softening point, ductility and absolute viscosity, which
are usually inadequate to characterize the bitumen. Dynamic Mechanical Analysis
(DMA) is the method already in use in developed countries to study the rheological
properties of bituminous binder. Two types of polymer; Ethylene Vinyle Acetate
(EVA), a plastomer; Linear Styrene Butadiene Styrene (SBS), an elastomer and Crumb
Rubber (CR) were considered in the present study. The changes of rheological
Abstract

properties of 60/70 and 80/100 grades bitumen modified with different percentage of

CR, EVA and SBS (3 to 9%) were studied. The rheological properties of the

bituminous binders in terms of their complex modulus (G*), stiffness and overall

resistance to deformation, storage modulus (G'), binder elasticity, loss modulus (G"),

viscous behaviour and phase angle (5), viscoelastic behaviour were measured by using
Dynamic Shear Rheometer (SR5 Ashphalt Rheometer). Testing was performed at
temperatures ranging from 46°C to 82°C in increments of 6°C at a frequency of
10 rad/sec. Dynamic frequency sweep tests were performed at 60°C in the range from
0.1 to 100 rad/sec before and after ageing. Dynamic stress sweep test was also
conducted at a frequency of 10 rad/sec and temperature 55°C before ageing. Short term
ageing was simulated by Thin Film Oven Test. Rutting resistance (G*/sin 6) for
different modified binders was also determined at different frequencies (1 rad/sec and
10 rad/sec) and 60°C.

Crumb Rubber is the cheapest modifier and easily available in India. Therefore,
the rheological property of CR modified binder is also investigated in the present study.
The results show that crumb rubber and polymer modification improve the complex
modulus and elastic response of the bitumen at high temperatures. The complex
modulus at 46°C increased 1.2 and 1.7 times by adding 3% CR to 60/70 and 80/100
bitumens respectively. It increases 1.8, 2.4 and 3, 4.8 times for 60/70, 80/100 bitumens
modified with 3% SBS and EVA respectively. The complex modulus increases with
increase in percentage of modifier and decreases with increase in temperature.
However, phase angle decreases with increase in percentage ofmodifier and increases
with increase in temperature.

n
Abstract

The value of G*/sin 8 for EVA modified binders are found to be higher than CR

and SBS modified binders at 1 rad/sec and 10 rad/sec and 60°C. It indicates that EVA

modified binders have higher rutting resistance to deformation under loading as

compared to CR and SBS modified binders at high temperature. The temperature

susceptibility of the modified binders is lower than neat bitumen and increase in
percentage of modifier decreases temperature susceptibility. It was observed that the
rheological properties of bituminous binders were changed after ageing. There is an
increase in complex modulus before and after ageing for CR and EVA modified
binders. The complex modulus decreases after ageing at higher polymer content (7% to

9%) for SBS modified 60/70 bitumen and it increases up to temperature 58°C then
decreases with above percentage for SBS modified 80/100 bitumen after ageing. In all

cases, the aged modified binders showed better rheological properties than aged neat

bitumens. The change in rheological properties of aged modified binders varied with

polymer type, content and bitumen grades. The ageing index of the binders was also
largely influenced by test frequency and temperature.

Dynamic frequency and stress sweep tests were also conducted to characterize
the bituminous binders in the present study. The results indicate that complex modulus

increases with increase in the frequency and percentage of modifier. The EVA

modified binders show lower phase angle for entire frequencies considered in the study

as compared to CR and SBS modified binders. There is a significant decrease in


dynamic viscosity for modified binders as compared to neat bitumens. The modified
binders show lower strain as comparedto neat bitumens at the same stresses. It shows a

substantial improvement in the resistance to permanent deformation of modified

binders.

in
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I dedicate this work of mine to my beloved parents, Mr. Khwairakpam

Kumar Singh and Late Mrs. Khwairakpam Ongbi Kulabati Devi. Without them I

would have never been able to reach this level.

I wish to express my heartiest thanks to my respected guide Dr. H.C.


Mehndiratta, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of

Technology Roorkee for his invaluable guidance and kind encouragement, which
helped me to successfully complete the work in time. I thank him for having trust in me
by consenting to be my Supervisor and I on my part did my level best to justify this
trust. His precious advice and guidance was the constant source of inspiration for the

completion of this research work.

I express my sincere gratitude and indebtedness towards my respected


guide, Dr. Praveen Kumar, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee for his patience and continuous guidance,

cooperation, encouragement and all assistance required for the completion ofthis work.
His painstaking efforts in going through the manuscript and giving good suggestions
for its improvement are gratefully acknowledged.

I would like to thank to Dr. Sunil Bose, Deputy Director, Central Road

Research Institute, New Delhi for his help and support to my work in the initial period.

I express my deep sense of gratitude to Prof. Satish Chandra and other faculty
members of Transportation Engineering Section for their cooperation and valuable

suggestions during the research works.

IV
Acknowledgements

I would also like to thank to Dr. G.L. Asawa, Professor and Head, Department

of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, for his help and giving

good suggestions and Dr. P.C. Jain, former Head of Department of Civil Engineering

of this Institute, for providing the excellent equipment in the department for the

research work.

My sincere thanks are due to all the staff members of Transportation

Engineering Laboratory who went out of their way to render all the possible help to
me during the experimental work.

I cannot forget to recall with my heartiest feelings, the never ending heart felt
stream of caring and blessing of my sister, Premlata and brothers for their

encouragement and moral support during the research work.

Words cannot express for my gratitude to my uncle, Kh. Kiran Kumar,


Director, Horticulture and Soil Conservation, Manipur, for his constant encouragement
and support for completion this work.

I express my sincere thanks to Mr. K. Sonamani Singh, Research Scholar,


WRDM, Balaji, Nikunja, Ratnadeep, Varun Singh and Jikum Hiri, for their selfless

help, encouragement and suggestions especially during the final stage of the manuscript
preparation.

Last but not the least, I acknowledge my gratefulness to all my friends and
batch mates.

(KHWAIRAKPAM LAKSHMAN SINGH)


CONTENTS

Page No.

ABSTRACT i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv

CONTENTS vi

LIST OF FIGURES xi

LIST OF TABLES xxv

LIST OF SYMBOLS xxix

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xxx

LIST OF PLATES xxxii

CHAPTER - 1: INTRODUCTION 1-12


1.0 GENERAL 1
1.1 BACKGROUND OF BITUMINOUS BINDER 2
1.2 POLYMER AND RUBBER MODIFIED BITUMEN 4
1.3 DYNAMIC RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF BITUMEN 5

1.4 NEED OF RESEARCH 8


1.5 OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH 9
1.6 SCOPE OF THE RESEARCH 10
1.7 ORGANISATION OF THESIS 11

CHAPTER - 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 13-62

2.0 INTRODUCTION 13

2.1 TYPE OF BITUMEN MODIFIERS 13

2.1.1 Sulphur 14

2.1.2 Polymer 15

2.1.3 Fibers 16

2.2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MODIFIED BINDERS 16

2.2.1 Studies on SBS 16

2.2.2 Studies on EVA 21

vi
Contents

2.2.3 Studies on Polyethylene 23

2.2.4 Studies on Natural Rubber 25

2.2.5 Studies on Crumb Rubber 27

2.2.6 Studies on Sulphur 31

2.3 RHEOLOGY OF BITUMINOUS BINDERS 32

2.3.1 Studies on Rheological Properties of Bitumen 32

2.3.2 Effect of Composition and Structure onRheological 49

Behaviour

2.3.3 Effect of Ageing on Binders Rheology 52

2.4 SUSCEPTIBITY INDICES OF BITUMINOUS BINDER 54

2.5 STUDIES ON ECONOMIC ANALYSIS 61

CHAPTER - 3: RHEOLOGICAL CHARACTERIZATION AND 63-84

EVALUATION OF BITUMINOUS BINDERS


3.0 GENERAL 63

3.1 BACKGROUND OF STRATEGIC HIGHWAY RESEARCH 63

PROGRAM (SHRP)
3.2 SHRP BINDER SPECIFICATIONS 64

3.2.1 Superpave Binder Specifications 64

3.2.2 Performance Based Binder Tests 68


3.3 DISTRESS MODES 69

3.3.1 Consideration of Rutting in Specification 70

3.3.2 Thermal Cracking 71

3.3.3 Fatigue Cracking 72


3.3.4 Ageing 73

3.4 STUDIES ON VISCO-ELASTIC BEHAVIOUR OF BITUMENS 74


3.4.1 Stress and Strain 74

3.4.2 Elasticity, Viscosity, and Viscoelasticity 75

3.4.3 Linear Viscoelastic Range 77

3.5 MATHEMATICAL MODEL FOR DESCRIBING THE 78

MASTER CURVE

3.6 DYNAMIC MECHANICAL ANALYSIS 82

vn
Contents

3.6.1 Rheological Terminology 82


3.6.2 Relationship between Dynamic Moduli 83

CHAPTER - 4: EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME 85-116


4.0 GENERAL 85
4.1 MATERIALS 85
4.1.1 Bitumen 85
4.1.2 Modifiers 87
4.1.2.1 Crumb rubber 87
4.1.2.2 Polymers 87
4.2 PREPARATION OF MODIFIED BINDERS 87
4.2.1 Preparation ofCrumb Rubber Modified Binder 88
4.2.2 Preparation ofEthylene Vinyl Acetate Modified Binder 90
4.2.3 Preparation of Styrene-Butadiene-Styrene modified binder 90
4.3 TESTING PROTOCOLS 90
4.3.1 Dynamic ShearRheometer (DSR) 90

4.3.2 Scope of DSR 91

4.3.3 Component Identification of SR5 Asphalt Rheometer 91


4.3.4 Principle and Operation ofDSR 94
4.3.5 Sample Preparation and Test Procedure 97
4.3.6 Specification Values . 101
4.4 AGEINGTEST 101
4.5 LABORATORY EVALUATION 102
4.5.1 Dynamic Shear Rheometer Testing Types 102
4.5.1.1 Dynamic Frequency Sweep Test 102
4.5.1.2 Dynamic Stress Sweep Test 102
4.5.2 Conventional Test on Modified Bitumen 105
4.5.2.1 Penetration test 105
4.5.2.2 Softening Point Test 105
4.5.2.3 Ductility Test 105
4.5.2.4 Elastic Recovery Test 105

Vlll
Contents

CHAPTER - 5: TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ON 117-247


BITUMINOUS BINDERS

5.0 GENERAL 117

5.1 CONVENTIONAL TEST RESULTS OF MODIFIED BINDERS 117


5.1.1 Physical Properties Polymer Modified Bitumen 118
5.1.2 Physical Properties of Crumb Rubber Modified bitumen 119
5.2 DISCUSSION ON PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF 119
MODIFIED BINDERS

5.2.1 Effect on Penetration values with different Modifiers 119


5.2.2 Effect on Softeningpoint values with different Modifiers 122
5.2.3 Effect on Ductility values with different Modifiers 125
-4
5.2.4 Effect on Elastic Recovery values with different Modifiers 127
5.3 AGEING EFFECT ON MODIFIED BINDERS 130
5.4 PENETRATION INDEX 131
5.5 OPTIMUM PERCENTAGE OF POLYMERS AND 136
CRUMB RUBBER

5.6 RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF BITUMINOUS BINDERS 136


AND ITS VARIATION BY ADDITION OF MODIFIERS
5.6.1 Rheological Properties of Modified Binders 136
5.6.2 Relationship between GVsin 8 and Test Temperature 140
5.6.3 Relationship between Complex Modulus and Phase 151
Angle with Temperature
5.6.4 Relationship between Loss Modulus and Storage 158
Modulus with Temperature
5.6.5 Relationship between Dynamic Viscosity and Temperature 166
5.6.6 Variation in Rheological Properties of Modified Binders 173
5.6.7 Effect of Modifier contents on Dynamic Viscosity 177
5.7 TEMPERATURE SUSCEPTIBILITY OF BINDERS 179
5.7.1 Effect of Modifier contents onViscosity Temperature 183 -»

Susceptibility
5.8 INFLUENCE OF AGEING ON MODIFIED BINDERS 184
5.9 AGEING INDEX 191

IX
Contents

5.10 DYNAMIC FREQUENCY SWEEP TEST 194

5.11 DYNAMIC STRESS SWEEP TEST 205

5.12 DISCUSSION ON RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES 212

5.13 CORRELATION BETWEEN EMPIRICAL AND 213

RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF BITUMINOUS BINDERS


5.13.1 Correlation between Complex Modulus and Penetration 213

5.13.2 Correlation between Phase Angle at different 217

temperatures and Penetration Value


5.13.3 Correlation between Complex Modulus at different 221

temperatures and Softening Point


5.13.4 Correlation between Phase Angle at different 225

temperatures and Softening Point


5.13.5 Correlation between Dynamic Viscosity and 228

Penetration value

5.13.6 Correlation between Dynamic Viscosity and 232

Softening Point
5.13.7 Relationship between Softening Point and Rutting 236

Characteristics

5.13.8 Relationship between Softening Point and 240

Failure Temperatures
5.14 DISCUSSION IN SELECTION OF BINDERS FOR INDIA 246

CHAPTER- 6: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 248-253

6.0 CONCLUSIONS 248

6.1 RECOMMENDATIONS 253

REFERENCES 254

APPENDIX
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Title Page No.


Figure 1.1 Complex modulus and temperature for base and SBS 7
modified Bitumen B (Lu and Isacsson, 1997).

Figure 2.1 Phase angle and frequency for base and SBS modified 37
bitumens at 60°C (Lu and Isacsson, 1997)

Figure 2.2 Complex modulus and temperature at 0.02 Hz for base and 41
EVA modified Bitumens A and B (Airey, 2002)

Figure 2.3 Complex modulus and temperature at 1 Hz for base and 42


EVA modified Bitumens A and B (Airey, 2002).

Figure 3.1 Strain Sweep Used to determine Linear Region (Petersen et 78


al., 1994).

Figure 3.2 Relationship between Dynamic moduli and Phase angle 74

Figure 4.1 Dynamic Shear Rheometer Operation 95


Figure 4.2 Dynamic Shear Rheometer 96
Figure 4.3 Sample shape after trimming and after final setting of gap 98
Figure 4.4 Instrument Setup for Dynamic Frequency Sweep Test 103

Figure 4.5 Dynamic Frequency Sweep Test Setup Form 103


Figure 4.6 Instrument Setup for SHRP Spec Grade Test 104
Figure 4.7 Instrument Setup for Dynamic Stress Sweep Test 104

Figure 5.1 Effect on Penetration values with different percentage of 120


Modifiers.

Figure 5.2 Variations in Penetration values for 60/70 grade bitumen 120
modified with different modifiers.

xi
List of Figures

Figure No. Title Page No.


Figure 5.3 Variations in Penetration values for 80/100 grade bitumen 121
modified with different modifiers.

Figure 5.4 Effect on Softening Point with different percentage of 123


Modifiers

Figure 5.5 Variations in Softening Point for 60/70 grade bitumen 123
modified with different modifiers.

Figure 5.6 Variations in Softening Point for 80/100 grade bitumen 124
modified with different modifiers.

Figure 5.7 Effect on Ductility with different percentage ofModifiers 126


Figure 5.8 Variations in Ductility values for 60/70 grade bitumen 126
modified with different modifiers.

Figure 5.9 Variations in Ductility values for 80/100 grade bitumen 127
modified with different modifiers.

Figure 5.10 Effect on Elastic Recovery value with different percentage of 128
Modifiers

Figure 5.11 Variations in Elastic Recovery values for 60/70 grade 129
bitumen modified with different modifiers.

Figure 5.12 Variations in Elastic Recovery values for 80/100 grade 129
bitumen modified with different modifiers.

Figure 5.13 Variation of Penetration Index with Modifiers for 60/70 134
grade bitumen

Figure 5.14 Variation of Penetration Index with Modifiers for 80/100 135
grade bitumen

Figure 5.15 G*/ sin 8 measured at 10 rad/s (1.59 Hz) as a function of 141
Temperature for 60/70 Bitumen modified with CR before
Ageing.

xn
List o Tables

Figure No. Title Page No,

Figure 5.16 G*/ sin 8 measured at 10 rad/s (1.59 Hz) as a function of 141
Temperature for 80/100 Bitumen modified with CR before
Ageing.

Figure 5.17 G*/ sin 8 measured at 10 rad/s (1.59 Hz) as a function of 142
Temperature for 60/70 Bitumen modified with EVA before
Ageing.

Figure 5.18 G*/ sin 8 measured at 10 rad/s (1.59 Hz) as a function of 142
Temperature for 80/100 Bitumen modified with EVA before
Ageing.

Figure 5.19 G*7 sin 8 measured at 10 rad/s (1.59 Hz) as a function of 143
Temperature for 60/70 Bitumen modified with SBS before
Ageing.

Figure 5.20 G*/ sin 8 measured at 10 rad/s (1.59 Hz) as a function of 143
Temperature for 80/100 Bitumen modified with EVA before
Ageing.

Figure 5.21 G*/ sin 8 measured at 10 rad/s (1.59 Hz) as a function of 144
Temperature for 60/70 Bitumen modified with CR after
Ageing.

Figure 5.22 G*/ sin 8 measured at 10 rad/s (1.59 Hz) as a function of 144
Temperature for 80/100 Bitumen modified with CR after
Ageing.

Figure 5.23 G*/ sin 8 measured at 10 rad/s (1.59 Hz) as a function of 145
Temperature for 60/70 Bitumen modified with EVA after
Ageing.

Figure 5.24 G*/ sin 8 measured at 10 rad/s (1.59 Hz) as a function of 145
Temperature for 80/100 Bitumen modified with EVA after
Ageing.

xni
List of Figures

FigUreNo' Title PageNo.


Figure 5.25 G*/ sin 8 measured at 10 rad/s (1.59 Hz) as a function of 146
Temperature for 60/70 Bitumen modified with SBS after
Ageing.

Figure 5.26 G*/ sin 8measured at 10 rad/s (1.59 Hz) as a function of 146
Temperature for 60/70 Bitumen modified with SBS after
Ageing.

Figure 5.27 Variation in G*/sin 8 for 60/70 Bitumen modified with 149
different percentage of modifier at 1 rad/s and 60°C before
ageing

Figure 5.28 Variation in G*/sin 8 for 80/100 Bitumen modified with 149
different percentage of modifier at 1rad/s and 60°C before
ageing

Figure 5.29 Variation in G*/sin 8 for 60/70 Bitumen modified with 150
different percentage of modifier at 10 rad/s and 60°C before
Ageing

Figure 5.30 Variation in GVsin 8 for 80/100 Bitumen modified with 150
different percentage of modifier at 10 rad/s and 60°C before
Ageing

Figure 5.31 Relationships between Complex Modulus and Phase Angle 152
with Temperature at 10 rad/s (1.59) for 60/70 Bitumen
modified with CR

Figure 5.32 Relationships between Complex Modulus and Phase Angle 153
with Temperature at 10 rad/s (1.59 Hz) for 80/100 Bitumen
modified with CR

Figure 5.33 Relationships between Complex Modulus and Phase Angle 154
with Temperature at 10 rad/s (1.59 Hz) for 60/70 Bitumen
modified with EVA

xiv
List o Tables

Figure No. Title Page No.


Figure 5.34 Relationships between Complex Modulus and Phase Angle 155
with Temperature at 10 rad/s (1.59 Hz) for 80/100 Bitumen
modified with EVA

Figure 5.35 Relationships between Complex Modulus and Phase Angle 156
with Temperature at lOrad/s (1.59Hz) for 60/70 Bitumen
modified with SBS

Figure 5.36 Relationship between Complex Modulus and Phase Angle 157
with Temperature at 10 rad/s (1.59 Hz) for 80/100 Bitumen
modified with SBS

Figure 5.37 Relationship between Loss Modulus and Storage Modulus 160
with Temperature at 10 rad/s (1.59 Hz) for 60/70 Bitumen
modified with CR

Figure 5.38 Relationship between Loss Modulus and Storage Modulus 161
with Temperature at 10 rad/s (1.59 Hz) for 80/100 Bitumen
modified with CR

Figure 5.39 Relationship between Loss Modulus and Storage Modulus 162
with Temperature at 10 rad/s (1.59 Hz) for 60/70 Bitumen
modified with EVA

Figure 5.40 Relationship between Loss Modulus and Storage Modulus 163
with Temperature at 10 rad/s (1.59 Hz) for 80/100 Bitumen
modified with EVA

Figure 5.41 Relationship between Loss Modulus and Storage Modulus 164
with Temperature at 10 rad/s 91.59 Hz) for 60/70 Bitumen
modified with SBS

Figure 5.42 Relationship between Loss Modulus and Storage Modulus 165
with Temperature at 10 rad/s (1.59 Hz) for 80/100 Bitumen
modified with SBS.

xv
List of Figures

Figure No. Title Page No.

Figure 5.43 Relationship between Dynamic Viscosity and Temperature 167


for CR modified 60/70 Bitumen

Figure 5.44 Relationship between Dynamic Viscosity and Temperature 167


for CR modified 80/100 Bitumen

Figure 5.45 Relationship between Dynamic Viscosity and Temperature 168


for EVA modified 60/70 Bitumen

Figure 5.46 Relationship between Dynamic Viscosity and Temperature 168


for EVA modified 80/100 Bitumen

Figure 5.47 Relationship between Dynamic Viscosity and Temperature 169


for SBS modified 60/70 Bitumen

Figure 5.48 Relationship between Dynamic Viscosity and Temperature 169


for SBS modified 80/100 Bitumen

Figure 5.49 Relationship between log Dynamic Viscosity and log 170
Temperature for CR modified 60/70 Bitumen

Figure 5.50 Relationship between log Dynamic Viscosity and log 170
Temperature for CR modified 80/100 Bitumen

Figure 5.51 Relationship between log Dynamic Viscosity and log 171
Temperature for EVA modified 60/70 Bitumen

Figure 5.52 Relationship between log Dynamic Viscosity and log 171
Temperature for EVA modified 80/100 Bitumen

Figure 5.53 Relationship between log Dynamic Viscosity and log 172
Temperature for SBS modified 60/70 Bitumen

Figure 5.54 Relationship between log Dynamic Viscosity and log 172
Temperature for SBS modified 80/100 Bitumen

Figure 5.55 Relationship between Complex Modulus and Temperature at 173


1 rad/s and 10 rad/s for 60/70 Bitumen modified with 3
percent modifier

xvi
List o Tables

Figure No. Title Page No.


Figure 5.56 Relationship between Complex Modulus and Temperature at 174
1 rad/sec and 10 rad/sec for 80/100 Bitumen modified with 3
percent modifier

Figure 5.57 Effect of CR content on Dynamic Viscosity at 10 rad/s 178

Figure 5.58 Effect ofEVA content on Dynamic Viscosity at 10 rad/s 178

Figure 5.59 Effect of SBS concentration on Dynamic Viscosity at 10 179


rad/s

Figure 5.60 Effect Modifier contents on Viscosity Temperature 183


Susceptibility of 60/70 Bitumen modified with different
Modifiers

Figure 5.61 Effect of Modifier contents on Viscosity Temperature 184


Susceptibility of 80/100 Bitumen modified with different
Modifiers

Figure 5.62 Effect of Ageing on Complex Modulus as a function of 185


Temperature for 60/70 Bitumen modified with CR

Figure 5.63 Effect of Ageing on Complex Modulus as a function of 186


Temperature for 60/70 Bitumen modified with EVA

Figure 5.64 Effect of Ageing on Complex Modulus as a function of 187


Temperature for 60/70 Bitumen modified with SBS

Figure 5.65 Effect of Ageing on Complex Modulus as a function of 188


Temperature for 80/100 Bitumen modified with CR

Figure 5.66 Effect of Ageing on Complex Modulus as a function of 189


Temperature for 80/100 Bitumen modified with EVA

Figure 5.67 Effect of Ageing on Complex Modulus as a function of 190

Temperature for 80/100 Bitumen modified with SBS

xvn
List of Figures

Figure No. Title Page No.


Figure 5.68 Relationship between Complex Modulus and frequency at 195
60°C for 60/70 Bitumen modified with CR

Figure 5.69 Relationship between Complex Modulus and Frequency at 196


60°C for 60/70 Bitumen modified with EVA

Figure 5.70 Relationship between Complex Modulus and Frequency at 196


60°C for 60/70 Bitumen modified with SBS

Figure 5.71 Relationship between Complex Modulus and Frequency at 197


60°C for 60/70 Bitumen modified with SBS

Figure 5.72 Relationship between Complex Modulus and Frequency at 197


60°C for 80/100 Bitumen modified with CR

Figure 5.73 Relationship between Complex Modulus and Frequency at 198


60°C for 80/100 Bitumen modified with EVA

Figure 5.74 Relationship between Complex Modulus and Frequency at 198


60°C for 80/100 Bitumen modified with SBS

Figure 5.75 Relationship between Complex Modulus and Frequency at 199


60°C for 60/70 Bitumen modified with different modifiers
before and after ageing

Figure 5.76 Relationship between Complex Modulus and Frequency at 199


60°C for 80/100 Bitumen modified with different modifiers
before and after Ageing

Figure 5.77 Relationship between Phase Angle and Frequency at 60°C 200
before Ageing for CR modified 60/70 Bitumen

Figure 5.78 Relationship between Phase Angle and Frequency at 60°C 200
before Ageingfor EVA modified 60/70 Bitumen

Figure 5.78 Relationship between Phase Angle and Frequency at 60°C 200
before Ageingfor SBS modified 60/70 Bitumen

xvin
List o Tables

Figure No. Title Page No.

Figure 5.79 Relationship between Phase Angle and Frequency at 60°C 201
before Ageing for CR modified 80/100 Bitumen

Figure 5.80 Relationship between phase angle and Frequency at 60°C 201
before Ageing for EVA modified 80/100 Bitumen

Figure 5.81 Relationship between phase angle and Frequency at 60°C 202
before Ageing for SBS modified 80/100 Bitumen

Figure 5.82 Relationship between Dynamic Viscosity and Frequency at 202


60°C before Ageing for modified 60/70 Bitumen

> Figure 5.83 Relationship between Dynamic Viscosity and Frequency at 203
60°C before Ageing for EVA modified 60/70 Bitumen

Figure 5.84 Relationship between Dynamic Viscosity and Frequency at 203


60°C before Ageing for SBS modified 60/70 Bitumen

Figure 5.85 Relationship between Dynamic Viscosity and Frequency at 204


60°C before Ageing for CR modified 80/100 Bitumen

Figure 5.86 Relationship between Dynamic Viscosity and Frequency at 204


60°C before Ageing for EVA modified 80/100 Bitumen

Figure 5.87 Relationship between Dynamic Viscosity and Frequency at 205


60°C before Ageing for SBS modified 80/100 Bitumen

Figure 5.88 Stress Sweep Tests results at 55°C and 10 rad/sec for CR 206
modified 60/70 Bitumen

Figure 5.89 Stress Sweep Tests results at 55°C and 10 rad/sec for CR 207
modified 80/100 Bitumen

Figure 5.90 Stress Sweep Tests results at 55°C and 10 rad/sec for EVA 207
t modified 60/70 Bitumen

Figure 5.91 Stress Sweep Tests results at 55°C and 10 rad/sec for EVA 208
modified 80/100 Bitumen

xix
List of Figures

Figure No. Title Page No.

Figure 5.92 Stress Sweep Tests results at 55°C and 10 rad/sec for SBS 208
modified 60/70 Bitumen

Figure 5.93 Stress Sweep Tests results at 55°C and 10 rad/sec for SBS 209
modified 80/100 Bitumen

Figure 5.94 Relationship between stress and strain at 55°C and 10 rad/sec 209
for CR modified 60/70 Bitumen

Figure 5.95 Relationship between stress and strain at 55°C and 10 rad/sec 210
for CR modified 80/100 Bitumen

Figure 5.96 Relationship between Stress and Strain at 10 rad/sec and 210
55°C for EVA modified 60/70 Bitumen

Figure 5.97 Relationship between Stress and Strain at 10 rad/sec and 211
55°C for EVA modified 80/100 Bitumen

Figure 5.98 Relationship between Stress and Strain at 10 rad/sec and 211
55°C for SBS modified 60/70 Bitumen

Figure 5.99 Relationship between Stress and Strain at 10 rad/sec and 212
55°C for SBS modified 80/100 Bitumen

Figure 5.100 Relationship between Complex Modulus and Penetration 214


value for 60/70 Bitumen modified with different percentage
ofCR

Figure 5.101 Relationship between Complex Modulus and Penetration 215


value for 80/100 Bitumen modified with different percentage
ofCR.

Figure 5102 Relationship between Complex Modulus and Penetration 215


value for 60/70 Bitumen modified with different percentage
of EVA

xx
List o Tables

Figure No. Title Page No.

Figure 5.103 Relationship between Complex Modulus and Penetration 216


value for 80/100 Bitumen modified different percentage of
EVA.

Figure 5.104 Relationship between Complex Modulus and Penetration 216


value for 60/70 Bitumen modified with different percentage
of SBS.

Figure 5.105 Relationship between Complex Modulus and Penetration 217


value for 80/100 Bitumen modified with different percentage
of SBS.

>
Figure 5.106 Relation between Phase Angle and Penetration value for 218
60/70 bitumen modified with CR.

Figure 5.107 Relation between Phase Angle and Penetration value for 219
80/100 bitumen modified with CR.

Figure 5.108 Relation between Phase Angle and Penetration value for 219
60/70 modified with EVA.

Figure 5.109 Relation between Phase Angle and Penetration value for 220
80/100 bitumen modified with EVA.

Figure 5.110 Relation between Phase Angle and Penetration value for 220
60/70 bitumen modified with SBS.

Figure 5.111 Relation between Phase Angle and Penetration value for 221
80/100 bitumen modified with SBS.

Figure 5.112 Relationship between Complex Modulus and Softening Point 222
for 60/70 bitumen modified with CR.

Figure 5.113 Relationship between Complex Modulus and Softening Point 222
for 80/100 bitumen modified with CR.

Figure 5.114 Relationship between Complex Modulus and Softening Point 223
for 60/70 bitumen modified with EVA.

xxi
List of Figures

Figure No. Title Page No.


Figure 5.115 Relationship between Complex Modulus and Softening Point 223
for 80/100 bitumen modified with EVA.

Figure 5.116 Relationship between Complex Modulus and Softening Point 224
for 60/70 bitumen modified with SBS.

Figure 5.117 Relationship between Complex Modulus and Softening Point 224
for 80/100 Bitumen modified with SBS.

Figure 5.118 Relationship between Phase Angle and Softening Point for 225
60/70 bitumen modified with CR.

Figure 5.119 Relationship between Phase Angle and Softening Point for 226
80/100 bitumen modified with CR.

Figure 5.120 Relationship between Phase Angle and Softening Point for 226
60/70 bitumen modified with EVA.

Figure 5.121 Relationship between Phase Angle and Softening Point for 227
80/100 bitumen modified with EVA.

Figure 5.122 Relationship between Phase Angle and Softening Point for 227
60/70 bitumen modified with SBS.

Figure 5.123 Relationship between Phase Angle and Softening Point for 228
80/100 bitumen modified with SBS.

Figure 5.124 Relationship between Dynamic Viscosity and Penetration 229


value at 25°C for 60/70 bitumen modified with CR.

Figure 5.125 Relationship between Dynamic Viscosity and Penetration 230


valueat 25°C for 80/100 bitumen modified with CR.

Figure 5.126 Relationship between Dynamic Viscosity and Penetration 230


value at 25°C for 60/70 bitumen modified with EVA.

Figure 5.127 Relationship between Dynamic Viscosity and Penetration 231


value at 25°C for 80/100 bitumen modified with EVA.

xxn
List o Tables

Figure No. Title Page No.

Figure 5.128 Relationship between Dynamic Viscosity and Penetration 231


value at 25°C for 60/70 bitumen modified with SBS.

Figure 5.129 Relationship between Dynamic Viscosity and Penetration 232


value at 25°C for 80/100 bitumen modified with SBS.

Figure 5.130 Relationship between Dynamic Viscosity and Softening 233


Point for 60/70 bitumen modified with CR.

Figure 5.131 Relationship between Dynamic Viscosity and Softening 234


Point for 80/100 bitumen modified with CR.

Figure 5.132 Relationship between Dynamic Viscosity and Softening 234


Point for 60/70 bitumen modified with EVA.

Figure 5.133 Relationship between Dynamic Viscosity and Softening 235


Point for 80/100 bitumen modified with EVA.

Figure 5.134 Relationship between Dynamic Viscosity and Softening 235


Point for 60/70 bitumen modified with SBS.

Figure 5.135 Relationship between Dynamic Viscosity and Softening 236


Point for 80/100 bitumen modified with SBS.

Figure 5.136 Relationship between G*/sin8 (at 10 rad/s and 52°C) and 237
Softening Point for CR modified bitumens

Figure 5.137 Relationship between G*/sin8 (at 10 rad/s and 70°C) and 238
Softening Point for CR modified bitumens

Figure 5.138 Relationship between G*/sin8 (at 10 rad/s and 52°C) and 238
Softening Point for EVA modified bitumens

Figure 5.139 Relationship between GVsinS (at 10 rad/s and 70°C) and 239
Softening Point for EVA modified bitumens

Figure 5.140 Relationship between G*/sin8 (at 10 rad/s and 52°C) and 239
Softening Point for SBS modified bitumens

xxin
List of Figures

Figure No. Title Page No.

Figure 5.141 Relationship between G*/sin8 (at 10 rad/s and 70°C) and 241
Softening Point for SBS modified bitumens

Figure 5.142 Relationship between Binder Failure Temperature and 243


Softening Point of CR modified bitumens

Figure 5.143 Relationship between Binder Failure Temperature and 243


Softening Point of EVA modified bitumens

Figure 5.144 Relationship between Binder Failure Temperature and 244


Softening Point of SBS modified bitumens

Figure 5.145 Relationship between Binder Failure Temperature and 244


Softening Point of CR modified bitumens

Figure 5.146 Relationship between Binder Failure Temperature and 245


Softening Point of EVA modified bitumens

Figure 5.147 Relationship between Binder Failure Temperature and 245


Softening Point of SBS modified bitumens

xxiv
LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Title Page No.

Table 2.1 Classification of Rubber and Polymer Based Bitumen 14


Modifiers

Table 2.2 Physical Properties of Polymer Bitumen Blends with SBS, 17


EVA and PE (Bose and Jain, 1989).

Table 2.3 Strength Characteristics of Mixes Prepared by Polymer 18


Modified Binders (Bose and Jain, 1989).

Table 2.4 Changes in conventional binder properties following SBS 20


modification (Airey, 2003).

Table 2.5 Physical Properties of Binder at Different EVA 21


concentrations of two grades (Panda and Mazumdar, 1999)

Table 2.6 Properties of Binder (Panda and Mazumdar, 1997) 23

Table 2.7 Physical Properties of 80/100 Bitumen with Rubber Latex of 26


varying concentrations (Jagajothi et al., 1999)

Table 2.8 Physical Properties of Crumb Rubber binders (Palit et al., 31


2004)

Table 2.9a Changes in rheological parameters with SBS modification at 45


0.02 Hz (Airey, 2003)

Table 2.9b Changes in rheological parameters with SBS modification at 45


1 Hz (Airey, 2003)

Table 2.10 Complex modulus and phase angle at 10 rad/sec and two 53
different temperatures (Lu and Isacsson, 2002)

Table 2.11 Critical Viscosity and Temperature (Jain and Sangita, 1991). 56

xxv
List of Tables

Table No. Title Page No.

Table 2.12 Influence of Bitumen source/grade and polymer 59


content/structure on the Temperature Susceptibility of
modified binders (Lu and Isacsson 1997).

Table 3.1 Performance-Graded Asphalt Binder Specification (SHRP- 66


A-370)

Table 3.2 Pavement Design Temperatures and Corresponding Grades 68


(SHRP-A-410).

Table 4.1 a Physical Properties of 60/70 Bitumen 86

Table 4.1 b Physical Properties of 80/100 Bitumen. 86

Table 4.2 Physical Properties of Bitumen modified with different 108


percentage of Crumb Rubber(CR)

Table 4.3 Properties after Thin Film Oven Test (TFOT) on Residue of 109
60/70 Bitumen modified with different percentage of Crumb
Rubber (CR).

Table 4.4 Properties after Thin Film Oven Test (TFOT) on Residue of 110
80/100 Bitumen modified with different percentage of
Crumb Rubber (CR).

Table4.5 Physical properties of Bitumen modified with different 111


percentage ofEthylene Vinyl Acetate (EVA).

Table 4.6 Properties after Thin Film Oven Test (TFOT) on Residue of 112
60/70 Bitumen modified with different percentage of
Ethylene Vinyl Acetate (EVA).

Table 4.7 Properties after Thin Film Oven Test (TFOT) on Residue of 113
80/100 Bitumen modified with different percentage of
Ethylene Vinyle Acetate (EVA).

xxvi
List o Tables

Table No. Title Page No.

Table 4.8 Physical properties of bitumen modified with different 114


percentage of Styrene Butadiene Styrene (SBS).

Table 4.9 Properties after Thin Film Oven Test (TFOT) on Residue of 115
60/70 Bitumen modified with different percentage of Styrene
Butadiene Styrene (SBS).

Table 4.10 Properties after Thin Film Oven Test (TFOT) on Residue of 116
80/100 Bitumen modified with different percentage of
Styrene Butadiene Styrene (SBS).

Table 5.1 Physical Properties at different percentage of Polymers 118

Table 5.2 Physical Properties at different percentage of Crumb Rubber 119

Table 5.3 Changes in Penetration and Softening Point values after 130
Ageing

Table 5.4 Typical values of Penetration Index (PI) 132

Table 5.5 Penetration Index values at different percentage of modifiers. 133

Table 5.6 Rheological Properties of CR Modified Bituminous Binders 137

Table 5.7 Rheological Properties of EVA Modified Bituminous 138


Binders

Table 5.8 Rheological Properties of SBS Modified Bituminous Binders 139

Table 5.9 Performance Grade of Different Polymer Modified Bitumens 147

Table 5.10 Performance Grade of Crumb Rubber Modified Bitumens 147

Table 5.11 Complex Modulus of different Modified Binders at 46°C and 175
58°C
t
Table 5.12 Changes in Rheological properties of CRMB modification at 176
different temperatures and 10 rad/s

xxvn
List of Tables

Table No. Title Page No.


Table 5.13 Changes in Rheological Properties of EVA modification at 176
different temperatures and 10 rad/s

Table 5.14 Changes in Rheological Properties of SBS modification at 177


different temperatures and 10 rad/s

Table 5.15 Temperature susceptibility of modified binder with CR at 1 181


and 10 rad/sec.

Table 5.16 Temperature susceptibility ofmodified binder with EVA at 1 182


and 10 rad/sec.

Table 5.17 Temperature susceptibility ofmodified binder with SBS at 1 182


and 10 rad/sec.

Table 5.18 Temperature Susceptibility of Modified Binders after ageing 185


at 10 rad/sec.

Table 5.19 Ageing indices for different modified binders at different 192
temperatures and 10 rad/sec

Table 5.20 Ageing indices for different percentage of modifier at 192


different temperatures and 10 rad/sec

Table 5.21 Ageing indices at 60°C and at different frequencies 193


Table 5.22 Ageing indices at 60°C and at different frequencies 193
Table 5.23 Failure Temperature of Neat and Crumb Rubber Modified 241
Bitumens

Table 5.24 Failure Temperatures of Neat and Different Polymer 242


Modified Bitumens

xxvm
LIST OF SYMBOLS

Symbols Description

G* Complex Modulus
G' Loss Modulus

G" Storage Modulus


8 Phase Angle
E Modulus of Elasticity

11 Viscosity
X Shear Stress

Y Shear Strain

a Tensile stress

e Tensile Strain

R Rheological Index

Gg Glassy Modulus
CO Frequency

coc Crossover frequency

8V Transition Phase Angle

t|ss Steady State Viscosity


Ggv Limiting Modulus in the Viscous Flow Region
C0V Transition Frequency
n* Dynamic Viscosity
T Torque
r Radius of the plate
h Height of Bitumen Sample
e Deflection or Angle of Rotation
Mr Resilient Modulus

Tcr Cracking Temperature


m Poisson' constant

xxix
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

Acronym Abbreviation

AASHTO American Associate of State Highway


and Transportation Officials
ASTM American Society of Testing Material
BBR Bending Beam Rheometer
BC Bituminous Concrete

CR Crumb Rubber

CRMB Crumb Rubber Modified Bitumen

DMA Dynamic Mechanical Analysis


DRC Dry Rubber Content
DSC Differential Scanning Calorimeter
DSR Dynamic Shear Rheometer
DTT Direct Tension Test

EBA Ethyl Butyl Acrylate


EVA Ethylene Vinyl acetate
FD Force Ductilometer

FHWA Federal Highway Administration


FTIR Fourier Transform Infrared

GQ Golden Quadrilateral
HDPE High Density Polyethylene
HMA Hot Mix Plant

IRC Indian Road Concress

LDPE Low Density Polyethylene


LVE Linear Viscoelastic

MQ Marshall Quotient
NH National Highway
NHAI National Highway Authority of India
NHDP National Highway Development Project

XXX
List of Abbreviations

NR Natural Rubber

OBC Optimum Binder Content


PAV Pressure Ageing Vessel
PE Polyethylene
PI Penetration Index

PG Performance Grade

PMB Polymer Modified Bitumen


PVC Polyvinyl Choride
PVN Penetration Viscosity Number
PWD Public Work Department
QA Quality Assurance
RMBC Rubber Modified Bituminous Concrete
RMS Rheometrics Mechanical Spectrometer
RTFOT Rolling Thin Film Oven Test
SBS Styrene Butadiene Styrene
SEBS Styrene Ethylene Butylene Styrene
SIS Styrene Isoprene Styrene
SHRP Strategic Highway Research Program
SPT Softening point Penetration Temperature
SUPERPAVE Superior Performing Asphalt Pavements
TEM Transmission Electron Microscopy
TFOT Thin Film Oven Test
TRB Transportation Research Board
TSRST Thermal Strain Restrained Specimen Tensile
UCL Universal Characterization Ligantes
VEPCD Viscoelastopalstic Continuum Damage
VPT Viscosity Penetration Temperature
VTS Viscosity Temperature Susceptibility
CBp Pyrolytic Carbon Black

xxxi
LIST OF PLATES

Plate No Title Page No.

Plate 1 Crumb Rubber after passing 1.18 mm IS sieve and retained 89


on 200 micron IS sieve

Plate 2 Sample ofEthylene vinyl acetate (EVA) 89

Plate 3 Sample ofStyrene Butadiene Styrene (SBS) 89

Plate 4 25 mm Parallel Plates 92

Plate 5 Components of SR5 Asphalt Rheometer (From left, Air 92


Dryer, Control Module, Test Station, Environmental
Controller, and Personal Computer)

Plate 6 Test Centre (SR 5 Asphalt Rheometer) 93

Plate 7 Bitumen Specimen Poured on Testing Plate 99

Plate 8 Plate fixing onRheometer 99

Plate 9 View of Progress in Test 100

Plate 10 Elastic Recovery Test in Progress 107

xxxn
CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION
>

1.0 GENERAL

India has the second largest highway and road networks in the world, next to

USA. The total length of the country's roads exceeds 3.31 million kilometers. The

increase in India's road transport during the last two decades is likely to continue

x unabated in the coming years as well. The road development programme envisaged for

the country involving huge amounts of money, manpower, and materials should

concern not only for constructing of new roads, but also the improvement of the

existing road network (Kumar, 2003). The Indian Government has considered giving

top priority to highway sector improvement from the beginning of 21st century. The
National Highway Development Project (NHDP) is a very ambitious programme of

upgrading India's road system.

^ India is avery vast country, having widely varying climate, terrain, construction
materials and traffic loading both in terms of loads and volume. The traffic on Indian

highways is mixed and quite different in character as compared to many other


countries. The road network consists of 65,000 km (2 per cent) of National Highways,

about 1,37,000 km (4.14 per cent) of State highways and about 4,70,000 (14.18 per

cent) of Major District Roads. The National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) has
decided to upgrade about 13,000 km of existing National Highway Corridors
connecting the four metros of Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata to 4/6 lanes (dual
carriageways) forming the Golden Quadrilateral (GQ), Kashmir to Kanyakumari and

1
Chapter 1 : Introduction

Saurashtra (Porbandar) to Silchar (NS, EW Corriodors) in India. The projects involved

the improvement of riding quality, resurfacing and other pavement repairs (Sarin et al.,
V
2005).

India has a great variation in climatic conditions. Thus climatic conditions play
an important role in determining various types of materials to be used in road

construction. Road deterioration means the progressive worsening in the quality or


condition ofroad. It involves a gradual reduction inthe utility ofroad overtime and the
deterioration ofroad results from failure to ensure regular maintenance (Olusiyi, 2006).
Most of the roads of India, affected due to increase in traffic density in terms of
commercial vehicles, overloading of trucks and significant variations in daily and
seasonal temperature ofthe pavement have been responsible for early development of
distress conditions like, raveling, undulations, rutting, cracking, bleeding, shoving and
potholing ofbituminous surfacings. Afactor which causes further concern in India, is
very high and very low pavement temperatures in some parts of the country. The
climatic condition of India especially in North is extreme, the temperature recorded
during the year ranges from 0°C to 50°C (Rajoria et al., 2002). Another major
mechanism of distress in bituminous concrete pavements is permanent deformation at
high temperatures (Christensen and Anderson, 1992). Many researchers (Molenaar and
Nirmal, 1998; Srivastava et al., 1998; Katamine, 2000; Ven and Jenkins, 2003; Kumar
et al., 2004) investigated the properties of modified bitumens by adding some additives.

1.1 BACKGROUND OF BITUMINOUS BINDER

Bituminous binders used in pavement construction works include both bitumen


and tar but bitumen is commonly used in India. Bitumen is used as binder and water
proofing material for construction of roads for several years. The demand for bitumen
Chapter 1 : Introduction

has increased tremendously because of rapid urbanization in recent years. In India, the
annual consumption of bitumen in 1990 was 1.6 million tones while that in USA was

about 26 million tones (Jain, 1997).

Bitumen is complex polymeric material and it has been used for years in the

construction of flexible pavements. It is well known that the composition of pure

bitumen has primary influence on their mechanical behaviour, which is in turn very
sensitive to stress, strain rate, and temperature (Cheung and Cebon, 1997). As bitumen

is produced from crude oil, with its large variability in composition according to its
origin, the precise breakdown of the hydrocarbon groups in bitumen is difficult to
determine. However, despite the complexity of bitumen, techniques have been

established to separate bitumen into four major groups namely

• Asphaltenes

• Resins

• Aromatics, and

• Saturates

Asphaltenes are considered as highly polar complex aromatic materials, having


the heaviest molecular weight of all the other groups present in the bitumen. They form

micelles that are peptized by the polar resins within a dispersion medium consisting
primarily ofaromatics and saturates, representing the fractions ofthe bitumen with the
lower molecular weight. In general, bitumen can be divided into two broad chemical
groups, namely, asphaltenes and a second group consisting ofthe resins, aromatics, and
saturates termed the maltene fraction of the bitumen (Airey et al., 2002).
r
Bituminous materials are supplied bythe manufacturers in various grades with a
wide range of consistency at a specified temperature. Consistency of the bituminous
binders varies from liquid to semi solid and to brittle state. It is characteristic of
Chapter 1 : Introduction

bituminous binders that the viscosity falls very rapidly as the temperature increases.
Bituminous binder should have suitable flow properties for different types of
bituminous construction, traffic and climatic conditions. For bitumen to be used
successfully in road surfacing, it must have the following characteristics (HMSO,
1962).

(1) Binder should be capable ofbeing made sufficiently fluid, either by heat
or by the addition ofa volatile solvent, to be pumped or sprayed, and to
coat and wet a mineral aggregate.

(2) Binder should be viscous at high road temperatures that the finished
surfacing will resist deformation.

(3) Binder should be flexible at low road temperatures that the finished
surfacing will resist fracture and disintegration.

1.2 POLYMER AND RUBBER MODIFIED BITUMEN

Addition of polymers and rubbers in bitumen to enhance service properties over


wider range temperatures in road paving applications was considered along time ago
and nowadays has become areal alternative. By adding small amounts of polymers to
bitumen, the life span of the road pavement may be considerably increased. The
purpose of bitumen modification using polymers and rubbers is to achieve desired
engineering properties such as increased shear modulus and reduced plastic flow at
high temperatures and increased resistance to thermal fracture at low temperatures.
The bitumen modified with polymers and rubbers should have the following
properties (IRC: SP 53-2002).

• Be compatible with bitumen

• Resist degradation ofbitumen at mixing temperature


Chapter 1 : Introduction

Be capable of being processed by conventional mixing and laying

machinery

• Produce coating viscosity at application temperature

• Maintain premium properties during storage, application and in service

• Be cost-effective on a life-cycle-cost basis.

The modified bitumen used in the road construction works has following advantages.

• Lower susceptibility to daily and seasonal temperature variations

• Higher resistance to deformation at elevatedpavementtemperature

• Better adhesion between aggregate and binder

Higher fatigue life of mixes

• Delay of cracking including reflective cracking

• Overall improved performance in extreme climatic conditions and heavy

traffic conditions.

A variety of additives are used in order to obtain enhanced service properties

within a wide range of temperature. A number of research works have confirmed the

beneficial effects of polymer and rubber addition to bitumen (Jagajothi et al., 1999;

Palit et al., 2001; Lepe et al., 2003; Hossain and Nabors, 2005). However, the main

restriction in such modifications remains the incompatibility of polymer and bitumen

matrix. Thus, it requires a precise study on processing conditions of binders, and the

selection of additives.

1.3 DYNAMIC RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF BITUMEN

^ Dynamic rheological properties refer to responses of a material to periodically

varying strains or stresses. The dynamic shear rheometer (DSR) is used for
determination of the rheological properties of bitumen in a wide range of temperature.
Chapter 1 : Introduction

The parameters for characterization of the bitumen are complex modulus (G*), storage

modulus (G'), loss modulus (G") and phase angle (8). Phase angle measures the

viscoelastic character of the bitumen. A purely viscous liquid and an ideal elastic solid

demonstrate 8 of 90° and 0°, respectively. The viscoelastic parameters of bitumens are

functions of temperature and frequency, which may be modified by the addition of


polymers (Isacsson and Lu, 1999).

The fundamental rheological (viscoelastic) properties of the Polymer Modified


Bitumens (PMBs) have been determined using mechanical analysis (oscillatory) and
presented in the form oftemperature and frequency-dependent rheological parameters.
The rheological properties of the binders were measured in terms of their complex
modulus (G*), stiffness and overall resistance to deformation, storage modulus (G'),
binder elasticity and phase angle (8), viscoelastic balance of rheological behaviour
(Airey, 2002). The rheological properties of styrene-butadiene-styrene (SBS) modified
bitumen were characterized using dynamic shear rheometer over wide ranges of
temperatures and frequencies. The addition of the SBS polymers increases the total
resistance to deformation at high temperatures as shown in Figure 1.1. The complex
modulus decreases as the temperature increases. At higher temperatures, modified
binders showed higher complex modulus than base bitumen but in case of lower
temperature regions (below 0°C), all the modified binders have a lower complex
modulus than the base bitumens. This will probably contribute to an increase in the
binder flexibility at low temperature (Lu and Isacsson, 1997).
Chapter 1 : Introduction

Mtt-4)

-«-PMB4L6
1.04M7 -*-pm&-bl»
-*-PMB^88

_ 1.0IE+*
I
8
1
§ 1MI+M
I

1 l.OOi+OJ

I
U 1.CM-W

1J0M1

I.0K+OO

1MM)
-21 41 M IM 120 140

TcHpcratare [*C]

(B indicates base bitumen obtained from Venezuela of 180 penetration grade, PMB-BL3 refer
to modified binder with 3 per cent of linear SBS and PMB-BB6 is 6 per centof branch SBS)

Figure 1.1. Complex modulus and temperature for base and SBS modified
Bitumen B (Lu and Isacsson, 1997).
Chapter 1 : Introduction

1.4 NEED OF RESEARCH

In India, about 98 percent ofthe roads are offlexible type. Bitumen as a binder
plays a key role in the performance related properties ofbituminous mixes. Bitumen is
mainly used as binding material and in protective coatings, taking both forms of
application in avery general sense. It's suitability for these uses is largely dependent on
it's mechanical properties, in particular on those relating to rheology. For a correct
judgement of this suitability, therefore, a thorough knowledge of these properties is
indispensable.

The traffic on the roads, both in terms of volume and axle loads, has been
increased during the last two decades. The failures of the bituminous pavements are not
only due to increase in traffic but also due to extreme climatic conditions prevailing in
the country. The addition of additives to bitumen can improve the quality of binders
and enhance the properties of binders used in the road construction. The research
conducted so far has not addressed the following aspects particularly in reference to
bituminous materials and modifiers available in India :

a. Very limited work is reported on rheology of unmodified and modified


y

binders.

b. Very little research was reported on rheological properties of bituminous


binders modified with elastomer, styrene butadiene styrene (SBS),
plastomer, ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) and crumb rubber (CR).
c. The Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP) developed the
performance grades by using the fundamental properties G*/sin 8 and
G*sin 8. Various parameters such as complex modulus (G*), storage
modulus (G'), loss modulus (G") and phase angle (8) are used in SHRP
specifications for defining the rheological properties.
8
Chapter 1 : Introduction

d. Indian Road Congress Special Publication 53 (2002) and Bureau of Indian


Standards 15462 (2004) guidelines on use of modified binders still specify
r
grades based on conventional penetration and softening point test.

So far the conventional tests like penetration, softening point and ductility have

been used for characterization of bitumen in India but these tests are not satisfactory for

rheological characterization ofthe binders and give the values indirectly. For this purpose,
dynamic shear rheometer can be used for characterizing the bitumen which measures
rheological properties directly. Rheology is a very important field of study for asphalt
technologists. Athorough study ofthe behaviour ofbitumen under different loading (load
and frequency) and temperature domains can go a long way in the prediction ofthe binder

behaviour in the field.

1.5 OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

The objectives set for the present research work are:

a) To investigate the rheological behaviour of bituminous binder for


unmodified and modified binders by developing a relationship between

stress, strain, frequency and temperature.

b) To study the physical properties of bituminous binder using empirical tests


such as penetration, softening point, ductility and elastic recovery.

c) To study the variation in rheological properties of bitumen modified


with elastomer (SBS), plastomer (EVA) and crumb rubber (CR) before

and after ageing by Thin Film Oven Test (TFOT).

d) To analyze various tests results and suggesting the correlation between


the results of dynamic shear rheometer and the conventional tests, in

9
Chapter 1 : Introduction

order to judge the performance of bituminous binder based on


rheological characteristics of binder.

e) To study the increase in fatigue resistance ofpavement due to modified


binders.

f) To suggest the suitability ofvarious percentage ofbituminous modifiers


for different regions of India.

1.6 SCOPE OF THE RESEARCH

Transportation engineers and bitumen technologists feel that the present


specification tests provide little or no information with regard to assurance to the
engineer who is responsible for service performance of a bituminous concrete
pavement. Flow properties of bitumen have been recognized as being of first
importance. Actually, rheology of bituminous binder implies the flow properties
encountered at various temperatures in field and processing. Hence afull and complete
rheological study ofbitumen would be helpful in answering the questions.
Among the rheological properties, the viscosity function is one of the most
important characteristics ofthe fluids because oftheir complex response under different
conditions. Viscosity measurements over a wide range of temperatures and shear rates
have some advantages over empirical tests and can be used to predict the behaviour of
bituminous binder. The bituminous binder controls the behaviour of flexible pavements
at low in-service temperature and the pavement performance is primarily controlled by
the rheological properties of bitumen. Rheological measurement can be apowerful tool
in the characterization and design ofviscoelastic materials (Zaman et al., 1995).
Two grades (60/70, 80/100) of bitumen, most commonly used in India, were
selected and modified with CR, SBS and EVA to investigate the physical and
10
Chapter 1 : Introduction

rheological properties. The dynamic rheological properties of the binders were

characterized over a wide range of temperature using dynamic shear rheometer. The

main objective of this research is to study the effect of the rheological bahaviour of

bituminous binders for road construction. Penetration index, temperature susceptibility,

ageing index and other rheological properties changes before and after ageing were also

evaluated in this study.

The correlation between conventional test penetration and softening point

results and the rheological properties obtained from dynamic shear rheometer have

been studied. In India different climate conditions exist in its various parts and at the
*

same time, required grade of bitumen is not always available at particular region due to

scarcity of the material. Further traffic conditions also affect the flow characteristics of

bituminous binder. Hence investigations have been conducted to study the deformation

and flow characteristics of bitumen for the various loading conditions in order to select

a suitable grade of binder for bituminous road construction in order to maintain the

structural and functional adequacy. Thus present research work will help in increasing

the life of flexible pavements. The results are based on high temperature and short term

ageing because equipments for lower temperature and long term ageing are not

available at IIT Roorkee.

1.7 ORGANISATION OF THESIS

The present thesis is documented in seven chapters. In chapter 1, the

background of bituminous binder and rheological properties of bitumen are discussed.


t Use of modified bitumen and its properties as well as the objectives and scope of the

present research work are also included in this chapter. A brief literature review of
investigations carried out in India and abroad relating to physical and rheological
11
Chapter 1 : Introduction

aspects of conventional and modified binders are presented in Chapter 2. The use of
paving bitumen modifiers such as styrene butadiene styrene, ethylene vinyl acetate,
Crumb Rubber, and fibers etc. have been discussed in this chapter. Chapter 3discusses
about the dynamic mechanical analysis. In Chapter 4, the details of experimental works
have been discussed along with the evaluation ofphysical and rheological properties of
the materials used. The results obtained from conventional, polymer and crumb rubber
modified bitumen are presented and discussed in Chapter 5.
Finally, the conclusions drawn from the present research work and scope for
further research have been summarized in Chapter 6.

12
CHAPTER-2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 INTRODUCTION

Traditional bituminous binders present various limitations to cope with the

excessive overloading and increasingly severe climate conditions which lead to


important stress related problems. Binder modification is a major breakthrough and the
continuous research in this area is aiming to produce new binders with better

rheological and mechanical characteristics which allow the manufacturing and


application of road bituminous mixes with higher performances (Baker, 1998).
Increased traffic factors such as heavier loads, higher traffic volume, and higher tyre

pressure demand higher performance pavements. A high performance pavement


requires bitumen that is less susceptible to high temperature rutting or low temperature
cracking (Chen et al, 2002). A common method of modifying the rheological
properties of bitumen is by blending with polymer and rubber. This chapter presents the
literature on use ofpolymer and rubber in bitumen and includes other modifiers such as
sulphur and fiber. The physical and rheological properties ofunmodified and modified
bitumens with polymer and crumb rubber are discussed in this chapter.

2.1 TYPE OF BITUMEN MODIFIERS

The properties of bitumen and bituminous mixes can be improved to meet


requirements of pavement incorporating of certain additives or blend of additives.
These additives are called "Bitumen Modifiers" and the bitumen premixed with these
modifiers is known as "Modified Bitumen" (IRC: 53-2002). The use of additives in

13
Chapter 2 : Literature Review

bitumen mixture is not a new technique. Additives have been used in road construction

for more than 80 years. They are incorporated in the bitumen mix to enhance the
properties and performance offlexible pavements (Wahhab and Amri, 1991).
Over the years, different types ofmaterials have been investigated as additives
for bitumen modifications. Some ofthem, having desired potential in road works, are
listed in Table 2.1 as per as IRC: SP: 53-2002.

Table 2.1. Classification of Rubber and Polymer Based Bitumen Modifiers


Type of Modifiers Examples

Plastomeric Polyethylene (PE), Ethylene Vinyl Acetate (EVA),


Thermoplastics Ethylene Butyl Acrylate (EBA) and
Ethylene Ter Polymer (ETP), etc.
>> o
00 &,
Elastomeric Styrene Isoprene Styrene (SIS),
Thermoplastics Styrne-Butadiene-Styrene (SBS) block copolymer,
etc.

o
•S3 W

I l Synthetic Styrene Butadiene Rubber (SBR) latex and any


Rubber Latex other suitable synthetic rubber
on &

on
Natural Rubber Latex or Rubberpowder
U

3 Crumb Rubber powder from discarded truck tyres


Crumb Rubber further improved by additives, viz. gilsonite resin,
etc.

2.1.1 Sulphur

Sulphur, which is one of the basic elements, has an atomic number of 16 and
atomic weight of32.06. The sulphur exhibits non-metallic properties and it melts at a
temperature of 116°C. Pure sulphur has a pale yellow colour but in its naturally
occurring forms, it may be yellow to straw yellow. Just above the melting point,
sulphur is a transparent yellow liquid, which with increasing temperature, turns dark
red and becomes black at 230°C. Sulphur possesses some unique properties which
14
Chapter2: Literature Review

enables it to serve as a versatile paving material. The viscosity of sulphur decreases


with increase in temperature and is the lowest around 159°C. When mixed with asphalt
at temperature in the range of130°C to 140°C, the liquid sulphur slowly reacts forming
polysulphide resins that dissolve unreacted sulphur and impart highly desirable
mechanical properties to the blend.

2.1.2 Polymer

Apolymer consists ofrepeating units derived from monomers which are linked
together in achain-like structure. The chemical processes through which these linkages
occur is known as polymerization. If only one type of monomer molecule is used to
form a polymer, the process is called homopolymerization and a homopolymer results.
If more than one chemical species is used as a monomer, the process is called
copolymerization. One ofthe most important performance characteristics of polymers
is the marked dependence of their properties on temperature within their useful
temperature range. Polymers are denser than their monomer. The shrinkage from
polymerization may produce detrimental effects on the mechanical properties of the
polymer (Hoff et al., 1979). Polymers are used to modify bitumen in order to achieve a
wider performance range for bitumen bound pavement materials. The improvements to
the bitumen mixture, with regard to retarding fatigue crack initiation and propagation,
and reducing the accumulation of permanent deformation (Rutting), can decrease the
life cycle cost of bitumen pavement. Polymers can generally be divided into two broad
categories: Elastomers and Plastomers (Airey and Brown 1998).

Elastomers

Elastomers have a characteristically high elastic response and, therefore, resist

permanent deformation by stretching and recovering their initial shape. Elastomeric

15
Chapter 2 : Literature Review

polymers, usually linear or block copolymers in radial form. The elastomeric polymers
commonly used as a modifier are styrene butadiene styrene (SBS) copolymer, styrene
isoprene styrene (SIS) copolymer, natural rubber (NR), etc. SBS is available as pellets,
crumb or powder in bags or bulk.

Plastomers

Plastomers modify bitumen by forming a tough, rigid, three-dimensional


network to resist deformation. Polyehtylene (PE), ethyl vinyl acetate (EVA), ethyl butyl
acrylate (EBA), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), high density polyethylene (HDPE), and low
density polyethylene (LDPE), etc. The EVA and LDPE plastomers are commonly used
as a modifier.

2.1.3 Fibers

Fibers can be produced from a large number of synthetic polymeric materials.


Asbestos fibers are most commonly used in the paving applications. They have a high
chemical resistance and good mechanical properties with tensile strengths and modulus
of elasticity.

2.2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MODIFIED BINDERS

2.2.1 Studies on SBS

Shukla and Jain (1989) investigated the effects of wax in waxy bitumens by
adding styrene-butadiene-styrene block copolymer (SBS), ethyl vinyl acetate (EVA)
and aromatic resins to enhance viscosity of bitumen at high road temperature. It was
found effective in improving softening point, viscosity-temperature characteristics,
adhesion and stability ofbituminous mixes. About 8per cent aromatic resins, 4per cent
ethyl vinyl acetate copolymer and 6 per cent styrene-butadiene-styrene block
copolymer have been found to be effective in improving wax bitumens.
16
Chapter 2: Literature Review

Bose and Jain (1989) studied the effects of 80/100 bitumen modified with SBS,
EVA and PE (polyethylene) and they reported that the polymer modified binders
reduced deformation at high temperatures. Tensile strength and Marshall stability of
mixes are considerably higher than neat 80/100 bitumen. They found that the values of
Fraass breaking point for SBS bitumen blends and EVA bitumen blends are
considerably lower than neat bitumen as shown in Table 2.2. Hence polymer modified
binders are suitable for road construction in high altitude low temperature areas. The
elastic recovery of SBS bitumen blends containing 5per cent SBS is of the order of 80
per cent and therefore these modified binders are capable of preventing deformation at
high temperature. They observed from flexural fatigue test results that incorporation of
2per cent PE, 5per cent SBS and EVA increase the fatigue life by 10, 18 and 2times
respectively. The strength characteristics of polymer modified mixes are given in
Table 2.3.

Table 2.2. Physical Properties ofPolymer Bitumen Blends with SBS, EVA and PE
(Bose and Jain, 1989).
Styrene-butadiene Ethyl vinyl
Polyethylene-
Styrene-bitumen acetate
80/100
Property Bitumen blends bitumen-blends
blends
bitumen
2:98 5:95 10:90 2:98 5:95 10:90 2:98 5:95 10:90

52 64 74 57 67 82 49 57 61
Softening point, °C 45
98 42 20 100 100 75 100 81 20
Ductility, 27°C, cm 100
2 1 2 4 5 5 5 5
Ductility, °C, cm 1 3

Fraass Breaking Point, -8 -9 -10 -9 -11 -13 -15 -10 -12 -14
°C
Adhesion Strength, 12 12 ,2 10 16 17 20 14 16 12
kg/cm2
Thin film oven Test at 163°C
60 350 35 56 47 32 69 48 33
Penetration of residue 66
0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Per cent loss 0.1 0.1

Stripping, per cent 5 nil nil nil nil nil nil nil nil nil
(Delhi quartzite)

17
Chapter 2 : Literature Review

Table 2.3. Strength Characteristics of Mixes Prepared by Polymer Modified


Binders (Bose and Jain, 1989).

Marshall
Per cent polymer in bitumen
Flow, Tensile Strength
stability at 60°C,
mm at 30°C, kg/cm2
kg
Without polymer 750 3.2 1.2

2% Low density polyethylene 910 3.0 1.2

5% Low density polyethylene 960 3.0 1.8

10% Low density polyethylene 1030 2.9 2.1

2% Styrene-butadiene-styrene 1050 2.9 2.0

5% Styrene-butadiene-styrene 1105 2.8 3.5

10% Styrene-butadiene-styrene 1215 2.8 4.4

2% Ethyl vinyl acetate 885 2.9 1.3

5% Ethyl vinyl acetate 1025 2.8 1.5

10% Ethyl vinyl acetate 950 2.8 1.5

Lu and Isacsson (1997) investigated the effects ofpolymer content/structure and

bitumen type on viscosity characteristics of styrene-butadiene-styrene (SBS) polymer


modified bitumens. They reported that SBS polymers were not inert additives and

increase in kinematic and dynamic viscosities of the modified bitumens were not

directly proportional to polymer content; a marked viscosity increase was observed


when the polymer content increased from 3 to 6% by weight ofthe blend.
Isacsson and Lu (1999) investigated the effects of base bitumen and polymer
type (SBS, SEBS and EVA) and content on compatibility, storage stability, rheology
and ageing. They reported that polymer modification improves the low-temperature
properties of bitumen, as indicated by decrease in creep stiffness and Fraass breaking
point. Compared with thermoplastics (EVA and EBA), the elastomers (SBS and SEBS)
seem more effective in improving bitumen low-temperature parameters. Their

18
Chapter 2: Literature Review

investigation indicated that compatibility and storage stability of polymer modified


binders were largely dependent on polymer content and were influenced by the
characteristics of base bitumens and polymers.

Lu et al. (1999) studied the phase separation ofstyrene-butadiene-styrene (SBS)


polymer modified binders using dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) and Fourier
transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. They investigated on influences ofthe type of
base bitumen and the characteristics and concentrations of the SBS polymer on phase

separation. At a given SBS content, the modified binders produced from the bitumens
with higher content of aromatics exhibit a lower phase separation. An increase in
asphaltenes may increase the phase separation, which in turn increases with the SBS
content. The linear SBS modified binders display a lower phase separation during hot

storage as compared with the modified binders containing the branched SBS.
Chen et al. (2002) investigated the morphology and engineering properties of
the binders modified with styrene-butadiene-styrene (SBS) triblock copolymer using
transmission electron microscopy (TEM), rotational viscometer and dynamic shear
rheometer. The morphology of polymer-modified asphalt was described by the SBS
concentration and the presence of microstructure of the copolymer. When the SBS
concentration increased, the copolymer gradually became the dominant phase, and the
transition was followed by a change in engineering properties ofSBS-modified asphalt.
It was reported that different types of SBS showed distinctively different morphologies
because of differences in molecular weight, polarity and structure, there exists the
chemical dissimilarity between asphalt and SBS. The morphology is the result of the
mutual interaction of SBS and asphalt, and consequently is influenced by asphalt
composition and polymer nature and content.

19
Chapter 2 : Literature Review

Airey (2003) studied the effect of SBS polymer modification on the

conventional binder properties of the two PMB groups, shown in Table 2.4 as a

decrease in penetration and an increase in softening point with increasing polymer

content.

Table 2.4. Changes in conventional binder properties following SBS modification


(Airey, 2003).

Fraass Elastic
Penetration Softening Ductility
Binder
Penetration Breaking Recovery
at 25°C Point at10°C
Index (PI) Point at 10°C,
(dmm) °C (cm)
(°C) (%)
Bitumen A 73 47.0 -1.08 -12 63

PMB-AS3 63 52.4 -0.05 -16 95 68

PMB-AS5 57 78.0 4*41 -15 99 76

PMB-AS7 50 95.0 6.13 -14 101 81

Bitumen B 81 46.8 -0.86 -28 130 -

PMB-BS 3 63 52.2 -0.09 -18 81 71

PMB-BS 5 54 74.0 3.67 -16 90 78

PMB-BS 7 49 88.0 5.29 -14 81 80

PMB-AS5 for the SBS PMB produced with bitumen A, SBS copolymer and 5% polymer content.

Although the decrease in penetration is relatively uniform with increasing


polymer content, there is a significantly larger increase in softening point temperature
at high polymer contents of 5% and 7%. In addition to the increase in hardness

(stiffness), the increased penetration indices (Pis) of the PMBs indicate a significant
reduction in temperature susceptibility with polymer modification, particularly at the
higher polymer contents.

20
Chapter 2: Literature Review

2.2.2 Studies on EVA

Mazumdar and Kumar (1997) studied the elastic modulus of asphalt concrete
mixes of polymer (EVA) and they reported that elastic modulus increases with increase
in polymer contents. It was found that elastic modulus increases upto 6per cent and
then decreases for EVA polymer.

Panda and Mazumdar (1999) investigated the modification of 80/100


penetration grade bitumen using ethylene vinyl acetate copolymer. The temperature
susceptibility of the modified binder is improved. Asmall change in temperature and
blending time does not affect binder properties. It was found that 5% EVA
concentration in modified binder by weight is adequate in terms of the enhanced
properties studied. The physical properties of binder at different EVA concentrations of
two grades are given in Table 2.5.

Table 2.5. Physical Properties of Binder at Different EVA concentrations of two


grades (Panda and Mazumdar, 1999)
Penetration, Softening Ductility,
j.
EVA
Grade Specific
concentration 25°C point 27°C
gravity
of EVA (cm)
(%) (dmm) (°C)
88 44 100+ 1.032
0 -

1802 55 59 72 1.027
2.5

65 54 102 1.030
2.5 2806

45 68 43 1.022
5 1802

51 61.5 75 1.020
5 2806

39 72 27 1.020
7.5 1802

42 64 50 1.023
7.5 2806

35 74 18 1.015
10 1802

39 66 35 1.016
10 2806

21
Chapter 2 : Literature Review

Mehndiratta and Chandra (2000) studied bitumen modified with CR and EVA
and they reported various properties of bitumen like low temperature ductility, elastic
>
recovery, water susceptibility, temperature susceptibility, viscosity and marshall
stability improved by adding modifiers to bitumen. The fatigue strength increased about
1.7 times when CR added to bitumen. EVA did not show much improvement in fatigue
strength, but when CR and EVA were used together, the fatigue strength increased 1.9
to 2.2 times. The fatigue life of modified mixes was found to be higher than that of the
unmodified mixes.

Panda and Mazumdar (2002) again investigated the effect of modification of


bitumen by polymers (EVA) and reclaimed polyethylene (PE), in respect of
engineering properties ofpaving mixes. The resilient modulus values ofmixes decrease
at avery small rate with increasing stress level and it depends on the type ofpolymer in
binder and temperature. At a particular temperature, highest values are obtained for
mixes made with EVA modified binders followed by that of PE modified and
unmodified binders. The fatigue life ofapaving mix also depends on the type of binder
used in the mix and test temperature.

Garcia Morales et al., (2004) discussed the viscous behaviour and


microstructure of recycled EVA modified with two different penetration grade
bitumens (60/70 and 150/200). The modification of bitumen with EVA recycled
polymer enhanced its service properties. Thus, viscosity increases, with the consequent
improvement of its high temperature properties, in terms of permanent deformation. It
was concluded from the results obtained that the viscous properties of bitumen, at high
temperature, are improved by adding recycled EVA copolymer in amounts that depend
onbitumen penetration grade.

22
Chapter 2: Literature Review

2.2.3 Studies on Polyethylene

Jew and Woodhams (1986) studied polyethylene modified bitumen for paving
applications and they confirmed that polyethylene is apotentially useful modifier for
increasing the low temperature fracture toughness of bituminous concrete. Most grades
of polyethylene could be dispersed in heated bitumen at temperature 140°C to produce
colloidal suspensions, which remain stable for short periods of time. The modulus,
ultimate strength, ductility and total energy to fracture at low temperature showed an
increase as compared to the unmodified bitumen. Bitumen modified with 5 percent
polyethylene showed ten times increase in the apparent viscosity.
Lee et al. (1994) reported the improvement in fracture toughness without
significantly increasing its stiffness at low temperature. Further, the increase in fracture
toughness was a linear function of the polymer content when the concentration was
below 8 per cent by weight.
Panda and Mazumdar (1997) developed and evaluated a bituminous paving
binder containing reclaimed polyethylene (PE) and used low density polyethylene
(LDPE) for modification of bitumen. The physical properties of modified bitumen with
different percentage ofpolyethylene are shown in Table 2.6.

Table 2.6. Properties ofBinder (Panda and Mazumdar, 1997)

Penetration, Softening Ductility, Specific


Type of binder 25°C, dmm point, °C cm gravity

44 100+ 1.042
Bitumen 88

51 73 1.034
Bitumen +2.5% PE 64

47 55 60 1.028
Bitumen +5% PE
61 51 1.021
Bitumen +7.5% PE 39

81 6 1.012
Bitumen+10% PE 18

23
Chapter 2 : Literature Review

It was observed that the penetration, ductility and the specific gravity of the

modified binder decreases while the softening point and viscosity are increased. The
>
temperature susceptibilityof the modified binder is also improved.

Hinislioglu and Agar (2003) investigated that the possibility of using various

plastic wastes containing High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) as polymer additives to

asphalt concrete. In recent years, numerous waste materials result from manufacturing

operations, service industries and households in Turkey and there were about million

tonne of materials containing HDPE. From the economic view-point, it may be quite

possible that waste HDPE material affects the initial engineering properties of Hot Mix

Asphalt (HMA) pavement and increase its service life. However, since the mixing
conditions for the bitumen and polymer have considerable effect on the bahaviour of

polymer-modified bitumen, it should be determined as the most suitable mixing


conditions for bitumen and polymer. The influence of HDPE-modified binder obtained

by various mixing time, mixing temperature and HDPE content on the Marshall

Stability, flow and Marshall Quotient (Stability to flow ratio) was investigated. The
binders used in Hot Mix Asphalt were prepared by mixing the HDPE in 4-6 % (by
weight of optimum bitumen content). It was concluded that four percent HDPE, 165°C

of mixing temperature and 30 min of mixing time were optimum conditions for
Marshall Stability, flow and Marshall Quotient (MQ). MQ increased 50% compared to
control mix. It can be said that waste HDPE modified bituminous binders provide better

resistance against permanent deformations due to their high stability and high Marshall

Quotient and it contributes to recirculation of plastic wastes as well as protection of the


environment.

24
Chapter 2: Literature Review

2.2.4 Studies on Natural Rubber

Natural rubber obtained from " Hevea" plant is chemically made up of


polyisoprene molecules, which modify viscosity temperature characteristics of
bituminous binders and stiffness characteristics of mixes. The hydrocarbon rubber is
found in many botanical plants, e.g., "Hevea guaule", "cactus", etc. Hevea is one such
plant which contributes 90 per cent of the natural rubber to world. In India, the
production of natural rubber has been increased from about 25,000 tonne in 1984 to an
estimated value ofabout 2, 20,000 tonne in 1987 (Bose and Jain, 1991). Bituminous
mixes were prepared with natural rubber and found that indirect tensile strength of
mixes increased considerably. The cycle flexural characteristics indicated that the
addition of 2per cent natural latex has no effect on the fatigue life but 5, 7.5 and 10 per
cent natural rubber latex had a improvement in fatigue life ofthe order of2.5, 3.5 and
4.5 times respectively. Natural rubber blends may be used for prevention and repair of
cracks.

Shukla et al. (1991) reported that natural rubber obtained from Hevea plant is in
the form of latex, an emulsion containing about 30 per cent rubber termed as dry rubber
content (DRC) used in road construction. The rubber latex is available in the form of
centrifugated latex, evaporated latex, unvulcanized powder, vulcanized powder, sheet
rubber, graft rubber and vulcanized waste rubber. Bitumen grade 60/70 was used the
investigations and mixed with different rubber concentration varied from 2per cent to
12 per cent by weight of that bitumen. It was indicated that the original penetration
value ofbitumen was 53 and it drops down to 35 when 12 per cent rubber is added. The
softening point of latex rubber/bitumen blend goes on increasing as rubber
concentration is increased. At lower rubber contents (2-4 per cent), the rise in softening

25
Chapter 2 : Literature Review

point for each per cent rubber content is about 4°C.

Jagajothi et al. (1999) reported the improvement in engineering properties and

field trials with bitumen modified with natural rubber latex as shown in Table 2.7. It

has been indicated that around 32 to 34 per cent dry rubber content (DRC) in the

natural rubber latex can be used for road purposes. The penetration value of bitumen

decreases from 85 to 63, and softening point value increase from 42°C to 58°C, when 2

per cent rubber latex is used. The other improvements reported are improved skid

resistance, durability and crack resistance particularly at low temperatures, improved

resistance to rutting, moisture damage and age hardening as compared to ordinary


bitumen.

Table 2.7. Physical Properties of 80/100 Bitumen with RubberLatex of varying


concentrations (Jagajothi et al. 1999)

80/100 80/100 bitumen and % rubber latex


Properties Grade
Bitumen 1 2 5 10 15

Specific gravity 1.02 1.017 1.03 1.029 1.026 1.016

Penetration value, 25°C,


85 78 63 59 100 100
5 sees, lOOgms, dmm
Softening point, °C 42 47 54 58 48 47

Ductility, cm 100 63 65 60 82 89

Viscosity, sees (SB) 120 190 190 190 200 200

Loss on Heating, % Nil 0.0 0.03 0.01 Nil 0.06

Penetration of residue, 25°C,


78 81 97 87 98 100
5 sees, 100 gms, dmm
Water Content, % Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil

Matter Soluble in
99 94 95 93 97 98
Trichloroethylene, %
Stripping value, % 40 Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil

26
Chapter 2: Literature Review

2.2.5 Studies on Crumb Rubber


Shukla and Jain (1990) studied the preparation of rubber-bitumen blends for
road construction and maintenance and the effect of particle size and mixing
temperature on the properties ofthe blends. It was reported that visco-elastic properties
of bituminous mixes are considerably improved by the addition of rubber powder. It
has been indicated that about 8-15 per cent of tyre rubber powder or reclaimed rubber
powder passing 600 urn and retained on 150 urn can be used in bituminous road
construction and maintenance. Thirunavukkarsu andNagarajan (1992) also investigated
the effect of particle size ofrubber powder with different percentages. It was found that
the addition of rubber powder derived from waste rubber tyres to bitumen is hardened
and the particle size ofrubber powder less than 0.2 mm can be used for road works.
Shukla et al. (1991) indicated the performance of rubberized bitumen is
comparatively better than the neat bitumen. It was found that the change in viscosity
with temperature is significantly reduced by addition of rubber. The softening point of
the binder is increased but brittle point is lowered. The improved properties of the
binder may be made use of in locations like bus stops, steep gradients, roads used by
traffic with accelerating and decelerating vehicles causing excessive flow due to
dissipation of energy. It is observed that addition of 2-4 per cent rubber to asphaltic
bitumen is beneficial for road construction and the life ofbituminous surface is doubled
by addition of2 per cent rubber.
Wahhab and Amri (1991) evaluated the effects of reclaimed rubber particles
from scrap tyres in the preparation of local asphaltic concrete mixes. Rubber was used
to modify the bitumen in order of 10%, 20%, and 30% by weight and the results show
that the softening point of the binder increases with increasing rubber content. Further,

27
Chapter 2 : Literature Review

addition of reclaimed rubber to 60/70 bitumen improved softening point by 8°C, 10°C,

and 11°C for 10%, 20%, and 30% rubber content, respectively. Addition of 10%

reclaimed rubber improved resilient modulus (MR) values at 25°C and 45°C by 15% >

and 25%, respectively; the stiffness modulus by 40%; as well as the stability and

fatigue life.

Lougheed and Papagiannakis (1996) presented a state-of -the art review of


crumb rubber modified (CRM) asphalt concrete technology and described the results of

viscosity measurements of CRM asphalt cements using a Brookfield viscometer. Two

process ofmixing crumb rubber, wet process (i.e., mixing ofthe crumb rubber with the
binder prior to mixing with the aggregate) and dry process (i.e., simultaneous mixing of
the crumb rubber, the binder and the aggregate) were mentioned. In wet processes, the

reaction that takes place between rubber particles and asphalt binder is not chemical in

nature, but rather a diffusion of the light aromatic components of the binder into the

crumb rubber. This results in a reduction in the viscosity of the binder, which depends

on the type of the binder, the type of the rubber, the mixing temperature, and the

mixing energy (i.e., time). In dry processes, the crumb-rubber particles replace

aggregate particles in the asphalt concrete mix, while due to the limited mixing time

allowed, no significant bonding takes place between the crumb rubber and the binder.

They tested three binders, namely AC-5, AC-10, and AC-20, with CR percentages of
0%, 3%, 5%, 7%, 12%, and 18% using Brookfield viscometer. Binders with 3%, 5%,

7%, 12%, and 18% CR exhibited an increase in viscosity of approximately 1.3,1.5, 1.8,

3.4, and 12.0 times that of the unmodified asphalts, respectively.

Gupta (1997) reported that modified bitumen with rubber was less susceptible

to wide temperature variation as compared to ordinary bitumen. The rubberized

28
Chapter 2: Literature Review

bituminous mixes have improved resistance to thermal cracking, fatigue cracking,


rutting, moisture damage and age hardening. It was mentioned that the problem of
disposal of used automobile tyres can be alleviated by using rubber from discarded
tyres.

Sibal et al. (1998) investigated the fatigue life of bituminous concrete (BC)
modified by addition of crumb rubber. Fatigue tests conducted at 20, 25 and 30°C
indicated that the fatigue life of Rubber Modified Bituminous Concrete (RMBC) was at
least ten times higher than that ofthe conventional BC mix. Crumb rubber bituminous
concrete showed higher dynamic modulus as compared to normal bituminous concrete
and hence it will be able to withstand load due to heavy traffic.

Rajoria et al. (2002) reported the use of crumb rubber modified bitumen on
Delhi roads. PWD, Delhi used this modified bitumen in a test section to judge its

suitability on Delhi roads. Atest section of400 mlength and 10.5 mwidth was selected
on Ring Road between Shantivan and Rajghat, New Delhi in March, 1999. The test
section was selected on the basis of high intensity of heavily loaded vehicles. It was

found that the use of modified bitumen improves the vital properties of the bitumen,

which in turn improves the property of bituminous mix. The stability of mix, fatigue
life, elastic modulus, water repulsion and temperature susceptibility of the mix
improves in a manner that the life ofthe pavement increases without any deterioration
in the serviceability of the pavement.

Frantzis (2003) used a new technique to obtain images of microstructures for


use as an alternative standard procedure. Cold-stage optical microscopy uniquely
provides a new method of observing the physical characteristics of crumb rubber
particles in bituminous binders and can be useful when the particle shapes and binder

29
Chapter 2 : Literature Review

properties are correlated. A lOO-pen bitumen from Kuwait was modified with crumb
rubber from truck tyres of 600 urn nominal maximum size at concentrations of 3% and
>
10% by weight of the bitumen. Data obtained from storage stability tests and extensive
particle swelling (growth in size) studies were used to assess and illustrate the
applicability and ability of the technique to obtain reproducible and clear images for
any combination of crumb rubber type, size, content, bitumen type, mixing time and
temperature.

Palit et al. (2004) conducted various tests on crumb rubber (CR) modified
bitumens. Crumb rubber obtained from discarded truck and bus tyres. The size of the
crumb rubber passing (ASTM) 30 sieve (0.6mm) was used for preparation of modified
bitumen. In the procedure ofpreparation, bitumen (80/100) was heated to atemperature
of 160°C before crumb rubber was added. The blend was mixed at low speed for about
5min. The mixture was heated to 175°C and agitated vigorously for about 40 min
using amechanical stirrer operated at 2,000 rpm. Blending temperature was maintained
between 175 and 180°C. Different percentages, 5%, 10% and 15% crumb rubber were
used. Modified binders found to be much higher penetration ratio and elastic recovery
than that of base bitumen. It shows higher flexibility of modified bitumen with CR at
low temperature. Fatigue behaviour ofcrumb rubber modified bitumen was found to be
significantly improved compared to normal bitumen. Crumb rubber modified binders
showed lower temperature susceptibility. The physical properties of Crumb Rubber
Binders are shown in Table 2.8.

30
Chapter 2: Literature Review

Table 2.8. Physical Properties ofCrumb Rubber Binders (Palit et al., 2004)
Property of binder
Parameter measured
80/100 30CR5 30CR10 30CR15

Penetration at 25°C (dmm) 90 58 54 53

Penetration at 4°C (dmm) 14 19 20 18

Penetration ratio (%) 16 33 37 34

Softening point (°C) 45.5 54 56.5 58

Ductility at 27°C (cm) 100+ 45 42 45

Specific gravity 1.026 1.029 1.032 1.037

Elastic recovery 15°C (%) 31.2 66.4 78.0 71.5

30CR5 refers to crumb rubbei•passing AS' 'M30 sieve wit 15% by weight of bitumen.

2.2.6 Studies on Sulphur

Shukla et al. (1981) reported that a considerable amount of bitumen saving may
be affected by substitution of sulphur. Poorly graded aggregate was used with sulphur-
bituminous binders and it indicated that 30-40 per cent sulphur by weight may be

substituted in bitumen. The sulphur modified mixes provided an economic alternative,

where the available aggregate was only sand, and transportation was expensive (Rao et
A al., 1981).

The sulphur modified mixes have a lower temperature susceptibility and better
resistance to permanent deformation. These mixes have substantially higher fatigue life
(Jimenez etal, 1981; Kennepohl etal., 1982, and Mahoney etal., 1982).
Akili et al. (1983) observed a moderate increase in stability as compared to
control materials without adverse effects of reduced flexibility by adding 30 to 40 per

cent sulphur. Marshall design data of mixes containing upto 30 per cent sulphur by
weight were almost similar to control mixes. The mixes were become considerably
stiffer above 40 per cent sulphur and the higher the sulphur content, the greater the
31
Chapter 2 : Literature Review

stability andthe lower the flow value.

Madugula (1984) reported that sulphur can be used to replace bitumen either
partially or wholly to improve the qualities of the resulting mix, to conserve bitumen >

and to enable use of flow quality aggregates. He mentioned that the odour of sulphur
was not objectionable and sulphur fumes did not pose any health hazard to workers
during construction.

2.3 RHEOLOGY OF BITUMINOUS BINDERS


2.3.1 Studies on Rheological Properties of Bitumen
Saal and Labout (1958) investigated the rheological behaviour ofpure bitumens
to find the relation between deformation, stress, time ofloading and temperature. In the
numerous applications of asphalt the mechanical conditions, such as magnitude of
stresses and time of loading, cannot be given with ahigh degree of precision. Hence
knowledge of the rheological properties of the asphalt need not be so much accurate
either, but may be restricted to the primary effects, and the relation between stress and
deformation may be considered linear. On deformation, most asphalts display visco
elastic properties. For given asphalt the ratio ofthe elastic to the permanent part ofthe
deformation depends on stress, time ofloading, and temperature. At slight deformations
and short times of loading the deformation is predominantly elastic; at considerable
deformations and long loading times viscous deformation dominates. In most cases
elastic deformation consists of an ideally elastic part and apart showing retarded
elasticity.

Jongepier and Kuilman (1969) investigated the linear viscoelastic properties of


a series of bitumens, ranging from extreme sol to extreme gel type at various
frequencies and temperatures. Their results were analysed in terms ofdynamic modulus
32
Chapter 2: Literature Review

and phase angle curves at constant temperature and by viscosity-temperature relations.


The results of the measurements of the complex shear modulus are expressed as the
dynamic modulus which is the ratio ofthe amplitudes of stress and strain, and the phase
difference between stress and strain.

There is no time difference between stress and strain for short time or elastic
behaviour; and <D =0 and |G| is independent of frequency. Long-time response
corresponds with viscous flow, in which case there is aphase lag of aquarter periods
between stress and strain. It can be shown that the dynamic modulus is proportional to
the circular frequency co, which is 2% times the frequency. Hence, for sufficiently low
values of co, there is viscous flow and

|G| =ti co with 0= 90°. t2-1)


The proportionality constant in eq. (2.1) is the shear-rate-independent or
Newtonian viscosity.

Pink et al. (1980) used Rheometrics Mechanical Spectrometer (RMS), an


instrument originally designed for polymer research, to make low temperature dynamic
viscoelastic measurements on asphalt. The dynamic shear modulus was measured at
several frequencies, utilizing the extreme low-temperature capability of the RMS, at
temperature down to -94°C. It was reported that the dynamic master curves are useful
tools for illustrating the separate effects of temperature and time-susceptibility.
Dynamic viscoelasticity in asphalt can be accurately measured at low temperatures, and
at low strain levels to ensure linear viscoelastic behaviour. The apparent verification of
time/temperature superposition demonstrated in two examples supports the use of
dynamic techniques to investigate the low temperature, long loading time rheological
behaviour of asphalt.

33
Chapter 2 : Literature Review

King et al. (1992) investigated the influence of asphalt grades and polymer
concentration on the high temperature performance of polymer modified asphalt. Four

grades of bitumens (40/50, 60/70, 80/100 and 180/200) were used and modified with
different percentages of SBS. A computer controlled Bohlin VOR dynamic mechanical
analyzer was used to study the effects of stress, frequency, and relaxation time on the

viscous and elastic components of the binder's complex viscosity at 30°C and 60°C.

The effects of asphalt grade and polymer concentration on the stiffness parameters G*,

G', and G", and the loss tangent, tan 8 were evaluated.

Qi et al. (1995) compared the permanent deformation behaviour of unmodified

asphalt concrete mixtures to the behaviour of asphalt concrete mixtures modified with

polyethylene. The rutting resistances of mixtures at 40°C and 60°C using repeated-load

permanent-deformation test were evaluated. Their results showed that the polyethylene

modifiers demonstrated the ability to alter the viscoelastic properties of asphalt

concrete mixtures at high temperatures. It produced higher creep moduli of modified

mixtures than those of unmodified mixtures. This resulted in significant reduction in

the permanent deformation of the asphalt concrete mixture under repeated loads.

Rutting criterion indicated that polyethylene modified mixtures are able to resist rutting

better than conventional materials. It indicated that modified mixtures have 75-85%

more resistance to rutting than the unmodified control mixtures.

Zaman et al. (1995) investigated the rheological properties of bitumen modified

with rubber (from used tires) at different percentages (2.5, 5, 7.5, and 10%) by using

Instron capillary viscometer (Model 3211) and Rheometrics mechanical spectrometer

(RMS 800). The linear viscoelastic functions (dynamic viscosity and storage modulus)

of asphalt cement modified with different amounts of rubber were investigated in small

34
Chapter 2: LiteratureReview

amplitude oscillatory shear flow. Both dynamic viscosity and storage modulus
increased by increasing the amount of rubber in asphalt cement. Dynamic viscosity is a
decreasing function of frequency, while storage modulus is an increasing function of
frequency. The results indicate that the elastic behaviour of asphalt cement modified
with 10% rubber is approximately two times larger than that of asphalt cement
modified with 7.5% rubber, but there is only a small difference in the elasticity of
asphalt cement modified with 5% and 7.5% rubber.
Chaala et al., (1996) investigated the rheological properties of bitumen modified
with pyrolytic carbon black (CBp) at concentrations ranging from 5to 30% by weight
ofbitumen. The fundamental rheological properties ofstandard and modified bitumens
as well as their classical characteristics were determined. The parallel plate
configuration was used in dynamic mode for the study. The gap between the plates was
fixed at 1.4 mm and tested at temperatures of0, 30, 45 and 60°C. Dynamic mechanical
properties of the unmodified and CBp-modified bitumens were obtained in the linear
viscoelastic region. They reported that the addition of pyrolytic carbon black in
amounts of5to 30 %ofthe binder changes the rheological properties ofthe blend. The
>
temperature susceptibility of the bitumen was reduced and the loss modulus, G' and the
storage modulus, G" increased significantly for the mixture with 30% of CBp, mainly
in the high frequency region. The results indicated that pyrolytic carbon black can be
used as a filler to reduce the influence of temperature on physical response

characteristics of the mixtures.

Gahvari (1997) also investigated the dynamic mechanical properties of


thermoplastic block copolymer (SBS and SEBS) modified bitumen at different
concentrations (3, 4, and 5% by weight of bitumen). The stress sweep and frequency

35
Chapter 2 : Literature Review

sweep were performed at temperatures ranging from 5to 75°C and frequencies between
0.063 and 188.496 rad/sec. It was observed that there are significant changes in the

complex modulus and loss tangent at intermediate and low frequencies.


Lu and Isacsson (1997) studied the rheological properties styrene-butadiene-
styrene copolymer (SBS) modified bitumens from four sources at different polymer
content levels using dynamic mechanical analysis over wide ranges oftemperatures and
frequencies. The powdered SBS polymers were added to the bitumen when the
temperature was reached 175°C. After reaching 180°C, the mixing was continued at
that temperature for two hours at a speed of 125 rpm. To determine the various
characteristics of the binders, a frequency sweep was applied over the range 0.1-100

rad/sec, at fixed strain amplitude and at temperatures. The temperature sweep was

applied to characterize the temperature dependence of the binder parameter at a fixed


frequency and at variable strain. The frequency dependence of phase angle at 60°C is
shown in Figure 2.1. The improved viscoelastic properties of the SBS modified binders

can be observed over a wide frequency range from this figure. A small difference in the

frequency dependence of the phase angle of the base bitumens was also observed with
marked differences among the modified binders with a sufficiently high polymer

content of 6%. It was found that the addition of the SBS polymers increased the binder

elasticity at high temperatures and improved the binder flexibility at low temperature.

Further, it was reported that the modified binders produced from bitumens of the same
penetration grade may differ substantially in their rheological properties. A significant
improvement in the rheological characteristics was observed when the SBS content was

increased from 3% to 6% by weight. However, the improved viscoelastic properties

were not directly proportional to the polymer content. The degree of modification with

respect to the binder rheology varied with temperature and frequency, and was
dependent on the bitumen source, grade and the polymer concentration and structure.

36
Chapter2: Literature Review

"*—**—*—♦-.!: '"• *::::*:::"t:::::|:::::-


so * A-
*•

..*.>BKunwnA -•••-MutwrnB
..©.-B»um«nC ••*»•• Bitumen 0
..♦■•BltunwnE —*—PMB-ALB
20 + —•—PMB-Bt-6 -O— PMB-CL6
-H-PMB-DLB -♦-PMB-Ele
- <*- • PMB-AU —*— PMB-AB8
10

• ' • ' • I
1.ME+0Z
l.OOE-Ol J.0OE+OO l***01
Frequency (f»d/»l
>

Figure 2.1. Phase angle and frequency for base and SBS modified bitumens at
60°C (Lu and Isacsson, 1997)

37
Chapter 2 : Literature Review

Airey and Brown (1998) investigated the rheological changes associated with
short term and long term laboratory ageing of various unmodified, penetration grade,
bitumens and PMB's using conventional binder tests, chemical property tests and using >

Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR). They selected three bitumens (Middle East, 80/100
pen, Russian, 80 pen and Venezuelan, 70/100 pen) from different crude sources with

different chemical compositions but with similar consistencies for the production of
various polymers modified bitumens (PMB's).The base bitumens were blended with

plastomeric (EVA thermoplastic polymer) and elastomeric (SBS thermoplastic rubber)


with different percentages of 3, 5 and 7%. There is a constant increase in complex
modulus, G*, over the temperature domain after ageing for Venezuelan 70/100
bitumen. The increase in G* after pressure ageing vessel (PAV) ageing is
understandably greater than after RTFOT ageing due to the prolonged ageing process in
the PAV. There is also a regular decrease of the phase angle, 8, over the temperature
domain after ageing. The result of ageing, for the penetration grade bitumen, is
therefore an increase in G* and a decrease in 5.The increase in complex modulus,
indicating the hardening of the bitumen, and a decrease in phase angle, indicating an
increase in the elastic behavior ofthe bitumen. The rheological changes that occur after
ageing for the PMB's differ from those experienced for penetration grade bitumen in
the regions where the polymer is the dominant component. This occurs at temperatures
greater than approximately 40°C for the SBS copolymer and between the temperatures
ofapproximately 35°C to 65°C for the EVA copolymer. The rheological changes that
occur after ageing for EVA modified PMB's can be linked to a chemical change ofthe
semi-crystalline copolymer with a shifting ofthe rheological characteristics ofthe aged
PMB towards that ofan unmodified bitumen. This chemical evolution or change was
shown as reduction in the magnitude of the enthalpy measured for the endothermic

38
Chapter 2: Literature Review

reaction associated with the melting of the EVA copolymers after RTFOT and PAV

ageing. The rheological changes associated with ageing for the SBS modified PMB's
can be linked to a breakdown of the molecular structure of the SBS copolymer to form

a lower weight polymer substructure. This results in an increased viscous behaviour in


the polymer dominated domain after ageing compared to the increased elastic

behaviour found for unmodified bitumens.

Partal et al., (1999) studied the characterization of the linear viscoelastic and

steady-state flow properties of synthetic binders and unmodified bitumens in the

temperature range of 5°C to 50°C. Stress sweep tests were carried out at a frequency of

6.28 rad/sec for determining the linear viscoelastic region in oscillatory shear.

Frequency sweep test performed from 0.01 to 100 rad/sec at a shear stress value within

the linear viscoelastic range. It was reported that both types of materials (synthetic

binders and unmodified bitumens) show thermo-rheologically simple linear viscoelastic

behaviour in the temperature range from 5 to 50°C, although synthetic binders are

thermo-rheologically complex modulus materials in steady-state flow.

Lu and wright (2000) investigated based on the deformation separation, visco-

elastoplastic properties of asphalt mixtures at four test temperatures. It was found from

the tests that all of the parameters of the given mechanical models are highly

temperature dependent. Test results and parametric studies also show that viscous

response of an asphalt mixture to the load will become much stronger at higher

temperature.

Shenoy (2002) determined the single-event cracking temperature of different

unmodified binders and modified with EVA and SBS by using bending beam

rheometer. The determination of the single-event cracking temperature, Tcr requires a


39
Chapter 2 : Literature Review

comparison of the pavement thermal stress computed from the binder stiffness data
generated from the bending beam rheometer (BBR) with the binder strength data
measured using the direct tension test (DTT). The data covered awide span ofcracking
temperatures from -17 to -35°C. It was reported that the temperature range where
cracking occurred in the field was between -30.2 and -33°C.
Airey (2002) evaluated the rheological properties of nine plastomeric EVA
polymer modified bitumens (PMBs) produced by laboratory mixing bitumen from three
sources with an EVA copolymer at three polymer contents (3, 5 and 7% by weight of
bitumen). The rheological properties of the binders were measured in terms of their
complex modulus (stiffness and overall resistance to deformation), G*; storage
modulus (binder elasticity), G; and phase angle (viscoelastic balance of rheological
behaviour), 5. The rheological properties of bitumens are improved by means of EVA

polymer modification. The change ofcomplex modulus as a function oftemperature at

different frequencies (0.02 and 1 Hz) for base and EVA modified Bitumen A (Middle
East) and B (Venezuela) has shown in Figures 2.2 and 2.3. Both bitumen groups

showed a relatively consistent increase in G* with modification although the increases

are limited at low temperatures. The polymeric type modification for Bitumen B

compared to the filler type modification ofBitumen Awas more noticeable atthe lower
frequency of 0.02 Hz than at the higher frequency of 1 Hz. This is due to the lower
stiffness of the base bitumen at 0.02 Hz allowing the polymer (elastic) network to

bitumen influence the rheological characteristics of the polymer bitumen blend.

40
Chapter2: Literature Review

ra+07

-•-Bitumen A -*-PMB-AE3
1B+06
•+-PMB-AB5 •'-PMB.ABT
2
^1B*0S
1B+M

1 1B+03

IB+fll

1B+00
10 10 30 40 30 60 70 10

Temperature (C)

1E+07

-•-Bitumen B "•'PMB-BE3
1B+0C
—PMB-BBS —-PMB-BE7
|&1E+05
SlE+M Plateau Zone

-IE+03

H lB-tOi

IE-HU

1E+00 -*- + +
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 SO

Temperature (C)

Figure 2.2. Complex modulus and temperature at 0.02 Hz for base and EVA
modified Bitumens A and B (Airey, 2002)

41
Chapter 2 : Literature Review

IE+08 y

-•"Bitunwn A -0-PMB-AB3
^ ie*i«'
IE+07
•+-PMB-AE3 -—PMB.AE7
^l&KK
I 1B+0S

i M 1E+04

1E+03

1E+02

IB+01
10 20 30 40 30 60 70 SO

Temperature (C)

1B-HJJ

-•-Bitumen B ••'PMB-BE3
1E-HW
••-PMB-BE5 -»-PMB-BE7
g ^

1
1B+05 ^^ter
I

I
IE-KX ^^^^
^^^^^t^
a ib+oj
a
U
1B+02

IB-tOl l i t !
10 20 30 40 SO 60 70 SO

Temperature ifC)
(PMB-AE3, BE3 refers to Bitumen A and B with 3% SBS)

Figure 2.3. Complex modulus and temperature at 1 Hz for base and EVA
modified Bitumens A and B (Airey, 2002).

42
Chapter 2: Literature Review

Elseifi et al. (2003) characterized the dynamic mechanical properties of


modified bitumen with styrene-butadiene-styrene (SBS) and styrene-ethylene-
butadiene-styrene (SEBS) at intermediate and high temperature at three different
concentrations, 3, 4, and 5% by using dynamic shear rheometer (DSR). Frequency
sweep is performed at temperatures with ranging from 5°C to 75°C in increment of
10°C. It is suggested that high G* at high temperatures indicates better resistance to
permanent deformations, and high G" at low temperatures indicates a better low
temperature flexibility. The effect of polymers in abinder's performance was evaluated
at high temperature and using rutting resistance of binder characterized by the
temperature at which G*/tan 8 equals to 2,000 Pa at a frequency of 9.425 rad/sec
instead of G*/sin 8 (superpave rutting parameter). It was also found that there is no
significant increase in rutting resistance when bitumen modified with more than 3% for
SBS and 4% for SEBS. The resistance to fatigue cracking at intermediate temperatures

was evaluated using the criterion adopted by the superpave specification parameter,
G*sin 8. It was found that SEBS improves the binder rutting resistance more than SBS.

However, SBS was found more effective in improving the binder fatigue resistance at

intermediate temperatures.

Kim etal. (2003) investigated the effect ofthe processes on fatigue fracture and
fracture healing during controlled-strain, dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) testing.
They tested sand asphalt samples fabricated with two SHRP-classified binders: AAD-1
and AAM-1 at 25°C and at 10Hz. Mechanical strength and resistance to increasing

strain were investigated by conducting the dynamic strain sweep tests beginning at a
relatively high strain, 0.04%. Testing was continued until sample failure and maximum

43
Chapter 2 : Literature Review

shear stress was recorded at approximately 0.7-0.8% strain, while the peak phase angle
was measured at approximately 1.0% strain. AAM-1 showed much higher maximum

shearstress than AAD-1, which demonstrated that AAM-1 was stifferthan AAD-1.

Airey (2003) described the rheological properties of styrene butadiene styrene

(SBS) polymer modified with two penetration grade bitumens at different


concentrations (3%, 5% and 7%) by weight of bitumen. Two base bitumens (A and B)

from paraffic (Russian) and naphthenic (non-paraffic) (Venezuelan) crude sources were

used to produce a number of laboratory blended, block copolymer SBS PMBs. All the

PMBs were prepared with a Silverson high shear laboratory mill at temperatures

between 170°C and 185°C until steady state conditions were achieved. The rheological

characteristics of the SBS PMBs were analysed by means of dynamic mechanical

analysis using dynamic shear rheometer. The changes in rheological properties of

G*(complex modulus) together with an indication of SBS modification

(G*PMB/G*Bimmen), and 8 (phase angle) have been recorded at temperatures of 45°C,

75°C and at frequency of 0.02 and 1 Hz in Tables 2.9a and 2.9b. There are significant

differences in the modification indices of G* between the two bitumen groups and

these differences are more pronounced at higher polymer contents, higher temperatures

(75°C) and lower frequencies of 0.02 Hz. The group A PMBs have lower phase angles;

it indicated greater elastic, less viscous response as compared to the Bitumen B PMBs

at the higher temperature of 75°C and the lowerfrequency of 0.02 Hz.

44
Chapter 2: Literature Review

Table 2.9a. Changes in rheological parameters with SBS modification at 0.02 Hz


(Airey, 2003)

G* (Complex modulus) §(Phase angle)


G*pmb/G* Bitumen (degrees)
(Pa)
Binder

45°C 75°C 45°C 75°C 45°C 75°C

Bitumen A 2.78xl02 3.67x10° 1.0 1.0 88 90

PMB-AS3 7.24x102 1.68x10' 2.6 4.6 80 73

PMB-AS5 1.15*103 5.44x10' 4.1 14.8 69 49

PMB-AS7 1.70xl03 1.18xl02 6.1 32.0 62 44

Bitumen B 2.86xl02 4.51x10° 1.0 1.0 88 89


*

PMB-BS3 7.98xlO2 1.43x10' 2.8 3.2 83 87

PMB-BS5 1.37xl03 2.67x10' 4.8 5.9 79 79

PMB-BS7 2.06x103 3.87x10' 7.2 8.6 76 79

Table 2.9b. Changes in rheological parameters with SBS modification at 1 Hz


(Airey, 2003)

G* (Complex modulus) 5(Phase angle)


G*pmb/G it Bitumen
(Pa) (degrees)
Binder

45°C 75°C 45°C 75°C 45°C 75°C

Bitumen A 1.24xl04 1.78xl02 1.0 1.0 85 89

PMB-AS3 2.11xl04 4.74x102 1.7 2.7 73 80

PMB-AS5 2.57xl04 7.51xl02 2.1 4.2 70 71

PMB-AS7 3.03xl04 1.16xl03 2.5 6.5 66 64

Bitumen B 1.19xl04 2.15xl02 1.0 1.0 81 89

PMB-BS3 2.18xl04 5.94x102 1.8 2.8 70 84

PMB-BS5 3.29x104 9.11xl02 2.8 4.2 66 80

PMB-BS7 3.89xl04 1.34xl03 3.3 6.2 60 79

45
Chapter 2 : Literature Review

The results indicated that the degree of SBS modification was a function of

bitumen source, bitumen-polymer compatibility and polymer concentration, with the

higher polymer concentrations in high aromatic content bitumen producing a highly

elastic network which increased the viscosity, complex modulus and elastic response of

the PMB, particularly at high service temperatures.

Lundstrom et al. (2004) described the failure criterion for asphalt concrete

mixtures containing different penetration grade bitumens at 0, 10, and 20°C using

uniaxial testing (tension/compression) on cylindrical samples. The decrease in stiffness

at failure is related to mixture stiffness, where stiff materials (low temperature and/or

mixtures containing low pen grade binder) show comparatively small decrease.

Statistical approach based on fatigue tests carried out at different temperatures was

suggested which uses stiffness degradation as a measure of critical fatigue stiffness. It

discussed the advantage of such a failure criterion compared to the classical failure

criterion (decrease in stiffness by 50%) for different temperatures.

Kim and Little (2004) characterized the linear viscoelastic properties of asphalt

cement with filler that is smaller than 75 urn in size and asphalt mastic using dynamic

shear rheometer. It was focused on using micromechanical and rheology-based models

to assess the effect of two fillers, limestone and hydrated lime, on the performance of

the asphalt mastic. The micromechanical models showed good agreement with testing

data at low particle volume concentration and rheological model predicted the

stiffening effect of limestone filler when added up to 25% by volume.

Gonzalez et al., (2004) investigated the rheological aspect of a bitumen (60/70)

modified with virgin and recycled EVA copolymers, related to practical viscoelastic

response and stability of the mixture.

46
Chapter 2: Literature Review

Airey et al. (2004) investigated the linearity limits of various unmodified and

modified bituminous binders using dynamic shear rheometer. The range of linear
4
behaviour was analyzed for the different binders modified with EVA and SBS,

determined by performing stress/strain sweeps at selected temperatures, 10, 20, 30 and

40°C (8mm spindle geometry), 60 and 70°C (25mm geometry) and frequencies, 0.1, 1,

5, and 10 Hz. The linearity results for the unmodified 50 penetration grade bitumen and

radial SBS PMB have shown a general decrease in the binder strain limit as a function

of increasing complex modulus, G* and there is an upper maximum strain limit for the

elastomeric SBS, PMB (unaged and RTFOT aged) at approximately 1,000,000

microstrain (i.e., 100% strain). This upper binder strain dependent linear criterion can

be attributed directly to the dominant elastomeric polymer network of the SBS, PMB at

high temperatures (low frequencies). In addition to the polymer dominant binder strain

criterion, both binders in their unaged and aged conditions display some evidence of a

plateauing of the strain limit at high complex modulus, G* value (low temperatures/

high frequencies). The rheological properties of the binders after RTFOT short term

ageing were compared by producing master curves at a reference temperature of 20°C.

The effect of polymer modification on the rheological properties of the PMBs

and the reduced temperature susceptibility of the process-modified multigrade bitumen

clearly showed by this master curves. The rheological behaviour of asphalt mixtures

incorporating a range of unmodified and modified (both polymer and process modified)

binders showed similarities to the rheological characteristics of the constituent RTFOT

v aged binders. However, the extra stiffening effect of the aggregate skeleton increased

the elastic response of the asphalt mixtures relative to that of the binders particularly at

high temperatures and low frequencies.

47
Chapter 2 : Literature Review

Abbas et al. (2004) described the viscoelastic behaviour of the binder through

mechanistic models fitted to rheological data obtained at different strain levels. They

developed an analytical model capable of modeling the viscoelastic behaviour of

asphalt concretes by explicitly considering their aggregate microstructure and the

nonlinear viscoelastic behaviour of the binder. They studied analytically the

relationship between the dynamic axial modulus E* and the dynamic shear modulus G*

of asphalt concretes.

Chehab and Kim (2005) developed a model, viscoelastoplastic continuum

damage (VEPCD) capable of characterizing the viscoelastic and viscoplastic responses

of asphalt concrete (AC) in addition to microcracking. Measured responses and fracture

parameters from thermal strain restrained specimen tensile (TSRST) strength tests were

compared with those predicted using the VEPCD model, the viscoelastic continuum

damage model, and the linear viscoelastic model. The comparison confirmed: (i) the

ability of the VEPCD model to accurately characterize the tensile behaviour of asphalt

concrete under thermally induced loading; and (ii) a decrease in accuracy as the

complexity of the model decreases.

Edwards et al., (2006) investigated the rheological effects of commercial waxes

and a polyphospheric acid to three bitumens of 160/220 penetration grade by using

dynamic shear rheometer (DSR), bending beam rheometer (BBR), differential scanning

calorimeter (DSC) and force ductilometer (FD). Bending beam rheometer was used to

carried out creep tests in the temperature range -20 and -25°C. Rheological

measurements were performed with temperature sweeps using a rheometer

(Rheometrics, RDA 11) and carried out in the temperature range of -30 to 80°C using

parallel plates with 8 mm diameter and gap of 1.5 mm. They found that magnitude and

48
Chapter 2: LiteratureReview

type of effect on bitumen rheology depend on the bitumen itself as well as type and
amount of additive used. It showed positive effects on the rheological behaviour at low
A,

temperature when polyethylene wax or polyphosphoric acid added to non waxy

160/220 penetration grade bitumen.

Morales et al., (2006) studied the benefit of the waste polymers (EVA,

EVA/LDPE blend and crumb tyre) addition on the bitumen performance and evaluated

the rheological characteristics of modified bitumens in a wide range oftemperature 20-


80°C. They mentioned that a higher dissipation of energy prevents the pavement from
X thermal cracking as stressed by the heavy traffic loadings. A polymer blend composed
of EVA and LDPE, resulted quite suitable mainly at high in-service temperatures,

showing favourable mechanical properties at temperatures for which neat bitumen


undergoes permanent deformation processes. The blend containing 3.5% EVA/LDPE
and crumb rubber appears to be an interesting formulation in order to obtain a better

behaviour of bitumen in a wide range of temperature.

2.3.2 Effect of Composition and Structure on Rheological Behaviour

The chemical constitution of road bitumens would be a valuable aid in

controlling their physical and chemical properties to fit them as well as possible for
their function in road construction. Bitumen has usually been described as mixtures of

hydrocarbon of a very wide range of molecular weights. The molecular weight range
for petroleum bitumens lies between 400 and 5000 or more (HMSO, 1962). Bitumen is
a petroleum product obtained by the distillation of petroleum crude, found in gaseous,

liquid, semisolid or solid form. Crude petroleum obtained from different places is quite

different in their composition. The portion of bituminous material present in the

petroleums may widely differ depending on the source. The bitumen from different

49
Chapter 2 : Literature Review

sources possessing same penetration value at a specified temperature may exhibit


entirely different viscous characteristics at the application or service temperatures

(Khanna and Justo, 1971).

Moavenzadeh and Brady (1964) described the fundamental properties of

asphalts and related the chemical composition of asphalt to its stress deformation

character. They worked in three phases, (a) determining the asphaltene content

(b) recovering the asphaltenes and maltenes and recombining them to obtain synthetic

asphalts of 0%, 10%, 18.5% and 25% asphaltene and (c) determining the stress-strain

relationship of the synthetic asphalts at various temperatures, using the sliding plate

microviscometer. It was observed that the microviscometer gives a good curve of the

rate of shear versus shear stress except at high and low viscosity values. At the high

values it was difficult to obtain a smooth plot of the micrometer readings versus time.

Marvillet (1975) studied the influence of asphalt composition on its rheological

behaviour to ensure that formulations for asphaltic binders are adapted to road traffic

requirements.

Corbett and Schweyer (1981) showed that bitumens have different rheological

properties because of crude source, the inherent nature of each component fraction

varies in rheology and changes in composition occur with ageing. They indicated that

the age hardening was the result of a change in the asphalt binder composition in which

the Naphthene-Aromatics are converted to Polar-Aromatics and they turn into

Asphaltenes. These changes create increase in viscosity and a lowering of penetration.

Dukatz et al. (1984) also investigated the relationship between asphalt flow

properties and asphalt composition. The asphaltene-meltene model can explain the flow

behaviour of asphalt from single source; the model is not valid when asphalts from

G,rsl-M 50
Chapter 2: Literature Review

multiple sources are included in the same model. Therefore, various measures of
component functionality were introduced into the asphaltene/meltene model in order to
evaluate the importance ofthese measures in the relationship between composition and
flow. The viscosity, penetration, and dynamic rheological properties of the asphalts
were characterized over a wide range of temperature. They evaluated the functional

relationships between flow properties and (i) fractional composition, (ii) maltene
viscosity, and (iii) measures of component functionality to determine the relative
importance ofeach ofthese factors indefining the flow properties.
Brule et al. (1988) studied the relationship between the composition, the
structure and the rheological and practical properties of binders modified by the
incorporation of styrene-betadiene-styrene (SBS) block copolymers. They found that
the material conditions of blend preparation have an important impact on the structure

and properties of modified binders: the longer the agitation time, the finer the
microstructure. There is however a threshold beyond which polymer degradation leads

to a decrease in mechanical properties and, more precisely, in low-temperature

deformation possibilities. The higher the temperature, the more rapidly threshold
reaches.

Cheung and Cebon (1997) proposed a framework, by which the mechanical


behaviour of pure bitumens can be understood in terms of simplified theoretical
deformation models over a wide range of stress, strain rate, and temperature. The

proportion of asphaltenes present in any particular bitumen, or the asphaltenes content


(by mass), remains the most useful parameter for describing the compositional
characteristics of the bitumen. They reported that the quantity of asphaltenes and the

chemical nature of the maltenes are the two principal compositional aspects that have

primary influence on the mechanical behaviour of the bitumens.

51
Chapter 2 : Literature Review

2.3.3 Effect of Ageing on Binders Rheology

Lu and Isacsson (2002) studied the effect of ageing on bitumen chemistry and

rheology of various bitumen grades from different sources. The relationship between

thin film oven tests (TFOT) and rolling thin film test (RTFOT) were also investigated.

They used TFOT (ASTM D 1754) and RTFOT (ASTM D 2872) for ageing the

bitumens. Standardised conditions, i.e., 163°C and 75 min for RTFOT, and 163°C and

5 hr for TFOT, were used. They evaluated their rheological properties of the aged

bitumens. The results have shown that the complex modulus (G*), storage modulus

(G') and the loss modulus (G") and the phase angle (8) decrease with ageing. The

complex modulus and phase angle before and after ageing of bitumen at two different

temperatures and at 10 rad/sec are shown in Table 2.10.

Mercado et al. (2005) investigated the factors affecting binder properties

between production and construction. In Texas, the binder was tested immediately after
binder production, although the goal of quality assurance (QA) is to ensure that the

binder specified is used during construction. Between production and construction, the

material is stored and transferred multiple times before it reaches the construction site

or hot mix asphalt (HMA) plant. The binder properties may change due to many factors
and these changes may have a negative impact on performance. To evaluate which

factors are detrimental, a laboratory testing program was conducted to simulate the

effects of storage time, storage temperature, contamination, and modification on the

dynamic shear rheometer (DSR) performance parameter G*/sin8 after rolling thin film
oven (RTFO) ageing.

52
Chapter 2: Literature Review

Table 2.10. Complex modulus and phase angle at 10 rad/sec and two different
temperatures (Lu and Isacsson, 2002)
*

Complex modulus (G*) Phase angle (5)


Pa °C
Binders

25°C 60°C 25°C 60°C

Bl -unaged 8.39E5 2.77E3 69.7 85.4

Bl-TFOT 1.53E6 4.97E3 62.4 82.3

Bl-RTFOT 1.37E6 5.25E3 62.7 81.7

B2-unaged 5.65E5 1.92E3 72.7 86.2

B2-TFOT 8.47E5 2.99E3 66.3 84.0

B2-RTFOT 8.97E5 3.82E3 65.1 82.9

B3-unaged 1.29E5 6.86E2 77.3 88.0

B3-TFOT 2.50E5 1.10E3 71.4 85.8

B3-RTFOT 2.49E5 1.43E3 70.6 85.7

B4-unaged 1.62E5 6.43E2 75.6 88.5

B4-TFOT 2.52E5 8.13E2 70.5 87.3

B4-RTFOT 2.62E5 1.02E2 70.5 87.1

B5-unaged 2.22E5 7.75E2 75.0 88.2

B5-TFOT 3.79E5 1.77E3 69.7 87.3

B5-RTFOT 3.70E5 1.76E3 69.6 86.7

B6-unaged 1.66E5 4.75E2 61.1 85.1

B6-TFOT 1.87E5 7.51E2 57.6 82.7

B6-RTFOT 1.67E5 1.12E3 59.3 82.3

B7-unaged 4.37E4 2.25E2 78.5 89.1

B7-TFOT 8.94E4 4.60E2 75.2 87.8

B7-RTFOT 9.02E4 4.35E2 75.3 87.9

53
Chapter 2 : Literature Review

Garrick (1995) evaluated the logistic differential equation as a mathematical

method for representing changes in asphalt properties during pavement ageing in the

field. The logistic function allowed quantifying two essential characteristics of asphalt

ageing: the rate of ageing and the ultimate degree of change in asphalt properties due to

ageing. Therefore, it was believed that the logistic equation is a potentially powerful

tool for studying asphalt ageing, because it provides a method for consolidating ageing

data in an accurate and useful format.

Khalid et al., (1998) characterized the behaviour of three binders, conventional

and modified with polymers (EVA, SBS) using fundamental and recognized

mechanical properties. The binders rheological properties in terms of the complex

modulus, G*, and the phase angle, 8 were evaluated by dynamic shear rheometer. The

UCL (Universal Characterization Ligantes) method was used to characterize the

bitumens in terms of the Cantabro test. They have shown the correlation between the

rheological properties of the binders in terms of G* and 8 and the Cantabro test results

over a temperature range -15 to + 35°C and various ageing conditions.

2.4 SUSCEPTIBITY INDICES OF BITUMINOUS BINDER

The term such as fundamental, absolute or dynamic viscosity, kinematic


viscosity, poise, centipoises, stokes, and stress, rate of shear, Newtonian and non

Newtonian flow, viscoelastic and plastic flow are in common use, but often are

misunderstood. A clearer understanding of these terms and their connection with

viscosity or the rheology of materials is necessary to the promotion of scientific and

engineered quality of asphaltic materials. The empirical tests can be described as

rheological or consistency tests when considered as a group. Individually, however,

these tests are limited as a measure of asphalts wide spectrum of rheological behaviour
54
Chapter 2: Literature Review

when it is subjected to the influences of time, temperature, and shear (Griffith and
Puzinauskas, 1963). The viscosity of 63 asphalts binders at different temperatures was
summarized, and the viscosity-temperature relationship was established and also the
viscosity characteristics with results of empirical tests were compared. The viscosity-
temperature susceptibility (VTS) method of binder temperature susceptibility
classification for a number of years has been used (Griffith and Puzinauskas, 1963;

Puzinauskas, 1967).

Schweyer et al., (1976) studied the viscoelastic properties ofbituminous binder


at low temperature. The viscosity-temperature relationship of binders at temperature

range -10°C to 25°C was developed.


Agnusdei et al., (1990) determined the flow properties and temperature
susceptibility ofemulsions and asphalt emulsion residues. It has been indicated that a
high temperature susceptibility of the emulsion could be inconvenient in the
distribution and the aggregate coating. The emulsion can break before a uniform and
whole coating ofthe aggregate is reached, ifviscosity is too high. On the other hand, if
viscosity is too low, asphalt film on the aggregate surface could be too thin. It is most
A
important to have emulsions with the adequate temperature susceptibility. It was
observed that the increase of the asphalt content in the emulsions causes no significant

effect in the temperature susceptibility.

Shukla et al., (1991) investigated the relationship between viscosity and


temperature for 60/70 grade bitumen and modified with rubber. It was observed that
viscosity/temperature relationship for rubber/bitumen is similar to that of neat bitumen
but the viscosity of rubber/bitumen blend is more than that of neat bitumen. It indicated
a definite advantage of addition of rubber. Further, it was found that the temperature

55
Chapter 2 : Literature Review

susceptibility of bitumen 60/70 in the temperature range of 60° -100°C is 0.0226 which

reduces to 0.0175 by the addition of 2 per cent rubber.

Jain and Sangita, (1991) studied the physical properties, namely, penetration at

different service temperatures, softening point, asphaltenes, wax content, temperature

susceptibility, stiffness, penetration ratio, accelerated weathering, and solvent

fractionation by column chromatography of bitumens from different sources. The

temperature susceptibility and viscosity were evaluated from different sources of India.

The viscosity was measured at 60°C and 135°C. It indicated that viscosity values of

waxy bitumens are low at 135°C and 60°C. The extremes of stiffness occur at high

temperature with short loading time and at low temperature with long loading time. In

view of higher tyre pressure of aircraft, a stiffer mix is required to prevent deformation

of surfacing. Composition of bitumen would affect the stiffness characteristics of mix

at low as well as high temperature. The values of viscosities for different critical

conditions from different source are given in Table 2.11.

Table 2.11. Critical Viscosity and Temperature (Jain and Sangita, 1991).

Asphaltenes Viscosity Viscosity EVT


Bitumen +PoIar at 60°C at 135°C 1-2
Aromatics MPa MPa Poise°C
Haldia, 80/100 23 1000 230 140-150
Haldia, 80/100 25 3500 400 150-165
BPC 80/100 28 1500 260 140-155
BPC 60/70 32 4500 450 155-170
Madras 80/100 26 1200 200 135-148
Madras 60/70 36 3500 350 145-160
Baroda 60/70 34 1700 250 140-155
Digboi 60/70 28 1000 50 110-125
Mathura 80/100 27 2000 250 140-150
Mathura 60/70 36 4000 350 150-160

56
Chapter 2: Literature Review

Jain et al., (1996) investigated that the effect of additives like alkaloid, protieds,
starch and other natural occurring substances on the properties of bitumen. They
evaluated the susceptibility of bituminous substance by various methods. It has been
observed that substances having low susceptibility to temperature changes possess a
high degree of plasticity, elasticity and thixotropy. Following methods for evaluating
the temperature indices were used.

Viscosity-penetration-temperature (VPT)
(a) VPT =1/100 (Saybolt Flurol Vise, at 275°F - Pen. at 77°F, at 100g., 5sec. (2.2)
High value indicate low temperature susceptibility

(b) „ '^"P'0 (2.3)


() ^ (pen)2"
where r\ = viscosity in poises

Pen = penetration in decimillimeters

This is known as "Saal formula" and is suitable for penetration above 5

decimillimetres. Low values indicate low temperature susceptibility.

Softening-point-penetration-temperature-indices (SPT)

Log 800 -log pen, at 77°F, lOOg, 5sec (24)


R and B softening point °F - 77

Penetration temperature susceptibility (PTS)

pTS= Log800-logpen.at 25°C (2 5)


R and B softening point °C

The above formulae are based on the assumption that the penetration of all

asphalts at their softening points is approximately 800. Low values of SPT or PTS
indicate low temperature susceptibility.
57
Chapter 2 : Literature Review

Penetration-indices (PI)

PTS value used to calculate the penetration index

f 30 >
P.I.= -10 (2.6)
(1 + 90 PTS) )

Mexican asphalt gives a P.I. of zero and P.I. of other bitumens varies between

-2.5 and +8.

Lu and Isacsson (1997) evaluated the temperature susceptibility of base


bitumens and modified binders with SBS by measuring various viscous and elastic
parameters (e.g. storage and loss moduli, dynamic and complex modulus) at different
temperatures and frequencies. To perform an evaluation similar to viscosity
temperature susceptibility (VTS), the double logarithm of complex modulus, G*,
complex viscosity, r\* (n* =G*/co) and dynamic viscosity, r\' (if = G'Vco) was plotted
against the logarithm of temperature (in K) for both unmodified and modified binders.
Here ©denotes frequency. They found that the plots are not straight lines over a wide
temperature range. Consequently, the slope (temperature susceptibility) will change
with the temperature range being considered. It means that temperature susceptibility
cannot be evaluated as a single-valued parameter, such as VTS. The values of the

temperature susceptibility as measured by the changes in G and n* with temperature


are given in Table 2.12. It was described that the modified binders display decreased
temperature susceptibility in -20 to 60°C. The reduced temperature susceptibility might
be attributed to the entanglement and network of the polymer and its resistance to
association and dissociation as the temperature changes.

58
Chapter2: Literature Review

Table 2.12. Influence of Bitumen source/grade and polymer content/structure on


the Temperature Susceptibility of modified binders (Lu and Isacsson
1997).

GTS'a VTS*b

Binder -20-0°C -25-60°C -20-0°C 25-60°C

1 rad s-' 10 rad s"1 1 rad s-1 10 rad s"1 1 rad s"1 10 rad s'1 1 rad s"1 10 rad s"1

1.65 17.34 8.23 1.96 1.39 5.51 5.30


A 2.50
10.47 5.98 1.88 1.43 4.78 4.57
PMB-AL3 2.38 1.56

1.41 4.31 3.57 1.64 1.32 3.27 3.62


PMB-AL6 2.00

3.88 3.38 1.48 1.24 3.09 3.39


PMB-AL9 1.79 1.30

1.42 4.33 3.60 1.62 1.34 3.29 3.58


PMB-AB6 1.98

1.38 4.41 3.67 1.61 1.30 3.37 3.68


PMB-AM6 1.97

2.44 10.53 2.65 2.14 5.80 5.60


B 3.54 -c

2.24 18.00 7.27 2.49 2.00 5.03 4.27


PMB-BL3 3.26

2.03 3.92 3.42 2.22 1.86 3.09 3.55


PMB-BL6 2.80

1.77 4.03 3.60 1.92 1.67 3.22 3.48


PMB-BL9 2.36

1.86 3.17 3.09 2.05 1.70 2.71 3.32


PMB-BB6 2.56

1.99 3.79 3.25 2.15 1.87 2.96 3.40


PMB-MM6 2.66

1.81 11.90 2.03 1.66 6.07 5.88


C 2.59 -c

1.74 14.70 8.19 1.98 1.60 5.61 5.31


PMB-CL3 2.50

1.63 4.06 4.19 1.77 1.55 3.56 4.28


PMB-CL6 2.18

1.96 1.53 4.17 4.13 1.63 1.47 3.56 4.05


PMB-CL9

2.14 1.57 3.36 3.82 1.74 1.48 3.22 4.10


PMB-CB6
1.63 3.94 3.97 1.76 1.54 3.43 4.15
PMB-CM6 2.17

2.38 1.63 -c 11.12 1.88 1.49 6.06 5.85


D
1.49 4.79 4.68 1.64 1.41 4.05 4.60
PMB-DL6 2.02

1.96 1.47 4.17 4.23 1.61 1.39 3.64 4.21


PMB-DB6

2.40 1.98 30.21 10.06 2.01 1.91 6.82 6.36


E

1.68 4.94 4.12 1.62 1.65 3.77 3.94


PMB-EL6 1.85

1.91 1.64 3.54 3.17 1.64 1.62 2.85 3.25


PMB-EB6

*GTS' = (log logG', - log logG'2)/ (logT2- logT,)


bVTS* = ( log logn*i - log logn*2)/ (log T2- log T,)
cValue of the logarithm og G'at 60°C and 1rad s-1 are negative.

59
Chapter 2 : Literature Review

Panda and Mazumdar, (1997) determined the viscosities of the binders at

different temperatures by using Saybolt (Furol) test. It was investigated for the

variation of penetration with temperature for base bitumen and the binders containing

2.5, 5, 7.5, and 10 per cent polyethylene. It has been indicated that the temperature

susceptibility decreases from neat bitumen to binder containing 7.5 per cent

polyethylene and thereafter remains constant. However, it was found that the binder

containing 10 per cent polyethylene appears to be very hard at all temperatures.

Temperature susceptibility (Isacsson and Lu, 1999) is defined as the change in

binder properties as a function of temperature. Temperature susceptibilityof the binders

is one of the important parameters determining asphalt performance in road service.

Asphalt mixtures containing the binders with lower temperature susceptibility should

be more resistant to cracking and rutting at low and high temperatures, respectively.

Traditionally, temperature susceptibility is quantified through consistency

measurements made at two different temperatures. Two classical methods are the

Penetration Index, PI, and Penetration Viscosity Number, PVN and lower values

indicate higher temperature susceptibility.

It was mentioned that theses methods are valid for unmodified bitumens as

penetration and softening point are empirical tests. In dynamic mechanical analysis

(DMA), the temperature susceptibility of binders may be evaluated by measurements of

various viscous and elastic parameters at different temperatures and frequencies.

Rasmussen et al., (2002) developed a model of the temperature susceptibility of

the binder characterized using two parameters- viscosity-temperature susceptibility

(VTS) and A (intercept). This method used to predict the parameters for a binder based

on conventional test results, would allow the practising engineer to derive the VTS and

60
Chapter2: Literature Review

Aparameter given any combination ofpenetration and viscosity tests for the respective
binder. A simple formulation was used for evaluating the viscosity temperature

susceptibility (VTS) as given in equation (1).

VTS = log[log(%2)]-log[log(%i)3 (2 7)
log(T2)-log(T,)

where Ti and T2 = temperatures of the binder at two known points


(R = degrees Rankine)

r|T and r\T = viscosity ofthe binder at the same two points

The larger the magnitude of the VTS value is found to be, the more susceptible

the binder is to changes in viscosity with temperature.

2.5 STUDIES ON ECONOMIC ANALYSIS

Modified bitumen is expected to give higher life of surfacing depending upon

degree of modifications and type of additives and modification process used. Full scale
performance studies carried out under the aegis of Ministry of Road Transport and
Highways, Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi; Highway Research Station,

Chennai; Rubber Board, Kottayam (Kerala), Gujarat Engineering Research Institute,

Vadodara; and Kerala Public works Department revealed that the use of modified

bitumen in construction/maintenance of bituminous roads is cost effective, when life-

cycle cost is taken into consideration.

McQuillen et al., (1988) showed that the rubber modified bituminous mix is

more cost effective than a conventional mix. Their results indicated that the rubber

modified mixes have life in the range of 20 to 30 years when compared with 15 years

for a conventional mix.

Shukla et al., (1991) found that by addition of 2 per cent rubber, the cost of

61
Chapter 2 : Literature Review

construction is increased by about 20 per cent. But when one compares the construction

plus maintenancecost, there is practically very little difference. It was indicated that the

life of bituminous surface is doubled by addition of 2 per cent rubber.

Fwa and Sinha (1991) examined the need to consider the level of pavement

performance associated with each alternative in a life-cycle cost evaluation exercise. A

numerical example was presented to illustrate the impact of pavement-performance

consideration on decision making based on life-cycle costs. Two approaches were

suggested for cost quantification of different pavement performance levels. One

approach makes use of a quantitative performance measure, called the pavement-

performance quality index, to compare the different overall pavement performances of

various strategies. The other approach relies on establishing a relationship between


quantitative benefits and pavement serviceability values. The analytical frame work for

incorporating pavement-performance considerations into life-cycle cost analysis was


outlined for each approach.

Jagajothi et al., (1999) also reported the increase in service life of the

bituminous pavements due to the addition of rubber. The roads surfaced with

rubberized bitumen provide at least 50 per cent more service life than normal bitumen

roads. There was absence of reliable data on cost advantage on the use of rubberized

bitumen in relation to quality. However, it was estimated that the cost of rubber

bitumen roads may be up to 23 per cent more. However, it is less as compared to


increase in service life of such pavements.

62
CHAPTER-3

RHEOLOGICAL CHARACTERIZATION AND


EVALUATION OF BITUMINOUS BINDERS

3.0 GENERAL

The rheological characterization of bituminous binders is generally based on


two properties, penetration and softening point (Ring and Ball). The penetration
indicates the distance, a needle will penetrate into the bituminous binder under

specified conditions ofloading and time, in tenths ofa millimeter. The softening point
is the temperature at which the consistency ofthe binder is such that a steel ball placed
on a disk of binder in a brass ring will cause a certain deformation of the disk under

specified conditions. Bitumens are viscoelastic materials and their mechanical


behaviour is dependent on both the temperature and the loading times. At low
temperatures and short loading times they behave as elastic solids, while at high
temperatures and long times of loading they behave as viscous liquids. The
specifications for bituminous binders typically based on measurements in empirical
tests are not adequate for fully describing the linear viscoelastic properties. The
Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP) developed the new specifications for
rheological characterization of binders.

3.1 BACKGROUND OF STRATEGIC HIGHWAY RESEARCH PROGRAM


(SHRP)

In 1987, the United States Congress provided $ 150 million over five years for
the Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP) in highway research efforts.

63
Chapter 3 : Rheological Characterization and Evaluation of Bituminous Binders

Pavement failures are usually attributed to deficiencies in the bituminous binder. The

focus on bitumen was due to increasing number of premature bituminous pavement

failures and $50 million was funded on research effort to develop improved bituminous

binder and binder specifications. Planning for this highly focused research began in

1983 and was developed under the leadership and guidance of the American

Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO), the

Transportation Research Board (TRB) and the Federal Highway Administration

(FHWA) (Kennedy et al., 1993). The Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP)

developed the performance related specifications for bituminous binder. The test

methods and specification criteria that will form the basis for these specifications are

being developed within the SHRP Asphalt Research Program as part of Project A-

002A, "Binder Characterization and Evaluation." The development based upon the

premise that the current test methods and specification criteria are not sufficient to

ensure good long-term field performance (Anderson et al., 1991). The primary product

of the SHRP was a set of performance-related specifications for bituminous binders and

bituminous concrete mixtures, referred to as SUPERPAVE (Anderson and Kennedy,

1993).

3.2 SHRP BINDER SPECIFICATIONS

3.2.1 Superpave Binder Specifications

The Superpave binder specification is based on fundamental measurements

obtained at pavement temperatures representative of the upper, middle, and lower range

of service temperatures. In early specification, measurements at two test temperatures

were used with a linear viscoelastic mastercurve to predict rheological model for the

bituminous binder. The influence of the polymer modification, especially at the levels

64
Chapter 3: Rheological Characterization and Evaluation ofBituminous Binders
required for some of the extended temperature range binders, is sufficient to
significantly alter the shape of the mastercurve from that of plain binder, invalidating
the simple hyperbolic like shape assumed in the models (Anderson and Kennedy,
1993). Linear viscoelastic properties as influenced by time of loading and temperature
must be characterized in order to develop a performance-based binder specification.
The specification (Table 3.1) based on binder stiffness of both unaged and aged
bitumen measured at a specific combination of load duration and temperature. Thus,
asphalt binder grades are specified primarily with respect to pavement temperature and
selected temperature, related to the environment in which asphalt binder must serve
(Kennedy etal., 1993).

Superpave specified the environmental conditions in terms of


• average seven day maximum pavement design temperature and
• minimum pavement design temperature

The average seven day maximum pavement design temperature is the average
ofthe highest daily pavement temperatures for seven hottest consecutive days in a year
and the lowest pavement temperature is the coldest temperature ofthe year.
The asphalt binder specification uses the designation PG x-y

where PG = Performance Graded,

x = high pavement design temperature, and

y = low pavement design temperature

The pavement design temperatures and corresponding grades are given in


Table 3.2. Hence, an asphalt binder that is graded PG 64-28 would meet the
specification for an average high 7-day pavement temperature of less than 64°C, and a
low annual pavement temperature greater than -28°C.

65
Chapter 3 : Rheological Characterization and Evaluation of Bituminous Binders

Table 3.1. Performance-Graded Asphalt Binder Specification (SHRP - A- 370)

PG46- PG52- PG58- PG64-


PERFORMANCE GRADE
34 40 46 10 16 2: 28 34 40 a 1( 22 28 34 40 11 1< 22128 34 40
Average 7-oay Maximum Pa vmen! Deog
Temperature, 'C <4f <52 <5t «4
Minimum Pavement Design
Tempertlure, 'C >-l1 >-« >-« >•!( >•! >•» >-u l>M>^)j>^«>.le >-2. 1 >-2l i >•> >-n
>-|»>-laJ>-22 >-2« >-34 >-40
ORIGINAL BINDER
Flub PaW Temp, T4I: Minimum 'C 230
ViKMUjr, ASTM D4402.*
Maximum, 3 Pa»i, Tot Temp, *C 135
DynamicShear, TP5:'
C'/dsi, Minimum, 1.00kPi 44 52 54 (4
Ten Temp 0 10 rad/j, *C

ROLLING THIN FILM OVEN (T24D) OR THIN FILM OVEN RESIDUE (T179)
Man Lou, Maximum, percent 1.00
Dynamic Shear, TP5:
(4
GVslaJ, Minimum, 2.20 kPa 44 52 ft
Teat Temp O 10 rad/s, *C

PRESSURE AGING VESSEL RESIDUE (PP1)


PAV Aging Temperature, *C 90 90 100 100
Dynamic Shear, TP5:
C'sini, Maximum, 5000 kPa
Teat Temp O 10 rad/j, *C 10 7 4 25 22 19 14 13 10 7 25 22 19 14 13 31 21 25 22 19 14
Phyakal Hardening' Report
Creep Sdrtness, TPli'
S, Maximum, M0 MPa,
m • value. Minimum, 0.300 -24 -30 •36 0 -0 -12 -11 •24 •30 -34 -4 •12 -18 •24 •30 0 •4 -12 •11 -24 •30
Teat Temp Q Ma, *C
DirectTeuton, TP3:1
Failure Strain, Minimum, 1.0% •24 -30 •34 0 4 •12 -IS •24 •30 -34 -4 •12 •11 •24 •30 0 -4 -12 •11 -24 -30
Teat Temp O 1,0mm/min, *C

•Pavement temperature, are eatimated from air temperatures using an algorithm contained In the SUPERPAVE software program, may be provided by the
specifying agency, or by following the procedures u outlined In PPX.
' This requirement may be waived at the discretion or the iperifymjageac^lftheiiipjUerwema^
mixed altemperatures that mm all applicable safety standards.
•For quality control of unmodified asphalt cement production, measurement of the viscosity of the original asphalt cement may be substituted for dynamic
*ear measurements of GViuvl at teat temperatures where the asphalt Is aNewtonian fluid. Any suitable standard means of viscosity measurement may
be used, including capillary orrotational viscometry (AASHTO T20I orT202).
•The PAV aging temperature Ubated on simulated citaulk raodhkws and is one ofthree temperatures WC, 100"C or 110*C. The PAV aging temperature
is 100"C for PG 51- and above, except Indesert climates, where It Is HOT,
• Physical Hardening _ TP1 isperfarmed en aact ofasphalt bennuacc»idia|t«S«c1»al3.1,e«emtbe
at lire above the minimum performance temperature. The 24-bour stUTness and m-nhie are reported for Information purposes only.
'If the creep stiffness is below 300 MPa, the direct tension teat Unet required. If the creep stlffae*. is between 300 and 400 MPa the direct tension failure
strain requirement can be used In lira ofthe creep stiffness requirement. The m-value requirement mutt be satisfied inboth cases.

66
Chapter 3:Rheological Characterization and Evaluation of Bituminous Binders

Table 3.1. Continued

PG70- PG76- pg sa
PERFORMANCE GRADE 10 | 16 | 22 | 28 | 34 | 40 10 | 16 | 22 | 28 | 34 il 16 | 22 | 28 | 34
<70 <76 <82
Average7-day Maximum
Pavement Design Temp, *Ck
Minimum Pavement Design >-34 >-40 >-IO > 16 >-22 >-2l >-34 >-10 >-16 >-22 >-2« >-34
>-10 >-16 >-22 >-28
Temperature, *Ck
ORIGINAL BINDER
Flash PetalTemp, T*S: Minimum *C
Viscosity, ASTMD4*»lf
135
Maximum, 3 Pa's, Test Temp, 'C
Dynamic Shear,ITS:' n
70 74
C'/stoi, Minimtim, 1.00 kPa
Test Temp O 10 rad/s, *C

ROLLING THIN FILM OVEN (T240) OR THIN film OVEN (T17») RESIDUE
Mass Lots, Maximum, percent
DynamicShear, TP5: 42
70 74
C'/sbtf, Minimum, 2JO kPa
Test Temp O 10 rad/s. 'C

PRESSURE AGING VESJ !EL RESIDUE (PPl)


0011101 100(110)
PAV AgingTemperature, *C"
Dynamic Shear, TP5: 37 34 31 21
34 31 31 25 22 19 37 34 31 21 25 40
G'sinJ. Maximum, 5000 kPa
1Test Temp • 10 rad/s,'C
I lepart

1Creep Stiffness. TP1:'


S, Maiimnm, 300.0 MPa. -12 -11 -24
•11 -24 •30 0 -4 •12 •11 -24 0 -4
m • value, Minimum, 0.300 0 -4 -12

| Test Temp C*0t, *C


Direct Tension, TP3:! -24 t •4 -12 •11 •24
0 •4 -12 -It -24 •30 0 4 -12 •11
Failure Strain, Minimum, 1.0%
| Test Temp QI'D mm/min, *C

67
Chapter 3 : Rheological Characterization and Evaluation of Bituminous Binders

Table 3.2. Pavement Design Temperatures and Corresponding Grades (SHRP-A-


410).

High Design Low Design


PG Grade PG Grade
Temperature Temperature
Designation Designation
(°Q (°C)
<46 46 >-10 •10

<52 52 >-16 -16

<58 58 >-22 -22

<64 64 >-28 -28

<70 70 >-34 -34

<76 76 >-40 -40

<80 80 >-46 -46

3.2.2 Performance Based Binder Tests

In Superpave, three performance based test methods are used to grade the
asphalt binders and are the primary basis ofthe specification. These methods utilize the
following equipments which can test both modified and unmodified bituminous
binders.

• Bending Beam Rheometer

• Dynamic Shear Rheometer, and

• Direct Tension Test Setup.

Bending beam rheometer measures the low temperature stiffness characteristics


of the bituminous binder and this equipment follows the test procedure of AASHTO
TP1. Dynamic shear rheometer measures the high temperature shear stiffness and phase
angle (AASHTO TP5). The direct tension test (AASHTO TP3) measures the low
temperature fracture properties of the binder.

68
Chapter 3:Rheological Characterization and Evaluation of Bituminous Binders
3.3 DISTRESS MODES

The distress modes is of concern in the field drive in the development of the
new specification test methods, rather than selecting a set of tests and forcing them to
fit the distress modes decided by the SHRP A-002A research team. Therefore, the
approach used by the research team was first to identify the distress modes of
predominant concern. Several distress modes of importance to hot-mix asphalt
pavements identified by researcher and practitioners. From these, the followings for
consideration have beenselected in the SHRP A-002A project.

• Low-temperature thermal shrinkage cracking

• Thermal fatigue

• Load-associated fatigue cracking

• Plastic deformation in the upper hot-mix asphalt layers that leads to


rutting

• Premature ageing

• Moisture damage

Ofthese distress modes, the first four could be effectively addressed in a binder

specification by selecting appropriate physical property measurements. Initially,


thermal shrinkage cracking and thermal fatigue was identified by the research team as
separate mechanisms. Premature ageing and moisture damage are not really distress
modes but are results of environmental conditioning that can significantly affect

pavement performance. Moisture damage, which includes the classic stripping


mechanism as well as other moisture-induced effects, is not addressed in the A-002A
'
project because it is primarily an aggregate-related problem and asphalt-aggregate
interactions were addressed in the A-003B project.

69
Chapter 3 : Rheological Characterization and Evaluation ofBituminous Binders

3.3.1 Consideration of Rutting in Specification

Rutting in the upper pavement layers is caused by the accumulated plastic

deformation in the mixture that results from the repeated application of traffic loading.

Although the rutting tendencies of a pavement are influenced primarily by aggregate

and mixture properties, the properties of the binder are also important. This is

particularly true for polymer-modified bitumens, which are claimed to enhance the

rutting resistance of pavements. Since rutting is more prevalent at high temperatures

than at intermediate or low temperatures, the properties related to rutting should

therefore be measured in the upper range ofpavement service temperatures. As asphalt


cement ages, it becomes stiffer and enhances the resistance of the mix to rutting.
Therefore, it was also decided that the rutting criteria should be based on thin-film oven

(TFO) or rolling thin-film oven (RTFO) test residue to the extent that it best represents
the asphalt properties early in the life of the pavement. Based on these observations, a
measurement of the nonrecoverable deformation of the bitumen at the upper service

temperatures and for loading rates commensurate with traffic loading was established

as critical to specifying the bitumen with respect to rutting resistance. Therefore, the

viscous component of the stiffness at 0.1 second loading time as the critical
specification criterion for rutting resistance was recommended. The 0.1 second loading
time was chosen as being representative of the loading time within the pavement that
results from a pass of truck tyre traveling at 80 km/hr. With sinusoidal loading, 0.1
second corresponds to 10 rad/sec (1.59 Hz).

The viscous component ofthe stiffness was adopted initially as the specification
parameter for rutting. Correlation of the viscous component of the stiffness with

mixture data showed that it did not give sufficient weight to the elastic portion of the

70
Chapter 3:Rheological Characterization and Evaluation of Bituminous Binders
response, and consequently the loss compliance, 1/j", was adopted as the specification
criteria for rutting. The loss compliance is equal to the complex modulus divided by the
sine of the phase angle: J" = GVsin 8. The ranking is based on temperature at which
G*/sin 5 is equal to 1 and 2 kPa for tank and aged bituminous binder, respectively
(SHRP-A-367).

3.3.2 Thermal Cracking

Thermal shrinkage cracking occurs when thermal stresses develop in a


pavement due to a rapid temperature drop; the embrittlement of the binder at low
temperatures causes greater thermal stresses to develop, and also reduces the strain
capacity ofthe pavement. Cracking occurs when the tensile stresses developed exceed
the tensile strength ofthe pavement. Therefore, the binder specification should ideally
address both the stress-strain-time-temperature response of the binder as well as the

fracture properties of the binder (Anderson et al., 1991). The temperature at which
cracking occurs is referred to as the limiting stiffness temperature. The limiting
stiffness temperature is simply the pavement temperature at which a certain stiffness
value is reached after a specified loading time. Researchers have chosen different

combinations of stiffness and loading time to specify the limiting stiffness temperature,

it was chosen 300 MPa obtained after a loading time of 2 hours for SUPERPAVE

asphalt binder specification (Anderson, 1993).

The importance of the time dependency of stiffness in determining the


development of thermal shrinkage stresses was recognized by the A-002A project
y
researchers. Because the time dependence of asphalts varies widely, the shape of the

master curve should also influence the magnitude of the thermal shrinkage stresses that

develop during cooling. Hence, the value of the slope of the creep compliance
71
Chapter 3:Rheological Characterization and Evaluation of Bituminous Binders
mastercurve was also included in the binder specification (Equation 3.1):

m=d log J (t)/ d log (t) (3.1)


where, m is defined after 60 seconds loading time.

The m value provides control of the shape ofthe creep compliance or stiffness
mastercurve which is in turn related to the spectrum ofrelaxation times and rheological
type (Christensen and Anderson, 1992).

The researchers observed that additing polymers can significantly affect the
low-temperature strain and energy to failure without affecting the rheological
properties. Thus, it was concluded that strain tolerance and stiffness is considered with

respect to low-temperature thermal shrinkage cracking. The strain at failure at the

minimum pavement service temperature was selected as one ofthe specification criteria
to ensure that the pavement will not transcend into the brittle region within its service
temperature regime. The transition occurs at approximately 1.0 percent strain to failure
and occurs rather rapidly as the temperature is lowered. The low-temperature
specification test temperature is the minimum pavement temperature plus 10°C (SHRP-
A-367).
A

3.3.3 Fatigue Cracking

The selection ofspecification criteria to assure satisfactory resistance to fatigue


cracking is perhaps the most difficult challenge presented by the new binder
specification. First, fatigue cracking generally occurs late in the life of pavement,
requiring the testing of asphalt that is appropriately aged to simulate the long-term in
situ properties ofthe binder. The selection ofappropriate specification criteria is further
complicated by conflicting evidence regarding the effect of asphalt properties on
fatigue performance. The results of laboratory stress controlled fatigue tests imply that

72
Chapter 3:Rheological Characterization and Evaluation of Bituminous Binders
stiffer binders are more resistant to fatigue cracking (Anderson et al., 1991). The
fatigue properties of the asphalt and the crack propagation properties should be
included in the binder specification. However, these properties are considered to be
complex for use in the specification. Therefore, surrogate properties must be selected as
the specification criteria. The dissipated energy is avalid fatigue criterion and it can be
made relevant to both stress and strain controlled fatigue tests have shown by the A-
003A project researchers. The fatigue criterion was changed to reflect the energy
dissipated per load cycle and in adynamic shear test was appropriately calculated as G*
sin 5. The binder specification criterion for fatigue performance is the loss modulus (G"
A
= G* sin 8) at 10 rad/sec loading time and at a temperature equal to the average
pavement temperature in the location of interest. The value of the G* sin 8is limited to
a maximum of 3 MPa at the anticipated average annual pavement temperature (SHRP-

A-367).

It was found that the parameter G* sin 8 is not well related to the accumulation
of fatigue damage of mixtures as measured in a beam fatigue test, under strain
controlled conditions. It is believed that the parameter G* sin 8 is measured in the

linear viscoelastic range using small strains. There is a fundamental problem with this
approach because it is unlikely to be useful in representing the effect ofrepeated cyclic
loading and the changes in binder properties with accumulation of damage. Fatigue
behaviour showed the effect of modification on the non linear behaviour (Bahia et al.,

2001).

3.3.4 Ageing

Binderageing requires the following specifications

• Short-term ageing (ageing during construction)

• Long-term ageing (ageing during the first 5 to 10 years ofservice life)


73
Chapter 3 : Rheological Characterization and Evaluation of Bituminous Binders

Ageing or hardening of bituminous binder occurs during mixing and laydown

process and during service. The Thin Film Oven Test (TFOT), ASTM D 1754 and the

Rolling Film Oven Test (RTFOT), ASTM D 2872 are the existing ageing methods. The

RTFOT test can be completed more rapidly than the TFOT test, the RTFOT test is

preferable for polymer modified binders, and there is less variability in RTFOT test

than for the TFOT test. Hence the RTFOT test was chosen in preference to the TFOT

test. If both the RTFOT and TFOT tests were retained in the SUPERPAVE asphalt

binder specification the net effect would have been to double the number of grades

because different asphalt cements and asphalt binders respond differently to the two

tests (Anderson and Kennedy, 1993).

3.4 STUDIES ON VISCO-ELASTIC BEHAVIOUR OF BITUMENS

3.4.1 Stress and Strain

It is necessary to understand the bahaviour of stress and strain in order to predict

the engineering performance of any bituminous binder. The simplest test methods such

as uniaxial test and shear tests were used to characterize the stress-strain behaviour of

materials in the laboratory. Materials, for which the stress-strain behaviour is linear,

and largely independent of time and temperature, can be effectively characterized by

the elasic (Young's) modulus. Newtonian fluids, on the otherhand, can be characterized

through the coefficient of viscosity. Materials such as asphalt cement, which exhibit

aspects of both elastic and viscous behaviour, are called viscoelastic, and must be

characterized with test methods and analytical techniques that account for the time (or

rate) of loading and the loadingtemperature (SHRP-A-369).

74
Chapter 3:Rheological Characterization and Evaluation ofBituminous Binders

3.4.2 Elasticity, Viscosity, andViscoelasticity


Saal and Labout (1958) defined the viscoelastic properties of bituminous
binders that the ratio ofthe elastic to the permanent part ofthe deformation depends on
stress, time of loading, and temperature. At slight deformations and short times of
loading the deformation is predominantly elastic; at considerable deformations and long
loading times viscous deformation dominates. In most cases elastic deformation
consists of an ideally elastic part and a part showing retarded elasticity. The relation
between deformation and stress is linear at small deformations and at considerable
deformations and long loading times deviations from linearity may occur in certain

cases.

The resistance to deformation of materials which obey Hooke's or Newton's

law can be described by two quantities,

(a) Modulus ofelasticity, E, which is defined as the ratio ofthe tensile stress to the
strain:

E - o/e (3-2)

(b) Viscosity, r\, which is defined as the ratio ofthe shearing stress to the rate of
shear:

V
(3-3)
dy/dt

where,

E = modulus of elasticity
a = tensile stress

e = strain

t = shear stress

r\ = viscosity
dy/dt = rate of shear

75
Chapter 3 : Rheological Characterization and Evaluation of Bituminous Binders

The modulus of elasticity, E, is usually determined at small deformations, the


viscosity, rj, at deformations which are generally considerable. Equation (3.3) may be
a
expressed in terms of tensile stress and strain as follows:

(t/y)t = — -(o/e)t (3.4)


1+1
v mi

where, m= Poisson's constant (this constant is about 2 for bitumens)


It can be written as follows

3r) = (o7e)t (3>5)


The ratio a/easa function ofthe time ofloading and temperature is used to *
describe the resistance to deformation of viscoelastic materials and this ratio is called

stiffness and used to describe the rheological behaviour of bituminous binders.

An elastic material, when loaded in creep, will immediately deform to a


constant strain. The material will immediately return to its initial shape, when the load
is removed. A viscous material, on the other hand, will deform at a constant rate when

the load is applied and will continue to deform at that rate until the load is removed, at
that point there is no further deflection or recovery. A viscoelastic material has both ^
elastic and viscous components of response. When loaded in creep, there is an
immediate deformation, corresponding to the elastic response, followed by a gradual
time-dependent deformation. This time-dependent deformation may further be divided
into a purely viscous component and delayed elastic component. In the case of viscous
flow, deformation is not recovered when the load is removed. However, the delayed
elastic deformation is recovered but not immediately as with purely elastic deformation.
The delayed elastic deformation is slowly recovered at a decreasing rate after the load
is removed.

76
Chapter 3: Rheological Characterization and Evaluation ofBituminous Binders
The description of elastic, viscous, and viscoelastic response is for a linear
response, i.e. the deformation at any time and temperature is directly proportional to the
applied load. Nonlinear response, especially for viscoelastic materials, is extremely
difficult to characterize in the laboratory and to model in practical engineering

problems. Fortunately, linear methods of characterization and analysis are generally


more than adequate for engineering design problems (SHRP-A-369).

3.4.3 Linear Viscoelastic Range

As the viscoelastic parameters of complex modulus, phase angle, storage


modulus, and loss modulus are all defined under linear viscoelastic (LVE) conditions, it
is vital that rheological measurements are undertaken within the LVE region of
response. The relationship between stress and strain is influenced by temperature and
loading time (frequency) in the LVE region (Airey et al., 2004). The SHRP study
described the shear stress and strain LVE limits for the SHRP core bitumens to be

functions of complex modulus, G*, as given by the following equations (Anderson et

al., 1994: Petersen et al., 1994):

y=12.0/(G*)0-29 (3-6)
x= 0.12(G*)0-71 (3-7)

where, y = shear strain


t = shear stress

G* = complex modulus

The strain level at which nonlinearity is obtained varies significantly with the

stiffness of the bituminous binder. The limit of linear viscoelastic behaviour was

defined as the point beyond which the measured value of G* decreased to 95 percent of
its zero strain value. It is determined by conducting a strain sweep, as shown in

Figure 3.1.

77
Chapter 3 : Rheological Characterization and Evaluation of Bituminous Binders

10

0.95 G*

_i i i 1-

0 20
Shear Strain, percent

Figure 3.1. Strain Sweep Used to determine Linear Region (Petersen et al., 1994).

3.5 MATHEMATICAL MODEL FOR DESCRIBING THE MASTER CURVE

The complex mechanical behaviour of viscoelastic materials such as asphalt


cement is a result of the interaction of both time and temperature dependence
(Christensen and Anderson, 1992). The time dependency suggested by Saal and Labout
(1958) is reflected in the location and shape of the master curve and temperature
dependency is indicated by the plot of log a (T) versus temperature. Temperature A

susceptibility is an empirical concept based on the change of bituminous binder's

consistency or hardness with temperature but temperature dependency is a fundamental


concept that indicates how the relaxation processes with a given asphalt cement change
with temperature.

During A-002A project research as a part of SHRP-A-369, various


mathematical models were used to characterize the master curve; many were
abandoned for reasons such as those given above. However, a model was developed
that was rigorous in its treatment of the master curve, reasonably accurate, and

78
Chapter 3: Rheological Characterization and Evaluation ofBituminous Binders
mathematically simple to allow direct engineering calculations. This model is presented
below asa series of equations for the primary dynamic viscoelastic functions.
For the complex modulus, the following mathematical function can be used:

G*(co) =Gg [l+(coc/co)(,og2)/R] -R/(log 2) (3.8)


where

G*(co) = complex modulus, in Pa, at frequency co, rad/sec;

Gg = glassy modulus, typically 1 GPa

coc = crossover frequency, rad/s; and

R = rheological index

For the phase angle, the following related equation applies:

8(co) = 90[l+(co/co0)(,og2)/R] (3-9)


where 8(co) = phase angle, in degrees, at frequency co, rad/sec,

Equations 3.8 and 3.9 can be combined and algebraically manipulated to show

that the rheological index, R, is given by the following equation:

R = (log 2) log[ G*(co)/Gg] / log(l - 8/90) (3.10)


Equation 3.10 is quite useful when the value of the rheological index is desired,

but not for data covering the region where tan 8 = 1 is not available or is impossible to

obtain with the test methods at hand. The glassy modulus can be assumed to be 1 GPa

in shear or 3GPa to calculate R using this equation in extension or flexure. This

equation is quite accurate within the region where the phase angle is between about 10°
and 70°, however, the best results are obtained near the crossover point, where 8 = 45°.

As viscous flow is approached at high temperatures and/or long loading times, this

model does not generate results consistent with measured values of complex modulus

or phase angle. It is suggested to deal with such anomalies is to calculate a second set

79
Chapter 3:Rheological Characterization and Evaluation ofBituminous Binders
of parameter values for the secondary region in which R can be assumed to be 0.81.

For determination of 8V;

5v =90(l+(r,sscoc/Gg),og2/(R-08,) (3.H)
where,

8V = transition phase angle, degrees;


r|ss= steady-state viscosity, Pa-s;

coc - crossover frequency, rad/s;

Gg = glassy modulus, Pa; and

R = rheological index.

The equation 3.11 described that the value of Gg/coc must be equal to or less
than the value ofthe steady state viscosity, x\ss, which is always the case for unmodified
asphalt cements. If the value of these parameters is equal, it means that the same LVE
parameters apply throughout the entire region of behaviour. This phenomenon will
sometimes occur in asphalts having very high asphaltene contents. The value of8V can
be used in conjunction with the primary LVE parameters to estimate the appropriate
value for the viscous flow region.

Forestimating Ggv;

Ggv =Gg[90/(90-8v)]08,-R/log2 (3.12)


where,

Ggv = limiting modulus in the viscous flow region;


Gg = glassy modulus, Pa;

8V = transition phase angle, indegrees;


R = rheological index.

For estimating cocv;

coCv =coc[(90-8v)/8v]Mog2-°81 (3.13)

80
Chapter 3:Rheological Characterization and Evaluation ofBituminous Binders
where,

cocv = location parameter, in rad/s, for the viscous flow reqion;


coc = crossover frequency, rad/s;

8V = transition phase angle, degrees; and

R = rheological index.

Two parameters, Ggv and cocv, can be used in conjunction with the standard
value of R in the viscous flow region (0.81) to generate all viscoelastic functions at

high temperatures or low frequencies. The primary set of parameters should be used
when the phase angle is below 8V, the secondary parameters (viscous flow), when the
phase angle is above 8V. The transition frequency, cov is calculated by the following

equation:

cov = coc[(90-8v)/8v]R/log2 (3.14)

where,

cov = transition frequency, rad/s;

coc = crossover frequency, rad/s;

8V = transition phase angle, degrees; and

R = rheological index.

When estimating the modulus or phase angle from the LVE parameters, it is

necessary to check whether the loading frequency is above or below cov. The primary
LVE parameters are used if the loading frequency is above cov. If the loading frequency

is below coy, the values for the viscous flow region are used.

The procedures described above for determining the characteristic parameters

for the master curve and for determining the secondary LVE parameters for the viscous

flow region were applied to the SHRP core asphalts.

81
Chapter 3: Rheological Characterization and Evaluation of Bituminous Binders

3.6 DYNAMIC MECHANICAL ANALYSIS

The rheology of bitumen is measured by dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA)


using oscillatory type testing over a wide range of temperatures and loading times. In
dynamic mechanical analysis, a sinusoidal strain applied to a specimen and the
resulting stress is monitored as a function of frequency termed as strain controlled. A

stress-controlled dynamic mechanical analysis, a sinusoidally varying stress is applied


and the strain response is measured. The dynamic mechanical properties are directly
related to the creep properties, but in a mathematically complex way. Both
characterizations give a complete indication of the viscoelastic properties of the binder
tested. Both the complex modulus and the stiffeness modulus are simply indicators of
the resistance of bituminous binder to deformation under a given set of loading
conditions (SHRP-A-369).

3.6.1 Rheological Terminology

Complex shear modulus, G*

It isthe ratio calculated by dividing the absolute value ofthe peak-to-peak shear
stress, x, by the absolute value of the peak-to-peak shear strain, y. A

Phase angle, §

Phase angle is defined as the angle in radians or degrees between a sinusoidally


applied strain and the resultant sinusoidal stress in a controlled strain testing mode, or
between the applied stress and the resultant strain in a controlled stress testing mode.

Loss shear modulus, G"

Loss shear modulus is the complex shear modulus multiplied by the sine of the
phase angle expressed in degrees. It represents the component ofthe complex modulus
that is a measure of the energy lost (dissipated during a loading cycle).
82
Chapter 3:Rheological Characterization and Evaluation of Bituminous Binders
Storage shear modulus, G'

It is the complex shear modulus multiplied by the cosine of the phase angle
>
expressed in degrees. It represents the in-phase component ofthe complex modulus that
is a measure of the energy stored during a loading cycle.

Linear viscoelastic

It refers to a region of behaviour in which the dynamic shear modulus is


independent of shear stress or strain.

4 Parallel plate geometry


It is a testing geometry in which the test sample is sandwiched between two

relatively rigid parallel plates and subjected to oscillatory shear.

3.6.2 Relationship between Dynamic Moduli

In dynamic mechanical analysis, a sinusoidal stress is applied to the bitumen. If


the behaviour is linear the strain will be sinusoidal but generally will be out of phase

with the stress. The stress resolved vectorially into two components, one in phase (real)

and an out of phase (imaginary) component. This process is described by the complex

modulus function (Dobson, 1969):

G*=G' + iG" (3-15)

It may derive again from the above relationship

tan8 = G7G' (3-16)

where 8 is the phase angle. And complex modulus (G*) is given by the following

relationship:

G* = (G'2+G"2)1/2 (3-17)
where, G* is the ratio of peak stress to peak strain.

83
Chapter 3: Rheological Characterization and Evaluation ofBituminous Binders

The relationships among the complex, storage, and loss modulus and phase

angle are shown in Figure 3.2.

G"

G*

Figure 3.2. Relationship between Dynamic moduli and Phase angle

From Figure 3.2, the storage and loss modulus can be calculated from the

complex modulus:

G* = G*cosS (3.18)

G" = G*sin8and (3.19)


tan8 = G7G' (3.20)
A

Storage modulus (G') is proportional to the stress in-phase with the strain and

provides elastic behaviour of the material, while loss modulus (G") is proportional to
the stress out-of-phase with the strain and is associated with viscous effects. Phase

angle (8) is the phase difference between the stress and strain in an oscillatory
deformation and it measures the viscoelastic nature of the material. A purely viscous
liquid indicated the phase angle of 90° and for perfectly elastic material, it is 0°
(Isacsson and Lu, 1999).

84
CHAPTER-4

EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME

4.0 GENERAL

The earliest physical tests to evaluate flow properties of bitumen were

empirically derived tests. However, in this chapter, an attempt has been made to explain

the principle and methodology of testing the rheological properties of bitumen at

various temperatures using Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR). The rheology of

conventional and modified binders at high temperature has been studied using Dynamic

Shear Rheometer in this study. Various empirical tests have been conducted to describe

the physical properties of bituminous binders before and after ageing. The rheological

properties of the binders were measured in terms of complex modulus, G* (stiffness

and overall resistance to deformation), storage modulus, G' (elastic behaviour of

binder), loss modulus, G" (viscous behaviour), and phase angle, 8 (viscoelastic

properties). The rheological properties obtained from the DSR have been discussed in

the next chapter.

4.1 MATERIALS

4.1.1 Bitumen

Two grades of bitumen, 60/70 and 80/100 supplied by the Mathura Refinery

were used for the present study. These bitumens are commonly used in India. The

physical properties of bitumens determined as per IS 73-1992 are given in Table 4.1.

85
Chapter 4 : Experimental Programme

Table 4.1(a). Physical Properties of 60/70 Bitumen

Permissible Limits
Designation Test Results Test Method
as per IS 73:1992
Penetration at 25°C,100g,
63 60-70 IS:1203-1978
5sec, dmm

Softening Point, °C 49.5 40-55 IS:1205-1978

Ductility at 27°C, cm 100+ 75 (min.) IS1208-1978

Specific gravity at 27°C,


1.01 0.99 (min) IS 1202-1978
gm/cc

Flash Point, °C 285 175 (min) IS 1209-1978

Table 4.1(b). Physical Properties of 80/100 Bitumen.

Permissible Limits
Designation Test Results Test Method
As per IS 73:1992
Penetration at 25°C,100g,
94 80-100 IS:1203-1978
5sec, dmm

Softening Point, °C 47 35-50 IS: 1205-1978

Ductility at 27°C, cm 100+ 75 (min.) IS1208-1978

Specific gravity at 27°C,


1.02 0.99 (min) IS 1202-1978
gm/cc

Flash Point, °C 310 175 (min) IS 1209-1978

86
Chapter 4 : Experimental Programme

4.1.2 Modifiers

Crumb rubber (CR) and two types of polymers, ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA)

and styrene butadiene styrene (SBS) were used in this study.

4.1.2.1 Crumb rubber

It is obtained from crushing of discarded truck tyres supplied by the local

market. The material passing through 1.18 mm IS sieve and retained on 200 micron IS

sieve is shown in Plate 1.

4.1.2.2 Polymers

Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) copolymer, available as pellets 2 to 3 mm in

diameter containing 18% vinyl acetate supplied by Hyundai Petrochemical Co. Ltd.,

Korea is shown in Plate 2.

Styrene butadiene styrene (SBS) polymer used is powdered Finaprene 503

supplied by ATOFINA. Finaprene 503, a linear SBS polymer containing 31% styrene is

shown in Plate 3.

4.2 PREPARATION OF MODIFIED BINDERS

In preparing the modified binders, about 650 g of the bitumen was heated to

fluid condition in a 1.5 litre capacity metal container. The mixing was performed in the

laboratory using an oven fitted with a mechanical stirrer and rotated at 1550 rpm for

mixing the bitumen and modifiers. For preparation of crumb rubber blends, the bitumen

is heated to a temperature of 160°C before crumb rubber is added and the blend is

mixed manually for about 5 minutes. The mixing is performed using a mechanical

stirrer at a frequency of 2000 rpm in the temperature range of 175°C and 180°C for 40

minutes (Palit et al., 2001; 2004). Shukla and Jain, (1990) blended the bitumen with

87
Chapter 4 : Experimental Programme

crumb rubber at 160-170°C in a metal container and mixed it for one hour. In the
blending of bitumen and EVA, the mixture was vigorously agitated for about 20
*
minutes by using a mechanical stirrer rotating at 3,000 rpm in the temperature between
160°C and 170°C (Panda and Mazumdar). The temperature between 170°C and 185°C
was used for preparing the EVA modified binders (Airey, 2002; Airey and
Rahimzadeh, 2004; and Gonzalez et al., 2004). The mixing temperature and its duration
were taken as 170°C and one hour respectively, for preparing the SBS modified binders
(Bose and Jain, 1989). The SBS modified bitumens were prepared using a low shear
mixer (125 rpm) at 180°C. The mixing was continued at this temperature for 2 hours.
The SBS bitumen was removed from the container and divided into small containers.
The SBS modified bitumen was cooled to room temperature sealed with aluminum foil
and stored for testing (Lu and Isacsson, 1997; Lu et al., 1998).
The following different blends were prepared in this study.
(A) Crumb rubber-bitumen blends in the proportions of3:97, 5:95, 7:93, and
9:91

(B) Ethylene vinyl acetate copolymer -bitumen blends in the proportions of


3:97, 5:95, 7:93 and 9:91 A
(C) Styrene-Butadiene-Styrene copolymer-bitumen blends in the
proportions of 3:97, 5:95, 7:93 and 9:91

4.2.1 Preparation of Crumb Rubber Modified Binder

For the blending of crumb rubber with bitumen, bitumen was heated to a
temperature of 160°C and then crumb rubber was added. The blend was mixed y
manually for about 3-4 minutes. The mixture was then heated to 170°C and the whole
mass was stirred using a mechanical stirrer for about 50 minutes. Care was taken to
maintain the temperature between 160°C to 170°C.
88
Chapter 4 : Experimental Programme

L
Plate 1. Crumb Rubber after passing 1.18 mm IS sieve
and retained on 200 micron IS sieve

Plate 2. Sample of Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA)

Plate 3. Sample of Styrene Butadiene Styrene (SBS)

89
Chapter 4 : Experimental Programme

4.2.2 Preparation of Ethylene Vinyl Acetate Modified Binder

v For preparation of EVA blends, bitumen was heated to a temperature of 170°C.

As the bitumen attained a temperature of 170°C, the different EVA polymer contents

by mass (3 to 9%) were added to the bitumen. The temperature was maintained

between 175°C to 180°C and mixing was then continued for 80-90 minutes depending

upon the quantity of polymer to be added.

4.2.3 Preparation of Styrene-Butadiene-Styrene modified binder

Bitumen was heated to a temperature of 170°C and the appropriate quantity of

SBS copolymer was added. The temperature was maintained between 175°C to 180°C.

The contents were gradually stirred for about 55 minutes or more depending upon the

quantity of polymer required.

4.3 TESTING PROTOCOLS

4.3.1 Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR)

SR 5 Asphalt Rheometer was used for measuring the dynamic rheological

properties in this study. The test was conducted as per guidelines prescribed in

AASTHO TP5-1994. This instrument is operated using Rhemetric Scientific RSI

Orchestrator software for Microsoft Windows 95.

This rheometer can describe the linear visco-elastic properties of bituminous

binders over a range of temperatures and loading times. During testing, a sinusoidal

shear stress is applied to a sample of bitumen sandwiched between two parallel plates.

The resulting sinusoidal shear stress is monitored as a function of temperature and

frequency. Based on these stress and stain measurements, stiffness and viscosity can be

obtained at different temperatures, frequencies and strain levels for samples of bitumen.

90
Chapter 4 : Experimental Programme

The 25 mm plate was used for this testing and measurements were taken in temperature
range from 46°C to 82°C in an increment of 6°C. The 25 mm parallel plates have been
shown in Plate 4. All the binders were tested at afrequency of 10 rad/sec. to determine
the performance grade of the formulations. For specification purposes, sinusoidal
loading to the specimen at afrequency of 10 rad/sec (1.6 Hz) corresponds to atraffic
speed at 80km/h (50 mph).

4.3.2 Scope of DSR

It is used for specification purposes to measure the complex modulus and phase
angle of asphalt binders at intermediate to upper pavement service temperatures and a
frequency of 10 rad/sec where the complex modulus is approximately 10 MPa or larger.
It is applicable to bituminous binders that have dynamic shear modulus values from
100 Pa to 10 MPa and this ranges in modulus typically obtained at temperature between
5°C and 82°C.

4.3.3 Component Identification of SR 5Asphalt Rheometer


The SR5 Asphalt Rheometer consists of Air dryer, Test station, Environmental
controller, Control module and Personal computer as shown in Plate 5.

Air Dryer: This is used for drying air, which is coming out from the air compressor.
Test Station: The test station is the single chassis comprising the SR 5Base system. It
houses the stress head, fluid bath and all support electronics as shown in Plate 6.
Environmental Controller: The environmental controller contains all support
electronics necessary to operate optional environmental control systems. The test
temperature iscontrolled by environmental controller.

91
Chapter 4 : Experimental Programme

Plate 4. 25 mm Parallel Plates

Plate 5. Components of SR5 Asphalt Rheometer (From left, Air


Dryer, Control Module, Test Station, Environmental
Controller, and Personal Computer)

92
Chapter 4 : Experimental Programme

Plate 6. Test Centre (SR 5 Asphalt Rheometer)

93
Chapter 4 : Experimental Programme

Control Module: Control module operation is as follows;

• To start the pump

• To stop the pump, press the pump switch to the off position

• To drain the vat.

4.3.4 Principle and Operation of DSR

The operation of Dynamic Shear Rheometer is shown in Figure 4.1. The

bitumen is sandwiched between two parallel plates, one is fixed and other oscillates. As

the plate oscillates, the centerline (point A) of the oscillating plate moves to point B.

From point B, the plate moves to point C and ultimately moves back to point A. The

movement of the centerline from point A to point A is called as one cycle. This cycle is

continuously repeated in the DSR operation.

Bituminous binders are viscoelastic in nature and the response of bitumen to

stress depends on the rate of loading and the temperature. In short time or elastic

behaviour, there is no time difference between stress and strain and in the case of

viscous material, there is long time response between stress and strain. Therefore, a

perfectly elastic material exhibit a phase angle equal to zero, while a viscous material

exhibit an angle of 90°. Thus an elastic material exhibit maximum shear stress and

maximum shear strain at the same time, while for a perfectly viscous material

maximum shear stress occur at the same time as minimum shear strain. Asphalt tend to

be elastic (8 = 0) at cold temperatures and viscous (8 = 90°) at very high temperatures.

The principle of operation of DSR and the relationship between shear stress and shear

strain for elastic and viscous materials are shown in Figure 4.2.

94
Chapter 4 : Experimental Programme

Applied Stress
or Strain

Water Bath

Bitumen Oscillating
Plate

Fixed Plate

Time

1 cycle

Figure 4.1. Dynamic Shear Rheometer Operation

95
Chapter4 : Experimental Programme

torque(T)
deflection angle(0) T = 2T/7CT3

y= 0r/h

G =Xmax/ Ymax

Figure a.

Elastic: 8 =0°
Tmax

Applied
Shear time
Stress

Resulting
Shear
Strain

Figure b.
Viscoelastic: 0<8<90°

Tmax

Applied
Shear Stress
Cj Tmax'Ymax

8= At/t x360°

Resulting
Shear Strain

time

Figure c

Figure 4.2. Dynamic Shear Rheometer


a. Principle of operation.
b. Relationship of shear stress and shear strain for elastic (8=0) and viscous
(8=90°) materials.
c. Relationship of shear stress and shear strain for viscoelastic (0°<8<90°)
materials.

96
Chapter 4 : Experimental Programme

4.3.5 Sample Preparation and Test Procedure

The surfaces of the test plates are carefully cleaned and dried so that the
specimen adheres to both plates uniformly and strongly. The chamber is brought to
approximately 45°C so that the plates are preheated prior to the mounting of the test
specimen. This provides sufficient heat so that the bituminous binder may be squeezed
between the plates from trimming and to ensure that the bituminous binder adheres to
the plate. The zero gap was set at all the test temperatures before pouring the binder on
the lower plate. The binder was heated between 130°C to 140°C to attain sufficient
fluidity for pouring ofsamples on the plate.

The removable plate is removed and while holding the sample container
approximately 15 mm above the test plate surface, the bituminous binder is poured at
the centre of the upper test plate continuously until it covers the entire plate except for
an approximate 2mm wide strip at the perimeter as shown in Plate 7. After waiting for
several minutes for the specimen to stiffen, the test plate is mounted in the rheometer
for testing. During the test, the lower plate is fixed and the upper plate is oscillated. The
upper plate is then lowered to produce a bitumen sample 1.05 mm in thickness,
sandwiched between the upper and lower plates ofthe rheometer. The excess bitumen
is then trimmed around the circumference of the plate by means of ablade. The upper
plate is then lowered afurther 0.05 mm so that the distance between the plates is 1mm
and the open edge of bitumen is slightly concave in profile as shown in Figure 4.3. The
two plates are submerged in a water bath to control the temperature of the specimen.
The water is maintained at the test temperature and the sample is pre conditioned for
about 10 minutes before conducting the test. The test is run and the rheological
parameters such as complex modulus and phase angle were calculated by the computer

97
Chapter 4 : Experimental Programme

software. After the test, control module was switched offand water was removed from
the water bath. The upper test plate was moved up to original position and the
±
temperature was brought down. The sample with plate was removed and plates were
cleaned and dried for the next test. Plate 8 and 9 shows plate fixing on Rheometer and

view of progress in test, respectively.

Binder shape after trimming with sides of plate at 1 mm

Slight bulge in binder afterclosing gap by 0.05 mm

Figure 4.3. Sample shape after trimming and after final setting of gap

98
Chapter 4 : Experimental Programme

Plate 7. Bitumen Specimen Poured on Testing Plate

Plate 8. Plate fixing on Rheometer

99
Chapter 4 : Experimental Programme

* Plate 9. View of Progress in Test

100
Chapter 4 : Experimental Programme

4.3.6 Specification Values

Parallel plate geometry is used for the specification testing because the

specification measurements are in the region of linear behaviour. At the maximum

pavement temperatures, parallel plate 25 mm in diameter is used where the

specification limit is 5.0 MPa. The stiffness value, GVsin 8, of the binder should be

greater than 2.2 kPa after the RTFOT at the maximum pavement design temperature. If

ageing does not occur during construction, this value, G*/sin 8 of the tank or original

unaged bitumen must be greaterthan 1 kPa at the same pavement temperature. G*sin 8

of the binder after the RTFOT and PAV ageing must be less than 5,000 kPa at the

intermediate pavement temperature.

4.4 AGEING TEST

Ageing or hardening of bituminous binder occurs during the mixing and during

service. Ageing of the binders was performed by two methods, Thin Film Oven test

(TFOT, ASTM D 1754) and Rolling Thin Film Oven Test (RTFOT, ASTM D 2872),

respectively. The TFOT and RTFOT are used to simulate the hardening which bitumen

undergoes during mixing. In TFOT, the aluminum pans were heated to 160°C before

loading the sample. The samples are kept in an oven for about 15 minutes at 160°C.

According to the standardized procedures, the samples are aged at 163°C and 5hrs for

TFOT.

Pressure Ageing Vessel (PAV) which is used to simulate the physical and

chemical property changes that occur in bitumens as a result of long term is not

considered. In this study, the physical and rheological properties after ageing were

determined based on method of Thin Film Oven Test as per IS: 9382-1992.

101
Chapter4 : Experimental Programme

4.5 LABORATORY EVALUATION

4.5.1 Dynamic Shear Rheometer Testing Types

The fundamental characterization was investigated by means of the Dynamic


Shear Rheometer (SR 5 Asphalt Rheometer). This Rheometer can be used for the
following types oftesting, e.g. Frequency sweeps, and stress sweeps.

4.5.1.1 Dynamic Frequency Sweep Test

Dynamic Frequency Sweep applies a sinusoidal stress of constant peak


amplitude over a range of frequencies. The peak amplitude of stress is determined by
the stress command. One measurement is taken at each of the selected frequencies.
Frequencies can be either incremented or decremented. Frequency increments can be
scaled either logarithmically or linearity; a series ofdiscrete frequencies can also be
generated. Dynamic frequency test is performed at 60°C in the range from 0.1 rad/sec
(0.0159 Hz) to 100 rad/sec (15.9 Hz) before and after ageing (TFOT). Dynamic
Frequency Sweep Test Setup Form is shown in Figures 4.4 and 4.5.

4.5.1.2 Dynamic Stress Sweep Test

Dynamic Stress sweep applies a range of sinusoidal stresses, each at a constant


frequency. The peak amplitude of each stress is determined by the stress command.
Successive measurements are taken at each of the commended stresses. Stress
increments can be scaled either logarithmically or linearity. Stress sweep test is
performed at afrequency of 10 rad/sec (1.59 Hz) and temperature 55°C in the range of
stress from 100 Pa to 1000 Pa. Instrument setup for SHRP Spec Grade and Dynamic
Stress Sweep Test is shown Figure 4.6 and 4.7.

102
Chapter 4 : Experimental Programme

<*i«spiat .J4J «1
•tANDOO+«-»t a s s

mmm uses
Saw* |
Temp Mfci d E«tJa«i |
0.00 Ocanaar jLa***"" r AiaaSavatieawiamiwildtest

TWSJM IM
Mate

•Mi • ——1 1—1——— —^aa


Isavtristei •k,
" PlKHIin»cia«onmn«t C Stood GaomM. »— |
Free.
Bsaaaaaj |;P*aPlawl PaaW Puw i^aiiMy .1 E*fit«a*y|

Time
• » F%oMn«|T.*-S«M> r S«wdT.*S.M» ft*. 1
rasHaaaa |[Dfwciwp | Dmm Frequency SvncoTnt (Sum CatM -J E*I« |
TaatTja* r SaanConutHl " StaarCMoM
Mnutmrt Tyc* ff DynWK

«~ '"J h* |
*- J 1

St«tut0l

*Sl«tj 21 ♦ 1 M " I^SfHRSIChetMHSxH.

Figure 4.4. Instrument Setup for Dynamic Frequency Sweep Test

l)yn<imi< I requwtcy Sweep Test (Stress Conti»l|

Stress (T2O0 [P«lMa*.15982.35 Min-0319647


Temperature fgoo rClMsx-OffE Mir>-0.0*C

Sweep Mode t? Log C linear r Discrete


Initial Frequency [rji [raoVs] Max-500.0 Min-100OaO
Final Frequency fJOOO l'«^sl
Ports Per Decade....(io OMa*>500

Options: PreShearOff DeiayOn MeasOps :0n

Qk | Options EndofTess. Save As | jjeap | Cancel

Figure 4.5. Dynamic Frequency Sweep Test Setup Form

103
Chapter 4 : Experimental Programme

. I d xi

•tANDOO + oat s a s
£ & i I« •♦► IBitAKS QT
HH
Tamp T* I6fr?08*™r SawA, |
KM E E«tlslll |
Me* d
Opmto. |Lakiwi T MmEaant at and ottos!
Tarawa

=
llil
real
Masse

SflrnpJt* Geometry
Free. » n«WhMSwMii>i r StoradGaoraMi atom. |

d Ed»a.j«ay[
Tim
I last Stem
r PndaSnsdTasi Satan f Start rati Sahoa £W |
raatSeav |lr««S«l! ShtpSfitcSR d E*I« |

1to'* | H* E-

aa*<a"l a) ♦'J • * | "tSfriBSt 0,cta*^« $»{fc

Figure 4.6. Instrument Setup for SHRP Spec Grade Test

aiiai-joixj

l| A \ O OOt>H ] a s a

atvil SavaAi |
Temp t
J Edthotoi |
SOS
Larjransn r AuuSanEvam Mai and d toe

Tenure Tm
Matte

Strain
SmSaSao) ajsf
<* fttdstnteGamiataai <~ '• — Bwwm |
Free.
Gaoraatr |iPtiaPI«to) P«WPlato Geonwy ,| Eotfiseaaarrl
TaatSatap
0 Bmw* |
lasttab* j!D5t««5niI B^asasa $i*m Sweep Tet! -| Wrlaal |
TaatTjp* r StwContoSsd ff Sam •OrtoSad
"towwllm C Dynamc

i B«0"'« | B* i* |

Raa*
•Kf SI.tu.Ok
*Starl| ^ | 4 Sfl5:RSI Oichaatiata.

Figure 4.7. Instrument Setup for Dynamic Stress Sweep Test

104
Chapter 4 : Experimental Programme

4.5.2 Conventional Test on Modified Bitumen

4.5.2.1 Penetration test


4
The penetration of a bituminous material is the distance in tenths of a millimeter

that a standard needle will penetrate vertically into a sample of the material under

standard conditions of temperature, load and time. Penetration test is the most

commonly adopted test on bitumen to grade the material in terms of its hardness. The

tests were conducted as per IS: 1203-1978.

4.5.2.2 Softening Point Test

The softening point is the temperature at whichthe substance attains a particular

degree of softening under specified condition of test. The softening point of bitumen is

usually determined by Ring and Ball test. The tests were conducted as per IS: 1205-

1978

4.5.2.3 Ductility Test

The ductility of bitumen is expressed as the distance in centimeters to which a

standard briquette can be elongated before the thread so formed breaks under the

specified conditions. The tests were conducted as per IS: 1208-1978.

4.5.2.4 Elastic Recovery Test

The elastic recovery of modified bitumen is evaluated by comparing recovery of

thread after conditioning the specimen at specified temperature (15°C) and the

specimen is elongated up to 10 cm deformation in a ductility machine. Immediately the

test specimen is cut into two halves at the mid point using scissors. Then the specimen

is kept in the water bath in an undisturbed condition for one hour. After one hour, the

elongated half of the test specimen backs into the position so that the two pieces of

105
Chapter4 : Experimental Programme

specimen just touch. The length of recombined specimen is recorded as X and the

percent elastic recovery is calculated by the following equation.


I

flO-X
Elastic recovery (%) x 100 (4.1)
10

This method is standardized as per IRC: SP: 53-2002. The elastic recovery tests
were performed for the bitumen modified with CR, EVA and SBS at 15°C before

ageing (TFOT). However, elastic recovery values were obtained as per IRC
specification at 25°C after ageing. Elastic recovery test in progress for modified binder
is shown in Plate 10.

The above tests are used to characterize the properties of neat and modified
binders in the present study. The conventional test results of modified binder with

different percentage of CR, EVA and SBS are shown in Tables 4.2 to 4.10. The

properties of bitumens modified with different percentage of CR after TFOT is shown

Table 4.3 and 4.4. Similarly, EVA and SBS modified binders are shown in Tables 4.6,
4.7 and 4.9, 4.10 respectively.

106
Chapter 4 : Experimental Programme

Plate 10. Elastic Recovery Test in Progress

107
Chapter 4 : Experimental Programme

Table 4.2. Physical Properties of Bitumen modified with different percentage of


Crumb Rubber(CR)

Penetration at Softening Ductility Elastic Recovery

Binder 25°C,100g, 5sec Point at 27°C at 15°C

(dmm) (cm) (%)

60/70 bitumen 63 49.5 Full scale 21

60/70 + 3% CR 57 54.25 37 57.5

60/70 + 5% CR 55 55 17.9 62

60/70 + 7% CR 54 57 17.7 64.5

60/70 + 9% CR 51 59.75 15.6 77

80/100 bitumen 94 47 Full scale 16

80/100 +3% CR 67 48 18.6 47

80/100 +5% CR 57.67 53 17 57

80/100 +7% CR 55 53 16 59

80/100 +9% CR 54 54 13.1 71

108
Chapter 4 : Experimental Programme

Table 4.3. Properties after Thin Film Oven Test (TFOT) on Residue of 60/70
Bitumen modified with different percentage of Crumb Rubber (CR). >

Permissible
Percentage of Test
Designation Limits as per Test Method
Modifier Results
IS 15462:2004

3 0.11

5 0.09
Loss in Weight,
l,max IS: 9382-1982
%
7 0.1

9 0.13
>
3 2.2 5, max

Increase in
5 3.0
Softening Point, IS: 1205-1978
°C 7 1.5 -

9 1.2 6, max

3 29.8
Reduction in
Penetration of 5 34.5
40, max IS: 1203-1978
Residue at
7 37.0
25°C, %
9 37.2

3 38

Elastic IRC:SP:53-
5 51
Recovery at 35, min 2002

25°C, % 7 56

9 65
...

109
Chapter 4 : Experimental Programme

4 Table 4.4. Properties after Thin Film Oven Test (TFOT) on Residue of 80/100
Bitumen modified with different percentage of Crumb Rubber (CR).

Permissible
Percentage of Test
Designation Limits as per Test Method
Modifier Results
IS 15462:2004

3% 0.13

5% 0.2
Loss in Weight,
1.0, max IS: 9382-1982
%.
7% 0.1

9% 0.3

3% 4.0

Increase in 5% 3.0
Softening Point, 5, max IS: 1205-1978
7% 2.5
°C

9% 2.0

3% 20.3
Reduction in
5% 22.4
Penetration of
40, max IS: 1203-1978
Residue at
7% 20.0
25°C, %
9% 20.3

3% 42

Elastic 5% 50 IRC:SP:53-2002
Recovery at 35, min
25°C, % 7% 52

9% 61

110
Chapter4 : Experimental Programme

Table 4.5. Physical properties of Bitumen modified with different percentage of


Ethylene Vinyl Acetate (EVA).

Penetration Elastic
Softening Ductility
at 25°C,100g, Recovery at
Binder Point at 27°C
5sec 15°C
(dmm) (°C) (cm)
(%)

60/70 bitumen 63 49.5 Full scale 21

60/70 + 3% EVA 43.3 61.2 35.8 37

60/70 + 5% EVA 37.6 68.8 13.8 45

60/70 + 7% EVA 35.5 74.7 8.1 49

60/70 + 9% EVA 32.6 78.2 6.35 46

80/100 bitumen 94 47 Full scale 16

80/100+ 3% EVA 52 55.75 40.1 41.5

80/100+ 5% EVA 46 65.25 17.3 52.5

80/100+ 7% EVA 39 73.75 10.25 61

80/100+ 9% EVA 35.8 77.25 8.5


49

111
Chapter 4 : Experimental Programme

Table 4.6. Properties after Thin Film Oven Test (TFOT) on Residue of 60/70
Bitumen modified with different percentage of Ethylene Vinyl Acetate
(EVA).

Permissible
Percentage of Test
Designation Limits as per Test Method
Modifier Results
IRC:SP:53-2002

3 0.09

5 0.08
Loss in Weight,
l,max IS: 9382-1982
% 7 0.1

9 0.15

3 3.8

Increase in
5 3.2
Softening Point, 5, max IS: 1205-1978
7 2.3
°C

9 2.8

3 25
Reduction in
5 21
Penetration of
35, max IS: 1203-1978
Residue at 7 22.2
25°C, %
9 21.2

3 31

Elastic
5 43 IRC:SP:53-2002
Recovery at 35, min
7 48
25°C, %

9 44

112
Chapter 4 : Experimental Programme

Table 4.7. Properties after Thin Film Oven Test (TFOT) on Residue of 80/100
Bitumen modified with different percentage of Ethylene Vinyle Acetate
(EVA).

Permissible
Percentage of Test
Designation Limits as per Test Method
Modifier Results
IRC:SP:53-2002

3 0.13

Loss in Weight, 5 0.1


l,max IS: 9382-1982
%
7 0.12

9 0.2

3 3.2

Increase in
5 3.2
Softening Point. 5, max IS: 1205-1978
°C 7 2.2

9 2.2

3 19.2
Reduction in
Penetration of 5 26
35, max IS: 1203-1978
Residue at
7 25.6
25°C, % *
9 22.2

3 37

Elastic
5 47 IRC:SP:53-2002
Recovery at 35, min
7 50
25°C, %

9 45

113
Chapter 4 : Experimental Programme

Table 4.8. Physical properties of bitumen modified with different percentage of


Styrene Butadiene Styrene (SBS).

Penetration at Elastic
Softening Ductility
25°C, lOOg, Recovery at
Binder Point at 27°C
5sec. 15°C
(°C) (cm)
(dmm) (%)

63
60/70 bitumen 49.5 Full scale 21

60/70 + 3% SBS 50 61 100+ 63

60/70 + 5% SBS 39 74 100+ 77

60/70 + 7% SBS 36 91 100+ 86

60/70 + 9% SBS 34 92.5 100+ 89

80/100 bitumen 94 47 Full scale 16

80/100+ 3% SBS 64 56.5 100+ 68

80/100+ 5% SBS 56 72.5 100+ 80

80/100+ 7% SBS 47 87 100+ 90

80/100+ 9% SBS 43 91 Failed 94

114
Chapter 4 : Experimental Programme

Table 4.9. Properties after Thin Film Oven Test (TFOT) on Residue of 60/70
Bitumen modified with different percentage of Styrene Butadiene
Styrene (SBS).

Permissible
Percentage of Test Limits as per
Designation Test Method
Modifier Results IRC:SP:53-
2002

3 0.07

Loss in Weight, 5 0.06

%
l,max IS: 9382-1982
7 0.1

9 0.1

3 3.5

Increase in
5 4.0
Softening Point, 5, max IS: 1205-1978
°C 7 2.0

9 3

3 18
Reduction in
Penetration of 5 10.3
35, max IS: 1203-1978
Residue at
7 13.8
25°C, %
9 14.7

3 61

Elastic
5 76 IRC:SP:53-2002
Recovery at 50, min
25°C, % 7 84

9 88

115
Chapter 4 : Experimental Programme

i
Table 4.10. Properties after Thin Film Oven Test (TFOT) on Residue of 80/100
Bitumen modified with different percentage of Styrene Butadiene
Styrene (SBS).

Permissible
Percentage of Test
Designation Limits as per Test Method
Modifier Results
IRC:SP:53-2002

3 0.07

5 0.06
Loss in Weight,
l,max IS: 9382-1982
% 7 0.09

9 0.06

3 4.0

Increase in 2.0
5
Softening Point. 5, max IS: 1205-1978
7 2.0
°C

9 2.5

3 18.7
Reduction in
Penetration of 5 10.7
35, max IS: 1203-1978
Residue at 7 10.6
25°C, %
9 9.3

3 60

Elastic 5 70 IRC:SP:53-2002
Recovery at 50, max
7 79
25°C, %

9 92

116
CHAPTER-5

TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ON


BITUMINOUS BINDERS

5.0 GENERAL

This chapter presents the test results and discussion on (i) bituminous binder

(ii) rheological properties of bituminous binders and its variation by addition of

modifiers and (iii) correlation between empirical and rheological properties of binders.

Two grades of bitumen, 60/70 and 80/100 as per IS 73:1992 were modified with

different percentage of polymers and crumb rubber. The physical properties of

modified binders with different percentage of EVA, SBS and CR are presented and

different PMB and CRMB grades of modified binder are developed as a first part of

this chapter. The rheological properties of bituminous binders and its variation by

addition of different percentage of modifiers are discussed in the second part and the

correlation between empirical and rheological properties is presented in the third part of

this chapter.

5.1 CONVENTIONAL TEST RESULTS OF MODIFIED BINDERS

Different percentages of polymer and crumb rubber were added to the base

bitumen to develop the PMB and CRMB grades. The Indian specifications (IRC: SP:

53-2002 and IS 15462:2002) specify the different grades of modified binders based on

empirical tests. PMB grades are corresponding to penetration value whereas CRMB

grades are corresponding to softening point value. Different PMB and CRMB grades

are found by addition of different percentage of polymers and crumb rubber to pure

bitumen as shown in Tables 5.1 and 5.2.

117
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

5.1.1 Physical Properties Polymer Modified Bitumen

Two unmodified bitumens, 60/70 and 80/100 grades were modified by adding

different percentages of EVA and SBS (3% to 9%). The physical properties of polymer
modified bitumens with EVA and SBS are shown in Table 5.1. PMB grades of
modified binder are developed as per IS 15462: 2004 specifications. It was observed

from the results that PMB 40 grade of modified binders obtained by adding 3 to 9
percent SBS and EVA to 60/70 bitumen. But in the case of 80/100 bitumen modified

with SBS, it was found to be PMB 70 grade at 3 and 5 percent while 7 and 9 percent
was in the group of PMB 40 grade. PMB grades of modified binder are shown in
Table 5.1.

Table 5.1. Physical Properties at different percentage of Polymers


Elastic
Polymer Penetration Softening PMB Grade
Binder Recovery at
Content at 25°C, Point, as per
Type 15°C,
(%) dmm °C IS 15462:2004
%
60/70 - 63 49.5 21 .

3 44 61.2 37 40
5 38 69 45 40
EVA
7 35 74.7 49 40
9 33 78.2 46 40
3 50 61 63 40
5 39 74 77 40
SBS
7 36 91 86 40
9 34 92.5 89 40
80/100 - 94 47 16 -

3 52 55.8 42 70
5 46 65.3 53 40
EVA
7 39 73.8 61 40
9 36 77.3 49 40
3 64 56.5 68 70
5 56 72.5 80 70
SBS
7 47 87 90 40
9 43 91 94 40

118
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

5.1.2 Physical Properties of Crumb Rubber Modified bitumen


The physical properties ofbitumens modified with crumb rubber are shown in
Table 5.2. It is observed that the modified binder is of CRMB 50 grade when 3 percent

CR is added to 60/70 bitumen grade however it is of CRMB 55 grade with increase in

CR percentage from 5 to 9. The CRMB grade for 80/100 bitumen modified with 3 to 9
percentage CR is also shown in Table 5.2.

Table 5.2. Physical Properties at different percentage of Crumb Rubber


Elastic
Modifier Penetration Softening CRMB Grade
Binder Recovery at
Content at 25°C, Point, as per
Type 15°C,
dmm °C IS 15462:2004
(%) %

60/70 - 63 49.5 21 -

3 57 54.3 58 50

5 55 55 62 55
CR
7 54 57 65 55

9 51 59.8 77 55

80/100 - 94 47 16 -

3 67 48 47 50

5 58 52 57 50
CR
7 55 53 60 50

9 54 54 71 50

5.2 DISCUSSION ON PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MODIFIED BINDERS

5.2.1 Effect on Penetration values with different Modifiers

The penetration values of bitumen modified with different percentage of


Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) and Styrene butadiene styrene (SBS) are shown in Table
5.1. A comparison of crumb rubber and polymer (EVA and SBS) with the same

percentage of 60/70 and 80/100 bitumen is shown in Figures 5.1 to 5.3.


119
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

100

80/100 Bitumen 60/70 Bitumen •+— CR


90
-»-EVA

E 80
E
•v
ex-

O
a 70
13
>
G
©

a.

Modifier, %

Figure 5.1. Effect on Penetration values with different percentage ofModifiers.

• 60/70+CR U60/70+EVA B60/70+SBS

0 3 5 7 9
Modifier, %

Figure 5.2. Variations in Penetration values for 60/70 grade bitumen modified
with different modifiers.

120
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

100 i
D80/100+CR D80/100+EVA B80/100+SBS

Figure 5.3. Variations in Penetration values for 80/100 grade bitumen modified
with different modifiers.

The penetration values are decreasing significantly for 60/70 and 80/100

bitumen mixed with CR, EVA and SBS and this variation is more in 80/100 modified

bitumen. It is observed that the penetration value decreases as the concentration of

modifier increases. Further, the bitumen modified with EVA seems to be more

effective in the penetration values as compared to CR and SBS modifiers for 60/70 and

80/100 grades of bitumen. With 3% addition of CR to 80/100 grade, the penetration

value observed is 67, and is comparable to 60/70 grade bitumen. It can be seen that the

variation is not much on penetration value by adding more than 5% CR in 80/100 grade

of bitumen. The penetration values are found as 67, 58, 55, and 54 with 3%, 5%, 7%

and 9% of CR for 80/100 bitumen. In case of 60/70 grade of bitumen modified with

3%, 5%, 7% and 9% of CR, the penetration values are found as 57, 55, 54 and 51. As

per IRC: SP: 53-2002, the 80/100 bitumen modified with CR from 3% to 9% is found

121
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

to be of CRMB 50 grade. But in case of 60/70 bitumen modified with CR from 5% to

9% is of CRMB 55 grade and with 3% CR of same bitumen falls in CRMB 50

category. The 80/100 bitumen modified with 7% and 9% of EVA and 60/70 bitumen

modified with 5%, 7% and 9% of EVA and SBS show the characteristics similar to

30/40 grade bitumen. The penetration values decrease drastically as the percentage of
EVA and SBS increases. The penetration value for 60/70 bitumen modified with 3%,

5%, 7% and 9% of EVA is observed as 44, 38, 35 and 33 respectively. For the above
percentage of SBS modifier the penetration values vary from 30 to 50. Thus 60/70

bitumen modified with 3% to 9% of EVA and SBS fall in the grade of PMB 40 as the

penetration values are in the range of 30 to 50. Whereas 80/100 bitumen modified with

3%EVA and SBS are observed as PMB 70 grade.

The recommended grade for cold climatic areas is CRMB 50. CRMB 55 and

PMB 70 are used for moderate climate (35 to 45°C). PMB 40 is used for hot climate

areas and heavy traffic conditions where maximum atmospheric temperature is above
45°C (IRC: SP: 53-2002).

5.2.2 Effect on Softening point values with different Modifiers

The softening point values of bitumen modified with different percentage of


modifiers are given in Tables 5.1 and 5.2 and their variations are shown graphically in
Figures 5.4 to 5.6. It is observed that the softening point increases with increase in
percentage of modifiers. The effect of SBS on softening point is much more than that of

EVA and CR as shown in Figure 5.4. Further, there is not much effect on softening
point on CR mixed bitumen.

122
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

100

80/100 Bitumen — 60/70 Bitumen

90

y
o

«j 80
c
•**

o
Cl.
61
s 70
e

o
1/2 60

50

40 -i 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 1

123456789 10

Modifier, %

Figure 5.4. Effect on Softening Point with different percentage of Modifiers

D60/70+CR D60/70+EVA B60/70+SBS


100 -i

90 -

u 80 -
0

-a*
70 -
a
'o 60 -
a.

c 50 -
*fl 40 -
o 30 -
Cr*}

20 -

10 -

0 -
0 3 5 7 9

Modifier, %

Figure 5.5. Variations in Softening Point for 60/70 grade bitumen modified with
different modifiers.

123
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

100-1
D80/100+CR H80/100+EVA B80/100+SBS
90-

80-
U
o
70-

o 60-
ft.
| 50 H
I 40"
<3 30-
20-

10

0 3 5 7 9
Modifier, %

Figure 5.6. Variations in Softening Point for 80/100 grade bitumen modified with
different modifiers.

The softening point for 60/70 bitumen increases from 49.5 to 59.8°C when 9%

CR is added. However, in case of EVA and SBS modification of 60/70 bitumen with

above percentage of modifiers, the softening point increases up to 78.2°C and 92.5°C.
There is not much difference in softening point value for 60/70 and 80/100 grade
bitumens modified with CR from 3to 9%. At 3% modifier the softening point is almost
same for both binders modified with EVA and SBS but it gives different softening
point values from 5%. The softening point for 60/70 and 80/100 bitumen increases to
more than 70°C byaddition of 7% and 9% EVA and 5%,7% and 9% SBS.

As per IRC: SP: 53-2002 and IS 15462: 2004, 60/70 grade bitumen modified
with 3% CR and modified with 3% to 9% CR 80/100 grade bitumen falling in CRMB
50 grade can be used for cold climatic areas. But 60/70 grade bitumen modified with
5% to 9% CR becomes CRMB 55 grade and therefore it may be used for moderate
124
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

climate. The softening point increases as the bitumen becomes increasingly viscous.

Blown roofing bitumens have higher softening point compared to most paving bitumen.

Test results are reported at 40-60°C for paving bitumen and at 70-110°C for roofing

bitumens (Brown et al, 1996).

It is observed that 60/70 and 80/100 grade bitumen modified with CR from 3%

to 9% can be used for road construction satisfactory. The bitumen modified with 7%,

9% EVA and 5%, 7%, 9% SBS of 60/70 and 80/100 grades may be used as a roofing

material.

A 5.2.3 Effect on Ductility values with different Modifiers

The binders possessing high ductility have good cementing qualities in the road

surface and adhere well to aggregate. Effect of various percentages of modifiers on

ductility can be seen in Figure 5.7. It is observed that the ductility value decreases with

increase in percentage of modifiers. The ductility value is found as 8.1 cm and 6.5 cm

for 60/70 grade bitumen modified with 7% and 9% EVA. But, the ductility value is 8.5

cm when 9% EVA is added to 80/100 grade bitumen. For bitumen modified with 9%

CR, the ductility values are found as 15.6 cm and 13.1 cm for 60/70 and 80/100 grades

of bitumen respectively. On the other hand the effect of SBS on ductility value is

totally different. At 3% SBS the ductility values obtained are 94 cm and 99 cm for

60/70 and 80/100 grades of bitumen. Figures 5.7 to 5.9 show the variations in ductility

for 60/70 and 80/100 grade bitumen modified with different percentage CR, EVA and

a. SBS.

125
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

110

100 80/100 Bitumen 60/70 Bitumen

4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Modifier, %

Figure 5.7. Effect on Ductility with different percentage ofModifiers

D60/70+CR 0 60/70+EVA B60/70+SBS

100 •

90 -
80 - • '..
I 4
*::••#
s
5 70 -
£ 60 i
^m

:.,;-

Z 50 - .;•' :-
3
O 40 -
30 -
20 - • '.V

10 -
0 -
l|
3 5 7 9
Modifier, %

Figure 5.8. Variations in Ductility values for 60/70 grade bitumen modified with
different modifiers.

126
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

• 80/100+CR E80/100+EVA B 80/100+SBS

100

4 90

80 -

g 70-

£ 60 "I
a so -
S 40 •

20 -

10

0
3 5 7 9

Modifier, %

Figure 5.9. Variations in Ductility values for 80/100 grade bitumen modified with
different modifiers.

The minimum ductility value at 27°C is 30 cm (plastomeric thermoplastic

based) and 50 cm (elastomeric thermoplastic based) for PMB 40 grade of modified

binder as per IRC:SP:53-2002. Therefore the bitumen modified with 3% EVA is more

desirable for road construction in India. The bitumens modified with SBS can be used

where both hot and cold climate exist in the country. The minimum ductility value at

27°C is 10 cm for Indian Paving bitumen as per IS 73:1992. Therefore, the 60/70 grade

bitumen modified with 7% and 9% EVA and 80/100 grade bitumen with 9% EVA

should not be used in road construction due to ductility value less than 10 cm.

However, it may be used as a crack and joint filler materials.

5.2.4 Effect on Elastic Recovery values with different Modifiers

Elastic recovery values at 15°C for 60/70 and 80/100 grade bitumen modified

with EVA, SBS and CR are given in Tables 5.1 and 5.2 respectively. It can be seen that

the elastic recovery increases with increasing in percentage of modifiers. However, in

127
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

case of bitumen modified with EVA, it decreases after 7%. Thus, maximum percentage
of EVA modifier to bitumen is 7%. The variations in elastic recovery for neat and
modified bitumens are shown in Figures 5.10 to 5.12.

Elastic recovery values for neat binders are very low as compared to modified
bitumens. Elastic recovery was found as 58%, 47% and 77%, 71% at 3% and 9% CR
for 60/70 and 80/100 bitumens respectively. It shows that elastic recovery for 60/70
grade bitumen modified with CR is more than that of 80/100 grade bitumen modified
with CR. However, elastic recovery of80/100 grade binder is more than 60/70 binder
in case of EVA and SBS modification. At 9 %EVA the elastic recovery is 46% for
60/70 grade bitumen and 49% for 80/100 grade bitumen. However, at 9 % SBS the
elastic recovery was found as 89% and 94% for both grades of binders. It is clearly
shown in Figure 5.10 that the bitumens modified with SBS gives the maximum elastic
recovery thanthat of bitumens modified with CR and EVA.

Modifier, %
Figure 5.10. Effect on Elastic Recovery value with different percentage ofModifiers

128
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

100 -i D60/70+CR H60/70+EVA B 60/70+SBS


90 -
i
^ 80 -
£ 70-
% 60 -
o

Pi 50 -
u
'C
Vi
40
w
-
B
3 30 -
20 -

10 -

0 -
0 3 5 7 9
\
Modifier, %

Figure 5.11. Variations in Elastic Recovery values for 60/70 grade bitumen
modified with different modifiers.

D80/100+CR D80/100+EVA B80/100+SBS


100 -i

90

80 •
^
70 -

£ 60 H
§ 50
la 40 H
1 30-
M 20-
10 -
ladtki!
0

5 7 9

Modifier, %

Figure 5.12. Variations in Elastic Recovery values for 80/100 grade bitumen
modified with different modifiers.

129
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

5.3 AGEING EFFECT ON MODIFIED BINDERS

The physical properties of binders change after ageing. The penetration and

softening point values before and after short term ageing at different percentage of CR,

EVA and SBS are shown in Table 5.3.

Table 5.3. Changes in Penetration and Softening Point values after Ageing
Penetration Penetration Softening Softening
value value after Point value Point value
Binder
before ageing, ageing, before ageing, after ageing,
dmm dmm °C °C
60/70 bitumen 63 58 49.5 51

60/70 + 3%SBS 50 41 61 64.5


60/70 + 5%SBS 39 35 74 78
60/70 + 7%SBS 36 31 91 93
60/70 + 9%SBS 34 29 92.5 95.5
60/70+ 3%EVA 44 33 61.2 65
60/70 + 5%EVA 38 30 69 72
60/70 + 7%EVA 35 28 74.7 77
60/70 + 9%EVA 33 26 78.2 81
60/70 + 3%CR 57 40 54.3 56.5
60/70 + 5%CR 55 36 55 58
60/70 + 7%CR 54 34 57 58.5
60/70 + 9%CR 51 33 59.8 61

80/100 bitumen 94 82 47 48.5

80/100+ 3%SBS 64 52 56.5 60.5


80/100+ 5%SBS 56 50 72.5 74.5
80/100+ 7%SBS 47 42 87 89
80/100+ 9%SBS 43 39 91 93.5
80/100+ 3%EVA 52 42 55.8 59
80/100+ 5%EVA 46 34 65.3 68.5
80/100+ 7%EVA 39 29 73.8 76
80/100+ 9%EVA 36 28 77.3 79.5
80/100+ 3%CR 67 47 48 52
80/100+ 5%CR 58 45 52 55
80/100+ 7%CR 55 44 53 55.5
80/100+ 9%CR 54 43 54 56

130
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

5.4 PENETRATION INDEX

The consistency of bitumen may be related to temperature changes by an

expression;

logP = AT + K (5.1)

where,

P = penetration at temperature T

A = temperature susceptibility

K = constant

Penetration Index (PI) has been defined for which the temperature susceptibility

will assume a value of zero for road bitumens. Equation 5.1 can be written as follows:

dlogpen = 20-P.I.xJ_
dT 10 +P.I. 50

From equation 5.2, penetration index (PI) is given by the following equation

P.I. - 20-500A (5.3)


1 + 50A

Log 800 - log Pen (25°C)

log 800 - log pen (25°C)


where, A
Temp(R&B,-25°C
'(R & B)

The value of A and PI can be derived from penetration measurements at two

temperatures. The above formulae are based on the assumption that the penetration of

all bitumens at their softening points is about 800.

Bitumens normally used for road construction purposes have a penetration

index between +1 and -1. Bitumens with a penetration index below -2 are substantially

Newtonian and usually characterized by brittleness at low temperatures. Coal tar

pitches also fall within this group. Bitumens with a penetration index above +2 are

131
Chapter 5:Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

usually less brittle. Blown bitumens usually fall within this group (HMSO,1962).
Typical values ofP.I are given in Table 5.4.

Table 5-4- Typical values of Penetration Index (PI)


Bitumen Type PI

Blown Bitumen
>2

Conventional Paving Bitumen -2 to +2

Temperature Susceptible Bitumen (Tars) <-2


J
Penetration Index values at different percentage modifier for 60/70 and 80/100
grades of bitumens are given in Table 5.5. With increase in percentage of modifier the
P.I value is also increased. SBS modified binders give the highest value of P.I with the
same percentage of additive as compared to CR and EVA. The penetration index value
of EVA and SBS binders are more than +2 while CR binder is found less than +2.
Figures 5.13 and 5.14 show the variation in penetration index with different
percentages of modifier for 60/70 grade bitumen and 80/100 grade bitumen
respectively. The penetration index value of different percentage of CR is less than +2.
At 5percent SBS, and 7percent EVA, the values of P.I are 2.82 and 2.7 respectively.
At this level the binder will be less brittle. In the case of 80/100 grade bitumen, the PI
values are found to be more than for 60/70 grade bitumen at same percentage of SBS.
However, the value of P.I for CR modified binder decreases as compared to 60/70 neat
bitumen.

132
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

Table 5.5. Penetration Index values at different percentage of modifiers.

Binder A P.I

60/70 Bitumen 0.045 -0.76

60/70+3%CR 0.018 0.063

60/70+5%CR 0.039 0.159

60/70+7%CR 0.036 0.65

60/70+9%CR 0.034 1.003

60/70+3%EVA 0.034 0.92

60/70+5%EVA 0.030 2.00

60/70+7%EVA 0.027 2.70


A
60/70+9%EVA 0.026 3.04

60/70+3%SBS 0.033 1.22

60/70+5%SBS 0.026 2.82

60/70+7%SBS 0.020 4.78

60/70+9%SBS 0.020 4.87

80/100 Bitumen 0.042 -0.36

80/100+3%CR 0.047 -1.038

80/100+5%CR 0.040 -0.115

80/100+7%CR 0.041 -0.248

80/100+9%CR 0.040 -0.061

80/100+3%EVA 0.038 0.238

80/100+5%EVA 0.030 1.80

80/100+7%EVA 0.027 2.78

80/100+9%EVA 0.026 3.09

80/100+3%SBS 0.034 1.05

80/100+5%SBS 0.024 3.60


80/100+7%SBS 0.019 5.19

80/100+9%SBS 0.019 5.41

133
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

Modifiers

♦ CR • EVA a SBS

4
Modifier, %

Figure 5.13. Variation of Penetration Index with Modifiers for 60/70 grade
bitumen

134
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

Modifiers

♦ CR • EVA a SBS

> Modifier, %

Figure 5.14. Variation of Penetration Index with Modifiers for 80/100 grade
bitumen

135
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

5.5 OPTIMUM PERCENTAGE OF POLYMERS AND CRUMB RUBBER

The percentage of polymer and crumb rubber is optimized on the basis of

empirical tests as per Indian specifications. In the present study, the optimum dose of
modifiers is based on the physical properties. The requirement ofpenetration, softening
point and ductility is satisfied at 3 percent of EVA and SBS as per IRC: SP: 53-2002
and IS 15462-2004. Kumar (2005) observed the optimum dose of polymer as 3.5
percent by weight ofbitumen for SBS. In the case ofCRMB, it is satisfied at 3percent
for 60/70 grade bitumen and at 5percent for 80/100 grade bitumen. From penetration
index point of view, 3percent for SBS, 5percent for EVA and from 3to 9percent for >

CR can be used in paving bitumen as the PI value lies between +2 to -2 indicated in the
above Table 5.4.

5.6 RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF BITUMINOUS BINDERS AND ITS


VARIATION BY ADDITION OF MODIFIERS

There are several major distresses of road pavement related to bitumen


properties. Since bitumen is aviscoelastic material, its rheological properties are very
4
sensitive to temperature as well as the rate of loading. The relationship between the
rheological characteristics of bituminous binder and field performance illustrates the
importance of understanding the rheological bahaviour of bitumens (Navarro et al.,
2002).

5.6.1 Rheological Properties of Modified Binders

The shear modulus (G*/ sin 5) is an indicator ofstiffness or resistance ofbinder


to deformation under load at specified temperature. The complex modulus (G*) and
phase angle (6) define the resistance to deformation of the binder in the viscoelastic
136
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

region. In Indian specifications (IS 15462 : 2004 ), the complex modulus is determined

at 10 rad/sec and at temperature of 58°C and 70°C for polymer modified bitumen 70
y
grade and 40 grade, respectively. The rheological properties of neat and modified

binders are given in Tables 5.6-5.8. As may be seen, complex modulus decreases with

increase in temperature but phase angle increases with increase in temperature. Further,

as stated earlier phase angle is a measure of the viscoelasticity of the bituminous

binders. Purely viscous and perfectly elastic materials will have phase angle 90° and 0°

respectively. It is observed that the neat bitumens lost their elasticity at 70°C as their

phase angle is more than 90°. However, all the modified binders still display

considerable elasticity at this temperature.

Table 5.6. Rheological Properties of CR Modified Bituminous Binders


Complex Shear Loss Phase
Bituminous Temperature Modulus Modulus Modulus Angle
Binder (°Q (G*) (G*/sin8) (G* sin5) (8)
(kPa) (kPa) (kPa) (°)
58 3.78 3.79 3.77 86.2
60/70 Bitumen
70 0.80 0.81 0.80 93.2
58 5.21 5.29 5.13 79.9
60/70 + 3%CR
70 1.33 1.34 1.31 81.8
58 6.01 6.17 5.86 77.1
60/70 + 5%CR
70 1.56 1.58 1.54 80.0
58 6.31 6.47 6.15 77.2
60/70 + 7%CR
70 1.53 1.55 1.52 82.1
58 9.21 9.97 8.51 67.5
60/70 + 9%CR
70 2.93 3.14 2.74 68.9
58 1.91 1.92 1.91 89.8
80/100 Bitumen
70 0.47 0.47 0.46 98.2
58 3.14 3.17 3.12 82.9
80/100+ 3%CR
70 0.753 0.753 0.753 89.7
58 3.48 3.51 3.44 82.1
80/100+ 5%CR
70 0.881 0.882 0.881 88.2
58 4.51 4.63 4.4 77.1
80/100+ 7%CR
70 1.17 1.19 1.16 80.2
58 6.47 6.86 6.11 70.7
80/100+ 9%CR
70 1.86 1.93 1.79 74.5

137
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

Table 5.7. Rheological Properties of EVA Modified Bituminous Binders

Complex Shear Loss Phase


Bituminous Temperature Modulus Modulus Angle
Modulus
Binder (°Q (G*) (G*/sin5) (G*sin8) (8)
(kPa) (kPa) (kPa) (°)
58 3.78 3.79 3.77 86.2
60/70 Bitumen
70 0.80 0.81 0.80 93.2
58 12.8 13.4 12.3 73.6
60/70 + 3%EVA
70 2.74 2.78 2.70 80.1
58 24.1 26.8 21.7 64
60/70 + 5%EVA
70 5.19 5.48 4.92 71.3
58 38.3 47.9 30.7
60/70 + 7%EVA 53.2
70 9.86 11.20 8.67 61.6
58 68.9 99.7 47.7
60/70 + 9%EVA 43.8
70 17.60 22.70 13.70 51.0
58 1.91 1.92 1.91
80/100 Bitumen 89.8
70 0.47 0.47 0.46 98.2
58 10.1 10.5 9.69 73.9
80/100+ 3%EVA
70 2.52 2.57 2.48 79.6
58 15 16.6 13.5
80/100+ 5%EVA • 64.7
70 3.25 3.41 3.10 72.2
58 27.3 37.3 20
80/100+ 7%EVA - 47.1
70 5.91 6.98 5.00 57.8
58 49.6 75.7 32.5
80/100+ 9%EVA - 41
70 12.70 16.80 9.62 49.2

138
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

Table 5.8 Rheological Properties of SBS Modified Bituminous Binders

Complex Shear Loss Phase


Bituminous Temperature Modulus Modulus Modulus Angle
Binder (°Q (G*) (G*/sin5) (G* sin5) (8)
(kPa) (kPa) (kPa) (°)
58 3.78 3.79 3.77 86.2
60/70 Bitumen
70 0.80 0.81 0.80 93.2

58 8.95 9.32 8.59 73.7


60/70 + 3%SBS
70 2.26 2.27 2.24 83.3

58 12.3 13.3 11.4 67.7


60/70 + 5%SBS
70 3.69 3.82 3.56 74.9

58 19.4 22.6 16.7 59.1


60/70 + 7%SBS
70 6.38 7.07 5.75 64.4

58 13.2 14.7 11.8 58.16


60/70 + 9%SBS
70 4.33 4.62 4.06 69.6

58 1.91 1.92 1.91 89.8


80/100 Bitumen
70 0.47 0.47 0.46 98.2

80/100 + 58 5.15 5.24 5.06 79.3


3%SBS 70 1.33 1.33 1.32 86.5

80/100 + 58 7.98 8.61 7.39 67.9


5%SBS 70 2.51 2.63 2.4 73

80/100 + 58 8.99 9.86 8.2 65.7


7%SBS 70 2.93 3.13 2.74 69.2

80/100 + 58 7.57 8.71 6.58 60.4


9%SBS 70 2.59 2.94 2.28 61.7

139
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

5.6.2 Relationship between G*/sin 8 and Test Temperature

The Superpave Performance Grade (PG) bitumen is based on climate. The


performance based SHRP specifications have suggested different grades ofbituminous
binders on the basis of G*/ sin 5. The temperature at which this parameter attains a
value of 1.0 kPa before ageing of the binder and 2.2 kPa after ageing (short term) is
termed as the Performance Grade (PG) of the binder. The relationships of GV sin 8
with test temperature (SHRP specification) before and after ageing of different binders
are shown in Figures 5.15 -5.20 and 5.21 - 5.26 respectively. For 60/70 and 80/100
grade bitumens attain the value of 1.0 kPa at a temperature of 68°C and 63.5°C before
ageing and a value of 2.2 kPa at a temperature of 64.5°C and 61.5°C after ageing
respectively. Therefore, performance grades of 60/70 and 80/100 bitumens are PG 64
and PG 58 respectively. Similarly, performance grades of polymers and crumb rubber
modified binders were determined and these are given in Tables 5.9 and 5.10.
EVA modified with 60/70 and 80/100 bitumen with 3percent and 5percent
polymer content were meeting the specification requirements of PG 76. However, SBS
modified binder with the same percentage above are satisfying the PG 70 requirements.
For CR modified with 60/70 and 80/100 bitumen with 5 percent crumb rubber are
meeting the PG 70 and PG 64 requirements respectively. There is no change in PG
requirements if the percentage of crumb rubber is increased also. Therefore, 5percent
is observed as an optimum modifier for CR modified binders.

140
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

IUU •

-*— 60/70 Bitumen


- • - 60/70 + 3% CR
-a- 60/70 + 5% CR
-*- 60/70 + 7% CR
10 • -*- 60/70 + 9% CR

•8
*

1 kPa
1 •
N» ^^^^J?^

0.1 • ,-J-L-\

40 50 60 70 80 90
t
Temperature, °C

Figure 5.15. G*/ sin 8 measured at 10 rad/s (1.59 Hz) as a function of


Temperature for 60/70 Bitumen modified with CR before Ageing.

100 -r

80/100 Bitumen
80/100 + 3% CR
+ 5% CR
+ 7% CR
+ 9% CR

Temperature, °C

Figure 5.16. G*/ sin 8 measured at 10 rad/s (1.59 Hz) as a function of


Temperature for 80/100 Bitumen modified with CR before Ageing.

141
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

1000 -f

60/70 Bitumen
60/70 + 3% EVA
60/70 +5% EVA
60/70 + 7% EVA
60/70 + 9% EVA

Temperature, °C
Figure 5.17. G*/ sin 8 measured at 10 rad/s (1.59 Hz) as a function of
Temperature for 60/70 Bitumen modified with EVA before Ageing.

1000 -f

80/100 Bitumen
80/100 + 3% EVA
80/100 + 5% EVA
80/100 + 7% EVA
80/100 + 9% EVA

Temperature, °C

Figure 5.18. G*/ sin 8 measured at 10 rad/s (1.59 Hz) as a function of


Temperature for 80/100 Bitumen modified with EVA before Ageing.

142
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

100
60/70 Bitumen
60/70 + 3% SBS
60/70 + 5% SBS
60/70 + 7% SBS
60/70 + 9% SBS

Temperature, °C

Figure 5.19. G*/ sin 8 measured at 10 rad/s (1.59 Hz) as a function of


Temperature for 60/70 Bitumen modified with SBS before Ageing.

lUU -


—•— 80/100 Bitumen

-•-80/100 + 3% SBS
-*- 80/100 + 5% SBS
- x - 80/100 + 7% SBS
0 -
-»- 80/100 + 9% SBS

e
.-"

*
1kPa ^\^
1 -

j
\ ^^
0.1 -
40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Temperature, °C

Figure 5.20. G*/ sin 8 measured at 10 rad/s (1.59 Hz) as a function of


Temperature for 80/100 Bitumen modified with EVA before Ageing.

143
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

100

60/70 Bitumen
60/70 + 3% CR
60/70 + 5% CR
60/70 + 7% CR
60/70 + 9% CR

Temperature, °C

Figure 5.21. G*/ sin 8 measured at 10 rad/s (1.59 Hz) as a function of


Temperature for 60/70 Bitumen modified with CR after Ageing.

100 -r

80/100 Bitumen
80/100 + 3% CR
80/100 + 5% CR
80/100 + 7% CR
80/100 + 9% CR

Temperature, °C

Figure 5.22. G*/ sin 8 measured at 10 rad/s (1.59 Hz) as a function of


Temperature for 80/100 Bitumen modified with CR after Ageing.

144
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

1000
60/70 Bitumen
60/70 + 3% EVA
60/70 + 5% EVA
60/70 + 7% EVA
60/70 + 9% EVA

0 1- ••• ••••'• | | | . . . . . . . . . j ..••••••• j

40 50 60 70 80 90

Temperature, °C

Figure 5.23. G*/ sin 8 measured at 10 rad/s (1.59 Hz) as a function of


Temperature for 60/70 Bitumen modified with EVA after Ageing.

1000

80/100 Bitumen
80/100 + 3% EVA
80/100 + 5% EVA
80/100 + 7% EVA
80/100 + 9% EVA

Temperature, °C

Figure 5.24. G*/ sin 8 measured at 10 rad/s (1.59 Hz) as a function of


Temperature for 80/100 Bitumen modified with EVA after Ageing.

145
Chapter 5 :Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

100 -r

60/70 Bitumen
60/70 + 3% SBS
60/70 + 5% SBS
60/70 + 7% SBS
60/70 + 9% SBS

01 I ,. ••!,,. | f. |||i
40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Temperature, °C

Figure 5.25. G*/ sin 8 measured at 10 rad/s (1.59 Hz) as a function of


Temperature for 60/70 Bitumen modified with SBS after Ageing.

100 -r

Temperature, °C
i
Figure 5.26. G*/ si„ 8 measured at 10 rad/s (1.59 Hz) as a function of
Temperature for 60/70 Bitumen modified with SBS after Ageing.

146
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

Table 5.9. Performance Grade of Different Polymer Modified Bitumens

Temperature corresponding to
PMB Performance
Binder Polymer (°C)
Type
Grade as Grade as per
Content
per IRC G*/sin 5 = lkPa GVsin 8 = 2.2 kPa SHRP
(%)
53-2002 (Original Binders) (Aged Binders) Specifications

60/70
- - 68 64.5 PG64
Bitumen
3 40 78 76 PG76
5 - 83.5 82 PG82
EVA
7 - 89 86.5 PG82
9 - 95 93 PG82
3 40 78 72 PG70
5 - 83 76 PG76
SBS
7 - 89 78 PG76
9 -
87 72.5 PG70
80/100
- - 63.5 61.5 PG58
Bitumen
3 70 75 71.5 PG70
5 40 79 78 PG76
EVA
7 - 85 83.5 PG82
9 - 91 88.5 PG82
3 70 72 67.5 PG64
5 - 77.5 70 PG70
SBS
7 40 81.5 72.5 PG70
9 "
76 73 PG70

Table 5.10 Performance Grade of Crumb Rubber Modified Bitumens

CRMB Temperature Corresponding to Performance


Modifier
Binder Grade as (°C) Grade as per
Content
Type per IRC G*/sin8 = lkPa G*/sin 8 = 2.2 kPa SHRP
(%)
53-2002 (Original Binders) (Aged Binders) Specifications
60/70
- - 68 64.5 PG64
Bitumen
3 50 72.5 68.5 PG64
5 55 75.5 70 PG70
CR
7 55 76 71 PG70
9 55 80 73 PG70
80/100
- - 63.5 61.5 PG58
I Bitumen
3 50 67.5 63.5 PG58
5 - 69 67 PG64
CR
7 - 71.5 67.5 PG64
9 - 79 66.5 PG64

147
Chapter 5:Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

Rutting of bituminous pavements is the most prevalent problem in India.


Rutting is likely to occur when the temperature of 60°C is near the maximum
bituminous pavement temperature on ahot summer day. It is useful to determine the
stiffness of the bitumen at 60°C so that it can specify its minimum stiffness to ensure
adequate resistance to rutting during summer (Kanthal, 2005). The parameter
(GV sin 5) is ameasure of stiffness of the binder. However, this parameter is also used
as an indicator for rutting resistance in the current superpave specification (Bahia et al.,
2001). The variations in stiffness ofthe different modified binders at 1.0 rad/s, 10 rad/s
and 60°C are shown in Figures 5.27 - 5.30. The rutting resistance of the binder
increases with increase in the percentage ofmodifier. The rutting resistance is increased
by more than two times with addition of 3% SBS in 80/100 bitumen at 58°C (Table
5.3). By addition of3% EVA with 60/70 and 80/100 bitumens, the rutting resistance is
increased by more than three and five times respectively at 58°C (Table 5.2). However,
the increment in rutting resistance is less than two times in case of 80/100 bitumen
modified with 5% CR (Table 5.1). EVA modified binder has shown higher rutting
resistance value than SBS and CR modified binders at the same percentage ofmodifier.
Therefore, EVA binder is suggested to use in the area of heavy traffic and at high
temperatures.

148
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

22 -j
20 -

18-

16- • 60/70 Bitumen

• 60/70 + SBS
as 14 -
• 60/70 +EVA
12 -
c
"v\ ® 60/70 +CR
* 10-

6 -

4-

2-

0 m m

Modifier, %

Figure 5.27. Variation in G*/sin 8 for 60/70 Bitumen modified with different
percentage of modifier at 1 rad/s and 60°C before ageing

14 -i

12 -

D 80/100 Bitumen

10 - • 80/100 +SBS

n • 80/100+EVA
22 r
8 • 80/100 + CR

I 6H
O
4 H

Modifier, %

Figure 5.28. Variation in G*/sin 8 for 80/100 Bitumen modified with different
percentage of modifier at 1 rad/s and 60°C before ageing

149
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

90

80

70
• 60/70 Bitumen

J* 60 a 60/70 + SBS
S3
• 60/70 + EVA
(© 50
C
m 60/70 + CR
? 40
O
30

20 •

10 -

0 -

Modifier, %
Figure 5 29. Variation in G*/sin 8 for 60/70 Bitumen modified with different
percentage of modifier at 10 rad/s and 60°C before Ageing

60 -x

50 -
• 80/100 Bitumen

• 80/100 + SBS
W 40 -
• 80/100 +EVA

£3 80/100 + CR
c 30

o
20

Modifier, %

Figure 5.30. Variation in G*/sin 8 for 80/100 Bitumen modified with different
percentage of modifier at 10 rad/s and 60°C before Ageing

150
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

5.6.3 Relationship between Complex Modulus and Phase Angle with


Temperature

The complex modulus (G*) and phase angle (8) versus temperature at 10 rad/s

(1.59 Hz) for two grades of bitumen (60/70 and 80/100) modified with CR, EVA and

SBS are shown in Figures 5.31 - 5.36. As may be seen, complex modulus of the

modified binders is higher as compared to neat bitumens. Figures 5.31 and 5.32 show

the relationship between complex modulus and temperature for 60/70 and 80/100

bitumens modified with CR. The linear relationship between complex modulus and

temperature for 60/70 and 80/100 bitumen modified with EVA are shown in Figures

5.33 and 5.34. For SBS modified binders, complex modulus increases up to 7%

polymer contents and then decrease as shown in Figures 5.35 and 5.36. It indicates the

decrease in hardness and increase in flexibility of the binders with higher percentage of

SBS.

Figures 5.31-5.36 also show the relationship between phase angle and

temperature of different modified binders. The phase angle increases with increase in

temperature and decreases with increase in percentage of modifier contents. The phase

angle of modified binder is lower than that of neat bitumen. The phase angle of EVA

modified binders are lower than the CR and SBS modified binders. Lower phase angle

indicates higher elastic behaviour of the binder.

151
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

Complex Modulus Phase Angle


100 X

2a 10^
*

- 60/70 Btiumen
CSS
S - 60/70+3%CR
a
60/70+5%CR
O
60/70+7%CR
M 1 -• 60/70+9%CR
a. 60/70Bitumen
S 60/70+3% CR
e
U 60/70+5% CR
60/70+7%CR
60/70+9% CR
0.1

46 52 58 64 70

Temperature, °C

Figure 5.31. Relationships between Complex Modulus and Phase Angle with
Temperature at 10 rad/s (1.59) for 60/70 Bitumen modified with CR

152
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

100 t T-110

46 52 58 64 70

Temperature, °C

Figure 5.32. Relationships between Complex Modulus and Phase Angle with
Temperature at 10 rad/s (1.59 Hz) for 80/100 Bitumen modified with
CR

153
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

Complex Modulus Phase Angle


1000 t

S3

<—-

(A
3
"3
-o
o

c
E ♦—60/70 Bitumen -60/70+ 3% EVA
o
U — 60/70+ 5% EVA -60/70+ 7% EVA
•—60/70 + 9% EVA • 60/70 Bitumen -•20
•••x 60/70+ 3% EVA —• 60/70 +5% EVA
a 60/70 + 7% EVA ••-60/70 + 9% EVA ••10

0.1 -r-
0
46 52 58 64 70

Temperature, °C

Figure 5.33. Relationships between Complex Modulus and Phase Angle with
Temperature at 10 rad/s (1.59 Hz) for 60/70 Bitumen modified with
EVA

154
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

Complex Modulus Phase Angle


1000 T T100

100 -^
N

o
a.
Vi
a
a
"O
o

E
o 80/100 Bitumen 80/100+3% EVA
U 80/100+5% EVA 80/100+7% EVA
80/100+9% EVA 80/100 Bitumen
80/100+3% EVA 80/100+5% EVA •-10
80/100+7% EVA 80/100+9% EVA
0.1

46 52 58 64 70

Temperature, °C

Figure 5.34. Relationships between Complex Modulus and Phase Angle with
Temperature at 10 rad/s (1.59 Hz) for 80/100 Bitumen modified with
EVA

155
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

Complex Modulus Phase Angle


100

10 .-.

Vi
- 60/70 Bitumen
3
-60/70+3% SBS
"5
•o -60/70+5% SBS
O
-60/70+7% SBS
-60/70+9% SBS CD

60/70 Bitumen 30 «
"5.
E •60/70+3% SBS
o
60/70+5% SBS ••20
U
60/70+7% SBS
60/70+9% SBS ••10
0.1
-•0
46 52 58 64 70

Temperature, °C

Figure 5.35
Relationships between Complex Modulus and Phase Angle with
Temperature at lOrad/s (1.59Hz) for 60/70 Bitumen modified with

156
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

Complex Modulus Phase Angle


100 T

et

u
M
H •a

"5 (O
"5
o
M
C
«

a n
«
E
©

46 52 58 64 70

Temperature, °C

Figure 5.36. Relationship between Complex Modulus and Phase Angle with
Temperature at 10 rad/s (1.59 Hz) for 80/100 Bitumen modified with
SBS

157
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

5.6.4 Relationship between Loss Modulus and Storage Modulus with


Temperature

The binder should have a large value of storage modulus (G1) at high
temperatures for deformation resistance, because G' measures the binder elasticity (Lu
and Isacsson, 1997). Decrease in elasticity of the binder at low temperatures facilitates
in avoiding cracking, as the absorbed.energy is more easily dissipated. Alow elasticity
is suitable at low temperatures to facilitate dissipation, but high elasticity is convenient
at high temperatures to avoid viscous flow of the binder (Gonzalez at el., 2004). The
loss modulus (G") and storage modulus (G) of modified binders at different
temperatures are shown in Figures 5.37 - 5.42. It is shown from the figures that the loss
modulus and storage modulus of modified binder are higher than that ofneat bitumen.
As the temperature increases both loss and storage moduli decrease. The variation in
loss modulus and storage modulus is more at lower temperature than at higher
temperature. Above 58°C, the loss modulus and the storage modulus are found with
least value for neat bitumen but these properties are improved by adding polymer. As
mentioned earlier, loss modulus is associated with viscous effects and storage modulus
provides information on the elastic responses of binder. Figures 5.37 and 5.38 show the
loss modulus dominated in all the temperatures for 60/70 and 80/100 bitumens
modified with CR. Thus, CR modified binder shows a predominantly viscous
behaviour (G">G') in the whole temperature range from 46 to 70°C.
For 60/70 bitumen modified with EVA, storage modulus is dominated at
temperature lower than 64°C and above this temperature, loss modulus is dominated for
higher percentage of modifier (9%) as shown in Figure 5.39. It indicates that higher

158
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

percentage of EVA shows fully elastic behaviour of binder at temperature lower than

64°C, but with 3%, 5% and 7% of EVA it indicates viscous behaviour of binder as

dominated by loss modulus. However, storage modulus dominated by 7% and 9% EVA

for 80/100 bitumen shows elastic behaviour of binder at temperature of lower than

55°C and 65°C respectively as shown in Figure 5.40. It is observed that loss modulus is

dominated at all temperatures for SBS modified binders as shown in Figures 5.41 and

5.42. However, the rheological behaviour shown by modified binder is similar to that of

neat bitumen. The EVA modified binder has higher loss and storage moduli as

compared to CR and SBS modified binders. Therefore, the EVA modified binder will

cause cracking at low temperatures. Thus, from these results it can be seen that the

viscoelastic properties of binder depends on temperature, bitumen grade and polymer

content.

159
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

Loss Modulus Storage Modulus

•*— 60/70 Bitumen


-*— 60/70 +3% CR
-•-60/70 +5% CR
^-60/70 + 7%CR
o
M *— 60/70 +9% CR
a
"3 60/70 Bitumen
©
60/70 +3% CR
s
60/70 +5% CR
S3

©
60/70 +7% CR
60/70 +9% CR

3
•a
o

M
Vi
o

o4
40 50 55 60

Temperature, °C

Figure 5.37. Relationship between Loss Modulus and Storage Modulus with
Temperature at 10 rad/s (1.59 Hz) for 60/70 Bitumen modified
with CR

[60
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

Loss Modulus Storage Modulus

80/100 Bitumen

*- 80/100 + 3% CR

•-80/100 + 5%CR

*-80/100 + 7% CR

^80/100 + 9%CR

♦ 80/100 Bitumen

a 80/100+ 3% CR

• 80/100+ 5% CR

x 80/100+ 7% CR

* 80/100 + 9% CR

Temperature, °C

Figure 5.38. Relationship between Loss Modulus and Storage Modulus with
Temperature at 10 rad/s (1.59 Hz) for 80/100 Bitumen modified
with CR

161
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

Loss Modulus Storage Modulus


et

2a 60/70 Bitumen

60/70+ 3% EVA
b
Vi 60/70+ 5% EVA
3

~3 60/70+ 7% EVA
•V
©
60/70+ 9% EVA
a>
41
W
60/70 Bitumen
et
C 60/70+ 3% EVA
e
55 5% EVA

7% EVA
U
9% EVA
"5
O

o
-J

50 55 60 65 70 75

Temperature, °C

Figure 5.39. Relationship between Loss Modulus and Storage Modulus with
Temperature at 10 rad/s (1.59 Hz) for 60/70 Bitumen modified
with H,VA

162
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

Loss Modulus Storage Modulus

et

2a 80/100 Bitumen

80/100+ 3%EVA

VI
80/100 + 5%EVA
a
80/100 + 7%EVA
"3
•o
© *— 80/100 + 9%EVA
4 41
80/100 Bitumen
Oi
C3 •a 80/100 + 3%EVA
i-
©
• 80/100+ 5%EVA

•*•• 80/100 + 7%EVA

b •«••• 80/100 + 9%EVA


VI
3
~3
•a
O

s
5/5
©

Temperature, °C

Figure 5.40. Relationship between Loss Modulus and Storage Modulus with
Temperature at 10 rad/s (1.59 Hz) for 80/100 Bitumen modified
with EVA

163
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

Loss Modulus Storage Modulus


70 n

♦— 60/70 Bitumen

O •—60/70+ 3% SBS
Vi
3 -a—60/70+ 5% SBS
a
-o
o
-*— 60/70 + 7% SBS
s -*— 60/70 + 9% SBS
41
W
03
L
♦ 60/70 Bitumen
o
• 60/70+ 3% SBS
a 60/70+ 5% SBS
U
Vi
* 60/70+ 7% SBS
3
3
x • 60/70 + 9% SBS
©

t/5

Temperature, °C

Figure 5.41. Relationship between Loss Modulus and Storage Modulus with
Temperature at 10 rad/s 91.59 Hz) for 60/70 Bitumen modified
with SBS

164
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

Loss Modulus Storage Modulus

80/100 Bitumen

80/100+ 3% SBS

80/100+ 5%SBS

80/100+ 7%SBS

80/100+ 9%SBS

80/100 Bitumen

80/100+ 3%SBS

80/100 + 5% SBS

x 80/100+ 7% SBS

x 80/100 + 9%SBS

50 55 60

Temperature, °C

Figure 5.42. Relationship between Loss Modulus and Storage Modulus with
Temperature at 10 rad/s (1.59 Hz) for 80/100 Bitumen modified
with SBS.

165
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

5.6.5 Relationship between Dynamic Viscosity and Temperature


Figures 5.43-5.49 show the relationship between dynamic viscosity and
temperature for neat bitumens and different modified binders at a frequency of
10 rad/sec. As can be seen, the dynamic viscosity falls very rapidly as the temperature
rises. The variation in dynamic viscosity at lower temperature is more pronounced than
at higher temperature. The dynamic viscosity at aspecified temperatures increases with
increase in percentage of modifier. The linear relationship between log dynamic
viscosity and log temperature is also shown in Figures 5.50 - 5.54. It shows the slope
of the lines for modified binders is flatter than neat bitumens. This indicates lower
temperature susceptibility ofmodified binders as compared to neat binders.

166
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

4000 -i
(A)y = 2E+16x" (B)y = 1E+15x7 (C)y =1E+15x's
R2 = 0.999 R2 = 0.9998 R2 = 0.9996
3500

u 7.0123 -6.9399
4> 3000
(D)y = 1E+15x" (E)y = 3E+13x
W

et
R' = 0.9987 R2 = 0.9997
Oh
2500
fc
• MM • 60/70 Bitumen
V)
O 2000
u • 60/70+3% CR

> a 60/70+5%CR
1500

E x 60/70+7%CR
et 1000
q
K * 60/70+9%CR
Q
500 -

I —T— i —i

45 50 55 60 65 70 75

Temperature, °C
Figure 5.43. Relationship between Dynamic Viscosity and Temperature for CR
modified 60/70 Bitumen

3000 -i
7.2163 7.2686
(A)y = 1E+15x" (B)y = 3E+15x"' (C)y = 2E+15x
R2 = 0.9998 R2 = 0.9997 R2 = 0.9999
2500 •

(D)y = 3E+14x"
6.7476
(E)y =7E+13x"62'
R' = 0.9991 R2 = 0.9991
> t 2000
Cl,
• 80/100 Bitumen

2 1500 • 80/100+3% CR
o
41
VI
• mm
» 80/100+5%CR

u 1000
x 80/100+7%CR
1et
x 80/100+9% CR

I 500
—r— -t— —i

45 50 55 60 65 70 75

Temperature, °C

Figure 5.44. Relationship between Dynamic Viscosity and Temperature for CR


modified 80/100 Bitumen

167
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

25000
-7.7706 7.4455 7.1643
(A)y=2E+16x (B)y = 2E+16x (C)y = 9E+15x
R' = 0.999 0.9967 i 0.9949

w
20000 •
41
V.
(D)y=7E+14x"' (E)y =1E+14x'6
I
et 0.9959
Cl, R2 =0.9864

••= 15000

Vi
O 60/70 Bitumen
41

• 60/70+3% EVA

.SJ 10000 -
a 60/70+5% EVA
E
ss
e x 60/70+7% EVA
>
Q
5000 - x 60/70+9% EVA

45 55 60 75

Temperature, °C

Figure 5.45. Relationship between Dynamic Viscosity and Temperature for EVA
modified 60/70 Bitumen

(A) y =1E+15X"7 21" (B) y =2E+15X70247 (C)y =4E+15x-708M


R2 =0.9998 r2 =0.9948 R2 = 0.9943

(D) y =9E+14X-66664 (E)y =8E+13x6818


R2 = 0.9808 ~2 = 0.9846

80/100 Bitumen

80/100+3% EVA

80/100+5% EVA

80/100+7% EVA

80/100+9% EVA

Temperature, °C

Figure 5.46. Relationship between Dynamic Viscosity and Temperatiure for EVA
modified 80/100 Bitumen

168
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

8000
6.1956
(C) y = 1E+14x'
(A) y = 2E+16x' (B) y =5E+14x*
7000 = 0.999 = 0.9974
R2 = 0.9991
4)
41
Vi
1
6000
y =1E+13x"6*216
"1
Oh R2 = 0.999
5000
Vi
© 60/70 Bitumen
M
4000
> 60/70+3% SBS
41
3000 60/70+5% SBS
a
et
C
> 2000 60/70+7% SBS
Q
60/70+9% SBS
1000

55 60 65 75

Temperature, °C

Figure 5.47. Relationship between Dynamic Viscosity and Temperature for SBS
modified 60/70 Bitumen

3500
(A) y = 1E+15x
-7.2163
(B) y =7E+14x"s 8941 (C) y =3E+13x"69681
41 3000
R-1 = 0.9998 R2 = 0.9989 R2 = 0.9995
<U
Vi

et (D) y =1E+13x"87684 (E) y =2E+12x"8S148


a. 2500
R2 = 0.9993 R2 = 0.9981
£
•MM

© 2000 » 80/100 Bitumen


o
n
»»«p

> • 80/100+3% SBS


o 1500

£ a 80/100+5%SBS
0J
e 1000
> x 80/100+7% SBS
Q
x 80/100+9% SBS
500

55 60 65 75

Temperature, °C

Figure 5.48. Relationship between Dynamic Viscosity and Temperature for SBS
modified 80/100 Bitumen

169
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

(A)y--7 7706X +16.259 <B) y=-7.0513x +15.14 (C) y=-6.951x +15.027


R' = 0.999 R =0.9998
u
R2=0.9996
% 3.5
et
ft. (E) y = -5.9399x +13.431
R2=0.9997
W5 3 -
O
Vi

♦ 60/70 Bitumen
| U4 • 60/70+3% CR
et
c
* 60/70+5% CR

° 2 x 60/70+7% CR
©

x 60/70+9% CR

1.5
i —i
1.65 1.7 1.75 1.8 1.85 1.9

log Temperature, °C

Figure 5.49. Relationship between log Dynamic Viscosity and log Temperat ure
for CR modified 60/70 Bitumen

(A) y=-7 2163X +15.001 (B) y. .7.3546x +1MM (<J) y. . ^ ^+^^


R =0.9998
4t R =0.9997 R = 0.9999
41
Vi
i
3.5
et (D) y =-6.7476X + 14.535
ft. (E) y =-6.2793X + 13.871
R2=0.9991
VI

2 3 -

> • 80/100 Bitumen


41

a 2.5 • 80/100+3% CR
C
a 80/100+5% CR

x 80/100+7% CR
©

x 80/100+9% CR

1.5
—i
1.65 1.7 1.75 1.8 1.85 1.9

log Temperature, °C
Figure 5.50. Relationship between log Dynamic Viscosity and log Temperat ure
for CR modified 80/100 Bitumen

170
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

(A) y = -7.7706x +16.259 (B)y =-7.4455x +16.211 (C)y =-7.1643x +15.974


5
R2 = 0.999 »2 = 0.9967 R2 = 0.9949

41
4>
4.5 (D) y = -6.4007X + 14.833 (E) y • -5.8433x + 14.086
BQ
I R* = 0.9959 R2 = 0.9864
et
ft. 4

3.5 • 60/70 Bitumen


o
41
M
• 60/70+3% EVA
3 H
a 60/70+5% EVA
E
2.5 x 60/70+7% EVA
C
x 60/70+9% EVA
Q
2
©

1.5 i —i

1.65 1.7 1.75 1.8 1.85 1.9


4
log Temperature, °C

Figure 5.51 Relationship between log Dynamic Viscosity and log Temperature
for EVA modified 60/70 Bitumen

(A) y =-7.2163x +15.001 (B)y =-7.0247x +15.392 (C)y =-7.0865x +15.619


4.5
R2 = 0.9998 R' = 0.9948 Rz • 0.9943

41 4
(E)y = -5.8187x +13.908
Vi R2 = 0.9846
et
ft.
3.5

Vi
O • 80/100 Bitumen
v\ 3
• 80/100+3% EVA
>
41
a 80/100+5% EVA
a 2.5
et x 80/100+7% EVA
s
>-.
x 80/100+9% EVA
Oex 2
©

1.5 —i— —i

1.65 1.7 1.75 1.8 1.85 1.9

log Temperature, °C

Figure 5.52. Relationship between log Dynamic Viscosity and log Temperature
for EVA modified 80/100 Bitumen

171
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

4.3 -, (A) y=-7.7706X +16.259 (B) y=-6.683x - 14.713 (C) y=-6.1956x +14.013
R =0.999 R = 0.9974 R =0.9991

(E) y =-5.6215x + 13.024


R2 = 0.999

♦ 60/70 Bitumen

• 60/70+3% SBS

a 60/70+5% SBS

x 60/70+7% SBS

x 60/70+9% SBS

1.75 1.8 1.85 1.9

log Temperature, °C

Figure 5.53. Relationship between log Dynamic Viscosity and log Temperat ure
for SBS modified 60/70 Bitumen

(A) y=-7.2163x +15.001 (B) y=-6.8941x +14.86 (C) y=-5.9681x +13.42


R' = 0.9998 R2= 0.9989 R =0.9995

g 3-5 (D) y=-5 7564X +13.094 (E) y=_5.3148x +12 241


Vi
I
et R =0.9981
ft

£
• MS
3
v>
o
41

♦ 80/100 Bitumen
w 2.5
• 80/100+3% SBS
a
05
C
a 80/100+5% SBS
>;
Q 2 x 80/100+7% SBS
6X
o
x 80/100+9% SBS

1.5 —r—
—i
1.65 1.7 1.75 1.8 1.85 1.9

log Temperature, °C

Figure 5.54. Relationship between log Dynamic Viscosity and log Temperat ure
for SBS modified 80/100 Bitumen

172
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

5.6.6 Variation in Rheological Properties of Modified Binders

In superpave specification purposes, the frequency is 10 rad/sec which has been


4
related to a traffic speed of 100 km/hr. For slower moving traffic, a lower frequency is

used. A very low frequency, such as 1 rad/sec is appropriated for standing traffic

(SHRP-A-410). The variation in complex modulus of different modified binders at

1rad/sec and 10 rad/sec are shown in Figures 5.55 and 5.56. The complex modulus at

10 rad/sec is higher than 1 rad/sec for all the binders. The EVA modified binders have

higher value of complex modulus at 1 rad/sec and 10 rad/sec for the same temperatures

as compared to CR and SBS modified binders. Therefore, EVA modified binder will be
*

suitable for the city street traffic and heavy loads or very high traffic volumes.

70

65 -
1 rad/sec
10 rad/sec
60 -

55 -
♦ 60/70 Bitumen
« 50-
60/70 +3% CR
22 45 H • a 60/70+ 3% SBS
I 40 x 60/70+ 3% EVA
-o 35 -|
o
•— 60/70 Bitumen
S 30
8 25 H 60/70 +3% CR

a 20 *—60/70+ 3% SBS

rj 15 - *— 60/70 + 3% EVA

10 -

5 - X

0 11!_! '"" — "''iXt'iiiilMi


40 50 60 70 80

Temperature, °C

Figure 5.55. Relationship between Complex Modulus and Temperature at


1 rad/s and 10 rad/s for 60/70 Bitumen modified with 3 percent
modifier

173
Chapter 5:Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

1 rad/sec
10 rad/sec

>

♦ 80/100 Bitumen

-80/100 + 3%CR

a 80/100 +3%SBS

x 80/100 +3%EVA

-•—80/100 Bitumen

— 80/100 + 3%CR

*— 80/100 + 3% SBS

*— 80/100 + 3% EVA

>

60 70 80
Temperature, °C

Figure 5.56. Relationship between Complex Modulus and Temperature at


1rad/sec and 10 rad/sec for 80/100 Bitumen modified with 3percent
modifier r

In general, abinder should have high values of G* and G' at high temperatures
for deformation resistance. The modified binders have higher values of G* than neat
bitumens at the same temperature as shown in Table 5.11. The improvements in terms
of deformation resistance (G*PMB/GW„) and elasticity (GWG*Bitumen) of CR,
EVA and SBS modified binders at high temperature are shown in Tables 5.12, 5.13 and
5.14 respectively. The change in rheological properties of binder by adding the
modifier in bitumen is termed as modification index (Airey, 2002). As indicated in
these tables, there are significant differences in the modification indices of G* and G'
amongst the different modified binders. The effect is more pronounced at higher
modifier contents. The value of G* at 46°C increased 1.2 and 1.7 times by adding

174
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

3%CR to 60/70 and 80/100 bitumens as shown in Table 5.7. By addition of 3% SBS

with 60/70 and 80/100 bitumens the value of G' increases 4.1 and 8.4 times respectively

at 46°C while with the same percentage of EVA it increases 7.8 and 20.3 times as

shown in Tables 5.13 and 5.14. The results thus indicate that significance of EVA

modified binders are more than CR and SBS modified binders. As can be seen, the

viscous property, loss modulus (G") of bitumen is also improved by adding the

modifiers. The value of G" is very less as compared to the value of G' for all the

modified binders. The improved elasticity between the hard grade bitumen (60/70) and

soft grade bitumen (80/100) is also different when the same modifier is used.
i

Table 5.11 Complex Modulus of different Modified Binders at 46°C and 58°C

Complex Modulus Complex Modulus


Binder (G*), kPa Binder (G*), kPa

46°C 58°C 46°C 58°C

60/70 Bitumen 20.9 3.78 80/100 Bitumen 9.89 1.91

60/70+3%CR 25.6 5.21 80/100+3%CR 16.7 3.48

60/70+5%CR 28.6 6.01 80/100+5%CR 20.1 4.51

60/80+7%CR 29 6.31 80/100+7%CR 21.4 5.32

60/70+9%CR 35.1 5.01 80/100+9%CR 26 6.47

60/70+3%EVA 62.9 12.8 80/100+3%EVA 47.4 12.5

60/70+5%EVA 106 24.1 80/100+5%EVA 62.8 15

60/70+7%EVA 144 38.3 80/100+7%EVA 91.8 27.2

60/70+9%EVA 211 68.9 80/100+9%EVA 156 49.6

60/70+ 3%SBS 38.1 8.95 80/100+3%SBS 24 5.15

60/70+ 5%SBS 50.1 12.3 80/100+5%SBS 30.5 7.98

60/70+ 7%SBS 68 19.8 80/100+7%SBS 32.2 8.99

60/70+ 9%SBS 46.1 13.2 80/100+9%SBS 24.4 7.57

175
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

Table 5.12 Changes in Rheological properties of CRMB modification at


different temperatures and 10 rad/s
*
G*CRMB/G*Bitumen G'CRMB/G'Bitumen G"CRMB/G"Bitumen
Binder
46°C 58°C 46°C 58°C 46°C 58°C
60/70 Bitumen 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
60/70+3%CR 1.2 1.4 1.7 3.6 1.2 1.3
60/70+5%CR 1.3 1.6 2.4 5.3 1.3 1.5
60/80+7%CR 1.4 1.7 2.5 5.5 1.3 1.6
60/70+9%CR 1.5 2.4 4.1 14.0 3.6 1.9
80/100 Bitumen 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
80/100+3%CR 1.7 1.6 1.6 1.6 4.0 58.2
80/100+5%CR 1.9 1.8 1.8 >
1.8 4.6 71.8
80/100+7%CR 2.0 2.3 1.9 2.3 6.3 151.2
80/100+9%CR 2.6 3.4 2.4 3.2 11.9 321.1

Table 5.13 Changes in Rheological Properties ofEVA modification at different


temperatures and 10 rad/s

G*PMB/G*Bitumen G'PMB/G'Bitumen G"PMB/G"Bitumen


Binder
46°C 58°C 46°C 58°C 46°C 58°C
60/70 Bitumen 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
60/70+3%EVA 3.0 3.4 7.8 14.4 2.7 3.2
60/70+5%EVA 5.1 6.4 17.5 42.2 4.3 5.7
60/80+7%EVA 6.9 10.1 28.0 91.6 5.3 8.1
60/70+9%EVA 10.1 18.2 48.2 198.5 6.6 12.6
80/100 Bitumen 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
80/100+3%EVA 4.8 6.5 20.3 519.8 4.4 6.3
80/100+5%EVA 6.3 7.8 37.2 961.4 5.4 7.0
80/100+7%EVA 9.3 14.3 77.6 2787.3 6.2 10.4
80/100+9%EVA 15.7 25.9 140.9 5614.6 9.6 17.0

176
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

Table 5.14. Changes in Rheological Properties of SBS modification at different


temperatures and 10 rad/s

G*PMB/G*Bitumen G'PMB/G'Bitumen G"PMB/G"Bitumen


Binder

46°C 58°C 46°C 58°C 46°C 58°C

60/70 Bitumen 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

60/70+3%SBS 1.8 2.4 4.1 10.0 1.7 2.3

60/70+5%SBS 2.4 3.2 6.1 18.6 2.2 3.0

60/80+7%SBS 3.2 5.1 12.0 39.7 2.8 4.4

60/70+9%SBS 2.2 3.5 6.3 23.3 1.9 3.1

4 80/100 Bitumen 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

80/100+3%SBS 2.4 2.7 8.4 143.4 2.3 2.6

80/100+5%SBS 3.1 4.2 14.3 450.3 2.8 3.8

80/100+7%SBS 3.2 4.7 16.5 554.8 2.9 4.3

80/100+9%SBS 2.4 3.9 14.4 560.8 2.1 3.4

5.6.7 Effect of Modifier contents on Dynamic Viscosity

Figures 5.57 and 5.58 show the effect of CR and EVA contents on dynamic

viscosity. The dynamic viscosity increases as the percentage of modifier increases. It

can be seen that the increase in dynamic viscosities of CR and EVA modified bitumens

is not directly proportional to the polymer contents. There is somewhat marked change

when the modifier content exceeds 5 per cent. As illustrated in Figures 5.57 and 5.58, at

the same polymer content, 60/70 bitumen modified with EVA exhibit higher dynamic

viscosity than EVA modified 80/100 bitumen.

177
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

4 -i
60/70 Bitumen 80/100 Bitumen

Figure 5.57. Effect ofCR content on Dynamic Viscosity at 10 rad/s

Figure 5.58. Effect of EVA content on Dynamic Viscosity at 10 rad/s

178
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

8 n
60/70 Bitumen 80/100 Bitumen

4 4

SBS, %

Figure 5.59. Effect of SBS concentration on Dynamic Viscosity at 10 rad/s

In case of SBS modified binder, dynamic viscosity increases up to 7% polymer

content and then decreases as shown in Figure 5.59. The difference is more pronounced

for dynamic viscosity at 46°C as compared to dynamic viscosity at 58°C and 70°C.
Thus, it indicates that the effect of modifier contents on dynamic viscosity varies with

grade of bitumen and temperature.

5.7 TEMPERATURE SUSCEPTIBILITY OF BINDERS

In Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA), the temperature susceptibility of

bitumen may be evaluated by measurements of various viscous and elastic parameters

(e.g. storage and loss moduli, dynamic and complex viscosities) at different

temperatures and frequencies (Lu and Isacson 1998).

Asphalt mixtures containing the binders with lower temperature susceptibility

should be more resistant to cracking and rutting at low and high temperatures,
179
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

respectively. Temperature susceptibility is usually defined as the change in binder


properties as a function of temperature. Since binder properties may be characterized
\
by means of various parameters, different approaches have been proposed to evaluate
temperature susceptibility. Double logarithm of complex modulus, complex viscosity
and dynamic viscosity is plotted against the logarithm of temperature for both neat and
modified binders used to perform an evaluation to viscosity temperature susceptibility
(Isacsson and Lu 1999).

The temperature susceptibility of different modified binders is determined at


1rad/sec and 10 rad/sec in the temperature range from 46°C to 70°C in the present
study. The values of the temperature susceptibility obtained using complex modulus
and dynamic viscosity at 1rad/sec and lOrad/sec are shown in Tables 5.15-5.117. The
temperature susceptibility decreases as the modifier content increases. Table 5.15
shows the temperature susceptibility for CR modified binders at 1 rad/sec and
10 rad/sec. For CR modified 60/70 bitumen, the viscosity temperature susceptibility
decreases upto 5percent and then increases at 7percent and then again decreases
which shows lack of consistency in the behaviour of CR. However, it decreases
uniformly for CR modified 80/100 bitumen. For EVA modified binders, the
temperature susceptibility decreases uniformly with increase in percentage of modifier
as shown in Table 5.16. The temperature susceptibility of SBS modified binders are
shown in Table 5.17. For SBS modified 60/70 bitumen, it decreases upto 7percent and
then marginally increased at 9percent while it decreases continuously in case of SBS
modified 80/100 bitumen. The temperature susceptibility obtained from complex
modulus and dynamic viscosity are same at 1rad/sec as it is mentioned earlier that
dynamic viscosity is the ratio ofthe complex modulus and frequency.

180
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

Here, it may be stated that the changes in the temperature susceptibility may

strongly be dependent on the testing conditions (temperature range and frequency) and

influenced by bitumen grade, source and polymer content.

Table 5.15. Temperature susceptibility of modified binder with CR at 1 and


10 rad/sec.

GTS* VTS* GTS* VTS*


Binder at at at at
1 rad/sec 1 rad/sec lOrad/sec lOrad/sec

4
60/70 Bitumen 7.30 7.30 5.46 7.63

60/70+3%CR 6.98 6.98 4.76 6.54

60/70+5%CR 6.15 6.15 4.59 6.27

60/70+7%CR 6.56 6.56 4.64 6.34

60/70+9%CR 5.07 5.07 3.73 5.0

80/100 Bitumen 8.86 8.86 5.53 8.0

80/100+3%CR 5.50 5.50 5.29 7.46

80/100+5%CR 7.14 7.14 5.13 7.18

80/100+7%CR 7.19 7.19 4.65 6.44

80/100+9%CR 5.14 5.14 4.14 5.63

GTS*(Modulus temperature susceptibility) = (log logG*rlog logG*2)/(logT2-logT,),


where, G*i is complex modulus at 1\G*2 complex modulus at T2, and T is temperature in Kelvin

VTS*(Viscosity temperature susceptibility) = (log log n*r'°g 'og il*2)/(logT2-logT|),


where, n.*| is dynamic viscosity at T|,r)*2 dynamic viscosity at T2, and T is temperature in Kelvin

181
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

Table 5.16. Temperature susceptibility of modified binder with EVA at 1 and


10 rad/sec.
\
GTS* VTS* GTS* VTS*
Binder at at at at
1 rad/sec 1 rad/sec 10 rad/sec 10 rad/sec
60/70 Bitumen 7.30 7.30 5.46 7.63
60/70+3%EVA 6.81 6.81 4.59 6.11
60/70+5%EVA 5.68 5.68 4.16 5.42
60/70+7%EVA 5.30 5.30 3.53 4.54
60/70+9%EVA 4.05 4.05 3.11 3.94
80/100 Bitumen 8.86 8.86 5.53 8.0
80/100+3%EVA 7.21 7.21 4.37 5.85
80/100+5%EVA >
6.38 6.38 4.29 5.68
80/100+7%EVA 5.33 5.33 3.78 4.93
80/100+9%EVA 4.62 4.62 3.24
— _.
4.14

Table 5.17. Temperature susceptibility of modified binder with SBS at 1 and


10 rad/sec.

GTS* VTS* GTS* VTS*


Binder at at at at
1 rad/sec 1 rad/sec lOrad/sec lOrad/sec
60/70 Bitumen 7.30 7.30 5.46 7.63
60/70+3%SBS 6.28 6.28 4.29 5.78
60/70+5%SBS 5.69 5.69 3.79 5.03
60/70+7%SBS 4.58 4.58 3.29 4.30
60/70+9%SBS 4.75 4.75 3.42 4.53
80/100 Bitumen 8.86 8.86 5.53 8.0
80/100+3%SBS 7.09 7.09 4.66 6.40
80/100+5%SBS 5.66 5.66 3.82 5.14
80/100+7%SBS 5.27 5.27 3.62 4.86
80/100+9%SBS 5.88 5.88 3.46 4.68

182
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

5.7.1 Effect of Modifier contents on Viscosity Temperature Susceptibility

The effects of modifier contents on viscosity temperature susceptibility at

10 rad/sec for different modified binders are shown in Figure 5.60 and 5.61. The

viscosity temperature susceptibility of modified binders is considerably reduced as

compared to neat bitumens. SBS modified binder has lower viscosity temperature

susceptibility than EVA and CR modified binders. It indicates that the SBS modified

binder is more resistant to cracking and rutting at low as well as high temperatures,

respectively. However, EVA modified binder show lower viscosity temperature

susceptibility than SBS modified binder at sufficiently high modifier content (9%) as
4
shown in Figure 5.60. The comparison of viscosity temperature susceptibility for

80/100 bitumen modified with different modifiers is shown in Figure 5.61.

CR Modified Binder

EVA Modified Binder

SBS Modified Binder

Modifier, %

Figure 5.60. Effect Modifier contents on Viscosity Temperature Susceptibility of


60/70 Bitumen modified with different Modifiers

183
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

9 -r

CR Modified Binder

EVA Modified Binder


\
SBS Modified Binder

C/3
H
>

>
Modifier, %

Figure 5.61. Effect of Modifier contents on Viscosity Temperature Susceptibility


of 80/100 Bitumen modified with different Modifiers

5.8 INFLUENCE OF AGEING ON MODIFIED BINDERS


Ageing of the binders is performed using the Thin Film Test (TFOT) in the
present study. The effect of the temperature susceptibility after ageing for different
modified binders is given in Table 5.18. The variation in complex modulus in the
temperature ranges from 46°C to 82°C before and after ageing is shown in Figures 5.62
- 5.67. The complex modulus decreases as the temperature increases and the difference
is more pronounced at temperature lower than 58°C. There is increase in complex
modulus over the temperature domain after ageing however, a slight reduction in
complex modulus at temperature higher than 58°C for CR modified binders is observed
as per Figures 5.62 and 5.65. EVA modified binders show higher complex modulus
after ageing. Increase in complex modulus after ageing indicates the hardening of the
binder. However, there is adecrease in complex modulus at higher percentage ( 7% to
9%) for SBS modified 60/70 bitumen as shown in Figure 5.64.
184
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

Table 5.18. Temperature Susceptibility of Modified Binders after ageing at


10 rad/sec.

GTS VTS GTS VTS


Binder at at Binder at at
lOrad/sec lOrad/sec lOrad/sec lOrad/sec
60/70 Bitumen 80/100 Bitumen
60/70+3%EVA 4.43 5.83 80/100+3%EVA 4.77 6.37
60/70+5%EVA 3.86 4.96 80/100+5%EVA 4.39 5.72
60/70+7%EVA 3.62 4.60 80/100+7%EVA 3.56 4.57
60/70+9%EVA 3.08 3.86 80/100+9%EVA 3.36 4.26
60/70+3%SBS 4.45 5.95 80/100+3%SBS 4.73 6.46
60/70+5%SBS 4.13 5.45 80/100+5%SBS 4.29 5.81
60/70+7%SBS 3.77 4.98 80/100+7%SBS 4.16 5.59
60/70+9%SBS 3.98 5.34 80/100+9%SBS 3.77 5.10
< 60/70+3%CR 5.00 6.80 80/100+3%CR 5.46 7.52
60/70+5%CR 4.63 6.24 80/100+5%CR 4.94 6.76
60/70+7%CR 4.34 6.33 80/100+7%CR 4.90 6.69
60/70+9%CR 4.43 5.92 80/100+9%CR 4.90 6.82

Temperature, °C
Figure 5.62. Effect of Ageing on Complex Modulus as a function of Temperature
for 60/70 Bitumen modified with CR

185
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

400

350

60/70 Bitumen
300 -
- 60/70 Bitumen (Aged)
+—60170 + 3% EVA
et
>
g| 250 a 60/70+ 3% EVA (Aged)
Vi
3
♦—60/70+ 5% EVA
3
•o
200 • (Aged)
O

£
K
41 150 •
a
S
o
U 100 •

50

50 60 70 80 90

Temperature, °C

Figure 5.63. Effect of Ageing on Complex Modulus as afunction of Temperat ure


for 60/70 Bitumen modified with EVA

186
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

60/70 Bitumen

-60/70 Bitumen (Aged)


av—60/70 + 3% SBS

a -60/70 + 3%SBS (Aged)


+—60/70 + 5% SBS

60/70 + 5%SBS (Aged)


60/70 + 7% SBS

60/70 + 7%SBS (Aged)


60/70 + 9% SBS

60/70 + 9% SBS (Aged)

60 70 80 90

Temperature, °C

Figure 5.64. Effect of Ageing on Complex Modulus as a function of Temperature


for 60/70 Bitumen modified with SBS

187
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

40 n

+
80/100 Bitumen
o'.
30 80/100 Bitumen (Aged)
et
80/100 +3% CR
80/100 +3%CR (Aged)
Vj
3 80/100 +5% CR
~3 80/100 +5% CR (Aged)
-a
© 20
80/100 +7% CR

4> 80/100 +7%CR (Aged)


o
80/100 +9% CR
E
©
80/100 +9%CR (Aged)
10

-i
40
70 80 90

Temperature, °C

Figure 5.65. Effect of Ageing on Complex Modulus as afunction of Temperature


for 80/100 Bitumen modified with CR

188
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

250

80/100 Bitumen

-••80/100 Bitumen (Aged)


*— 80/100 + 3% EVA

a—80/100 + 3% EVA (Aged)


♦—80/100 + 5% EVA

o 80/100 + 5% EVA (Aged)


+—80/100 + 7% EVA

+ 80/100 + 7% EVA (Aged)


*—80/100 + 9% EVA

x— 80/100 + 9% EVA (Aged)

60 70 80 90

Temperature, °C

Figure 5.66. Effect of Ageing on Complex Modulus as a function of Temperature


for 80/100 Bitumen modified with EVA

189
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

50 -i

40 -
80/100 Bitumen

80/100 Bitumen (Aged)


^—80/100 + 3% SBS
a 80/100 + 3% SBS (Aged)
-•—80/100 + 5% SBS
•o -80/100 +5%SBS (Aged)
-+— 80/100 + 7% SBS

+ 80/100 +7% SBS (Aged)


*—80/100 + 9% SBS
x 80/100 +9%SBS (Aged)

50 60 70 80 90

Temperature, °C

Figure 5.67. Effect of Ageing on Complex Modulus as afunction of Temperat ure


for 80/100 Bitumen modified with SBS

190
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

5.9 AGEING INDEX

Bitumen ageing is traditionally evaluated by means of the ageing index, which

is defined as the ratio of a physical or rheological parameter of the aged bitumen to that

of the original bitumen. For conventional bitumens, high values of the ratio indicate a

high degree of bitumen hardening (Lu and Isacsson, 1998). Ageing index is determined

from the ratio of the complex modulus of aged (TFOT) binder to the complex modulus

of unaged binder in the present study. Values of ageing index at different temperatures

and 10 rad/sec for the neat bitumens and CR, EVA, SBS modified binders are listed in

Tables 5.19 and 5.20. The ageing index is observed to be greater than 1 in all test

temperatures (46°C to 70°C) at 10 rad/sec for neat bitumens and the modified binders

containing 3% modifier, which indicates hardening of these binders during ageing

(TFOT). For 60/70 bitumen modified with 7% and 9% SBS, the ageing index is lower

than 1 for all the temperatures. Tables 5.21 and 5.22 show the values of ageing index at

60°C and different frequencies for the neat bitumens and different modified binders.

The values of ageing index from the test results indicate that the ageing index for

modified binder may be higher or lower than 1, depending on the temperature and

frequency considered. Ageing indices (Lu and Isacsson, 1998) higher or lower than 1

are probably due to degradation of the polymer and oxidation of the bitumen, which are

to some extent compensatory.

191
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

Table 5.19. Ageing indices for different modified binders at different


temperatures and 10 rad/sec

Ageing Indices
Binder at Temperature
46°C 52°C 58°C 64°C 70°C
60/70 Bitumen 1.18 1.18 1.20 1.28 1.18
60/70 + 3%CR 1.48 1.42 1.39 1.21 1.15
60/70 + 5%CR 1.54 1.48 1.43 1.37 1.33
60/70 + 7%CR 1.68 1.52 1.44 1.43 1.39
60/70 + 9%CR 1.49 1.36 1.20 0.99 0.89
60/70 + 3%EVA 1.34 1.45 1.47 1.34 1.36
60/70 + 5%EVA 1.46 1.52 1.50 1.63 1.61
60/70 + 7%EVA 1.60 1.60 1.71 1.46 1.34
60/70 + 9%EVA 1.72 1.71 1.72 1.56 1.58
60/70 + 3%SBS 1.32 1.27 1.19 1.09 1.12
60/70 + 5%SBS 1.31 1.24 1.20 1.07 1.00
60/70 + 7%SBS 0.83 0.81 0.75 0.64 0.64
60/70 + 9%SBS 0.80 0.70 0.68 0.61 0.60
.

Table 5.20. Ageing indices for different percentage of modifier at different


temperatures and 10 rad/sec

A geing Indi ces


Binder at Temperat ure
46°C 52°C 58°C 64°C 70°C
80/100 Bitumen 1.59 1.60 1.58 1.43 1.34
80/100+ 3%CR 1.16 1.22 1.27 1.25 1.34
80/100+ 5%CR 1.61 1.65 1.62 1.54 1.54
80/100+ 7%CR 1.61 1.43 1.49 1.28 1.23
80/100+ 9%CR 1.41 1.11 0.95 0.77 0.67
80/100+ 3%EVA 1.28 1.06 1.04 0.89 0.96
80/100 + 5%EVA 1.89 1.77 1.62 1.61 1.51
80/100+ 7%EVA 1.78 1.47 1.44 1.43 2.79
80/100+ 9%EVA 1.48 1.53 1.50 1.25 1.25
80/100+ 3%SBS 1.25 1.13 1.12 1.06 1.12
80/100+ 5%SBS 1.02 1.00 0.86 0.81 0.77
80/100+ 7%SBS 1.22 1.05 0.95 0.87 0.85
80/100+ 9%SBS 1.08 1.02 0.96 0.88 0.89

192
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

Table 5.21. Ageing indices at 60°C and at different frequencies


Ageing Indices
Binder at Frequency
0.1 rad/s 1.0 rad/s 10 rad/s 100 rad/s
60/70 Bitumen 1.28 1.06 1.03 0.98
60/70 + 3% CR 0.96 1.00 1.02 1.05
60/70 + 5% CR 0.78 0.90 1.03 1.05
60/70 + 7% CR 1.02 0.77 1.00 1.06
60/70 + 9% CR 0.26 0.26 0.44 0.64

60/70 + 3% EVA 1.21 1.21 1.17 1.21


60/70 + 5% EVA 1.64 1.46 1.30 1.20
60/70 + 7% EVA 1.22 1.20 1.15 1.19
60/70 + 9% EVA 1.23 1.22 1.20 1.06
60/70 + 3% SBS 1.04 1.04 1.00 1.05
60/70 + 5% SBS 0.63 0.64 0.70 0.60
60/70 +7% SBS 0.31 0.34 0.44 0.41
60/70 + 9% SBS 0.22 0.30 0.39 0.48

Table 5.22 Ageing indices at 60°C and at different frequencies

Ageing Indices
Binder at Frequency
0.1 rad/s 1.0 rad/s 10 rad/s 100 rad/s
80/100 Bitumen 1.14 1.19 1.12 1.06
80/100 +3% CR 0.81 0.70 0.81 0.83
80/100 +5% CR 1.07 1.01 1.04 1.07
80/100 +7% CR 1.02 0.77 1.00 1.06
80/100 + 9% CR 0.27 0.27 0.44 0.64
80/100+ 3% EVA 1.46 1.39 1.18 0.98
80/100+ 5% EVA 1.50 1.54 1.48 1.20
80/100+ 7% EVA 0.72 0.86 0.95 0.99
80/100+ 9% EVA 1.47 1.41 1.32 1.27
80/100+ 3% SBS 1.13 1.05 0.84 0.93
80/100+ 5% SBS 0.55 0.65 0.65 0.69
80/100+ 7% SBS 0.36 0.42 0.49 0.54
80/100+ 9% SBS 2.47 1.54 1.30 1.18

193
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

5.10 DYNAMIC FREQUENCY SWEEP TEST

Dynamic frequency sweep test were performed at 60°C in the range from 0.1
rad/s to 100 rad/s for different modified binders before and after ageing. Figure 5.68
shows the relationship between complex modulus and frequency at 60°C for 60/70
bitumen modified with different percentage of CR. It indicates that the complex
modulus increases with increase in the frequency as well as in the percentage of the
modifier. Similarly, the frequency dependence of complex modulus for the EVA and
SBS modified binders has been assessed in Figures 5.69 and 5.70. For SBS modified
binder, the complex modulus at 7percent is higher than that of 9percent for the entire
frequency. The variation in complex modulus is more pronounce at lower frequency as
compared to at higher frequency for the same percentage of modified binder. Figures
5.71 to 5.73 show the frequency dependence of complex modulus for 80/100 bitumen
modified with CR, EVA and SBS. The SBS modified binder also increase in complex
modulus with increasing polymer content, but the effect is not as marked as seen for
EVA modified binder. The differences in rheological behaviour are attributed to the
chemical composition of the bitumen and the compatibility of the different bitumen
polymer blends (Airey, 2003). The influence ofageing on the frequency dependence of
complex modulus for 60/70 and 80/100 bitumens modified with different modifiers at
60°C are shown in Figures 5.74 and 5.75 respectively.
The frequency dependence of phase angle for different binders modified with
different percentage of modifiers at 60°C are shown in figures 5.76 - 5.81. It is
observed that, the phase angle of the modified bitumens is lower than that of neat
bitumen and decrease in phase angle indicates that the modified binders become more
elastic. There is an increase in phase angle at the higher frequencies for all the binders.
Asmall difference in the frequency dependence of the phase angle of the neat bitumens

194
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

and marked differences is observed for the modified binders with sufficiently high

polymer content. This may result from degrees of molecular interactions between the

neat bitumens and polymers (Lu and Isacsson, 1997). The EVA modified binders show

lower phase angle for entire frequencies as compared to other modified binders as

shown in Figures 5.77 and 5.80. The dynamic viscosity decreases as the frequency

increases as shown in Figures 5.82 to 5.87. The variation in dynamic viscosity of the

neat bitumens is very less between lower and higher frequency. The modified binders

show a significant decrease in dynamic viscosity from lower to higher frequencies.

1.00E+05

1.00E+04

et
ft.
r 1.00E+03
Vi
3
~3
-a
©

1.00E+02
a

a
E
©

1.00E+01 -:

1.00E+00
1.00E-01 1.00E+00 1.00E+01 1.00E+02

0
Frequency, rad/sec

Figure 5.68. Relationship between Complex Modulus and frequency at 60°C for
60/70 Bitumen modified with CR

195
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

1.00E+06

1.00E+05 -•

et
ft.
=«' 1.00E+04
a

Jg 1.00E+03
M
60/70 Bitumen

E 1.00E+02 •£ 60/70 + 3% EVA


o
U 60/70 + 5% EVA

1.00E+01 -: 60/70+ 7% EVA


60/70 + 9% EVA

1.00E+00 1 i • iiii
1 ii
1.00E-01
1.00E+00 1.00E+01 1.00E+02
Frequency, rad/sec

Figure 5.69. Relationship between Complex Modulus and Frequency at 60°C for
60/70 Bitumen modified with EVA
1.00E+06

1.00E+05 -
et
ft,

g 1.00E+04-
3
-a
o

IS 1.00E+03
x
a
60/70 Bitumen
| 1.00E+02-J 60/70+ 3% SBS
u 60/70+5% SBS
60/70+ 7% SBS
1.00E+01 -|
60/70 + 9% SBS

1.00E+00 -t- 1 |
1.00E-01
1.00E+00 1.00E+01 1.00E+02

Frequency, rad/sec
Figure 5.70 Relationship between Complex Modulus and Frequency at 60°C for
60/70 Bitumen modified with SBS

196
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

1.00E+05

1.00E+04 - =
et
a.
r

Vi
3

•§ 1.00E+03
o

80/100 Bitumen
M

TEL 1.00E+02 -: 80/100 +3% CR


E
o 80/100 +5% CR
U
80/100 +7% CR
1.00E+01 -. 80/100 +9% CR

1.00E+00
1.00E-01 1.00E+00 1.00E+01 1.00E+02

Frequency, rad/sec
Figure 5.71 Relationship between Complex Modulus and Frequency at 60°C for
80/100 Bitumen modified with CR
1.00E+06

1.00E+05
et
ft.
r
Vi

S3 1.00E+04-|
3

1.00E+03
«
80/100 Bitumen
o
E 80/100+ 3% EVA
© 1.00E+02
80/100+ 5% EVA

80/100+ 7% EVA
1.00E+01
80/100+ 9% EVA

1.00E+00 I • •»•••! • i • • • •

1.00E-01 1.00E+00 1.00E+01 1.00E+02

Frequency, rad/sec

Figure 5.72. Relationship between Complex Modulus and Frequency at 60°C for
80/100 Bitumen modified with EVA

197
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

1.00E+05 -w

80/100 Bitumen

80/100+ 3% SBS

80/100+ 5% SBS

80/100+ 7% SBS
80/100+ 9% SBS

1.00E+00 1 • i i i i i * ii
1.00E-O1 1.00E+00 1.00E+01 1.00E+02

Frequency, rad/sec

Figure 5.73. Relationship between Complex Modulus and Frequency at 60°C for
80/100 Bitumen modified with SBS
1.00E+05 -f

1.00E+04 -:

et
ft.
g 1.00E+03
"3 60/70 Bitumen
•a
©
60/70 Bitumen (Aged)
1.00E+02-: 60/70 +3% CR
41

"S 60/70 +3% CR (Aged)


E
o 60/70+ 3% SBS
U
1.00E+01 -i 60/70 +3%SBS (Aged)
60/70+ 3% EVA
60/70+ 3% EVA (Aged)
1.00E+00 H i •n ' i i i i i i

1.00E-01 1.00E+00 1.00E+01 1.00E+02


Frequency, rad/sec
Figure 5.74. Relationship between Complex Modulus and Frequency at 60°C for
60/70 Bitumen modified with different modifiers before and after
ageing

[98
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

1.00E+05 -p

1.00E+04-:
et
ft,
#•
Vi
3
•33 1.00E+03-:
•a
o

s
4)
.2 1.00E+02-1;
D
E
©

1.00E+01

1.00E+00

1.00E-01 1.00E+00 1.00E+01 1.00E+02


Frequency, rad/sec
Figure 5.75. Relationship between Complex Modulus and Frequency at 60°C for
80/100 Bitumen modified with different modifiers before and after
Ageing

100 t
60/70 Bitumen 60/70 +3% CR
60/70 +5% CR 60/70 +7% <
60/70 +9% CR

65 -

• •••••! 1 ' ••••••


60
1.00E-01 1.00E+00 1.00E+01 1.00E+02

Frequency, rad/sec

Figure 5.76. Relationship between Phase Angle and Frequency at 60°C before
Ageing for CR modified 60/70 Bitumen

199
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

100

95

90

85
u 80
4)
i-
WJ 75
41
TJ 70
«T
65
M
c
60 -

Vi
55 -
et
-C 50 -
ft.
45 - 60/70 Bitumen 60/70+ 3% EVA
40 60/70 + 5% EVA 60/70+ 7% EVA
35 - 60/70+ 9% EVA

30 - _l S 1 1 I I I I I
-J—I I I I • _1—I—I I I I I

1.00E -01 1.00E+00 1.00E+01 1.00E+02

Frequency, rad/sec
Figure 5.77. Relationship between Phase Angle and Frequency at 60°C before
Ageing for EVA modified 60/70 Bitumen

100 -r

60/70 Bitumen 60/70+ 3% SBS


95 -
60/70+ 5% SBS 60/70+ 7% SBS
90 60/70+ 9% SBS

41 85
O
L.
0J
41
80
TS

4>

"3 75 -
c
< 70 -
u
Vi
et
-a 65 -
ft,
60

55 H

50 ii * • i i i i • i i i i i

1.00E
01 1.00E+00 1.00E+01 1.00E+02

Frequency, rad/sec
Figure 5.78. Relationship between Phase Angle and Frequency at 60°C before
Ageing for SBS modified 60/70 Bitumen

200
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

110
80/100 Bitumen ---80/100 + 3%CR
105 -
80/100+ 5%CR -K-80/100 +7%CR
I00 -
<
80/100 +9% CR
4> 95
4)
U
6D 90
41
-a
85
<u

"5b 80 -
c
«<
4>
75 -
Vi
et
70 -

65 -

60

55

_i • i iii i i 11 i
50

1.00E-01 1.00E+00 1.00E+01 1.00E+02

Frequency, rad/sec

Figure 5.79. Relationship between Phase Angle and Frequency at 60°C before
Ageing for CR modified 80/100 Bitumen

110 -r

105 - 80/100 Bitumen 80/100+ 3% EVA


80/100+ 5% EVA 80/100+ 7% EVA
100
80/100+ 9% EVA
95 4
4)
41
90
U
61 85
41

80

75
c
70
<
Vi
65
et
60

55

50

45

40
1.00E 01 1.00E+00 1.00E+01 1.00E+02

Frequency, rad/sec

Figure 5.80. Relationship between phase angle and Frequency at 60°C before
Ageing for EVA modified 80/100 Bitumen

201
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

110 ^

105 80/100 Bitumen 80/100+ 3% SBS


I00 -j 80/100 + 5% SBS 80/100+ 7% SBS

95 80/100+ 9% SBS
4>
41
la 90
OJD
41
-o 85
oT
"Si 80
c
< 75
4>
V.
et
70
-C
ft. 65

60

55

1.00E-01 1.00E+00 1.00E+01 1.00E+02

Frequency, rad/sec
Figure 5 81. Relationship between phase angle and Frequency at 60°C before
Ageing for SBS modified 80/100 Bitumen

1.00E+04 -r

E 1.00E+02 60/70 Bitumen 60/70 +3% CR


et
c
>. 60/70 +5% CR 60/70 +7% CR
Q
60/70 +9% CR

1.00E+01 - 1' ' '| 1 i—i—i • i i • | • i i i i 11

1.00E-01 1.00E+00 1.00E+01 1.00E+02

Frequency, rad/sec
Figure 5.82. Relationship between Dynamic Viscosity and Frequency at 60°C
before Ageing for modified 60/70 Bitumen

202
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

1.00E+05

4>
41
Vi 1.00E+04 ->i
I
et
ft.

1.00E+03 -:

• ' • • "
E
05
a
1.00E+02 -: 60/70 Bitumen 60/70 + 3% EVA
Q
60/70 + 5% EVA 60/70 + 7% EVA

60/70+ 9% EVA

1.00E+01 * • • * • •••»••
i i i i iiii

1.00E-01 1.00E+00 1.00E+01 1.00E+02

Frequency, rad/sec

Figure 5.83. Relationship between Dynamic Viscosity and Frequency at 60°C


before Ageing for EVA modified 60/70 Bitumen

1.00E+04

u
4>
VI
I
et
Cm
1.00E+03 -•

Vi
o
4<
Vi

♦—•—»—<>

2 1.00E+02 60/70 Bitumen 60/70+ 3% SBS

60/70+ 5% SBS 60/70+ 7% SBS

60/70+ 9% SBS

1.00E+01 I '-

r 1.00E-01 1.00E+00 1.00E+01 1.00E+02

Frequency, rad/sec

Figure 5.84. Relationship between Dynamic Viscosity and Frequency at 60°C


before Ageing for SBS modified 60/70 Bitumen

203
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

1.00E+04

41

T1.00E+03 -t
et
ft.

Vj

&1.00E+02 -
>
41

E 80/100 Bitumen 80/100 +3% CR


et

?1.00E+O1 -: 80/100 +5% CR 80/100 +7% CR


Q
80/100 +9% CR

1.00E+00 -H- _1 llil!


'

1.00E-01 1.00E+00 1.00E+01 1.00E+02


Frequency, rad/sec

Figure 5.85. Relationship between Dynamic Viscosity and Frequency at 60°C


before Ageing for CR modified 80/100 Bitumen

1.00E+05

g 1.00E+04
Vi
I
M
ft,

.1? 1.00E+03 -;
Vi
o
u
Vi

>
u 1.00E+02
1« -80/100 Bitumen •80/100+ 3% EVA
c

a 1.00E+01 •80/100+ 5% EVA •80/100+ 7% EVA

80/100+ 9% EVA

1.00E+00 * | '—• • i i 111 1


1.00E-01 1.00E+00 1.00E+01 1.00E+02

Frequency, rad/sec

Figure 5.86. Relationship between Dynamic Viscosity and Frequency at 60°C


before Ageing for EVA modified 80/100 Bitumen

204
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

1.00E+04

« u
w
X 1.00E+03
ft,

.g 1.00E+02
>
4(

"I
et
80/100 Bitumen 80/100+ 3% SBS

e
80/100+ 5% SBS 80/100+ 7% SBS
=M.00E+01
80/100+ 9% SBS

1.00E+00 I i
•+•

1.00E-01 1.00E+00 1.00E+01 1.00E+02

Frequency, rad/sec

Figure 5.87. Relationship between Dynamic Viscosity and Frequency at 60°C


before Ageing for SBS modified 80/100 Bitumen

5.11 DYNAMIC STRESS SWEEP TEST

Dynamic Stress Sweep applies a range of sinusoidal stresses, each at a constant

frequency. The peak amplitude of each stress is determined by the stress command.

Successive measurements are taken at each of the commanded stresses. The Dynamic

Stress Sweep was performed at a fixed frequency (10 rad/sec) and temperature (55°C)

in the present study. The stress is applied from 100 Pa to 1000 Pa for the test at

constant frequency and temperature. In the theory of linear viscoelasticity, the

homogeneity concept indicates that the ratio of stress response to any applied strain is

independent of strain magnitude. This characteristic can be adopted to the strain sweep

test by monitoring the dynamic modulus, G*, as the strain increases. The linear

viscoelasiticity is observed if the dynamic modulus, G* does not drop more than 10%

from its initial value (Kim, et al., 2003). Figures 5.88 to 5.93 show the relationship

205
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

between complex modulus and stress for different modified binders. There is a small
variation in complex modulus and phase angle as the stress increases. From the results
the linear relationship between dynamic modulus and stress is observed. The
relationship of stress and strain for different modified binders is shown in Figures 5.94
to 5.99. The modified binders show lower strain as compared to neat bitumens at the
same stresses. The interrelation of stress and strain is linear within the linear
viscoelastic region, and it is influenced by frequency, temperature and modifier
contents.

1.00E+05 -e
j 90
-^80
1.00E+04
70
et
ft, 4)
r -- 60 41
v>
3
1.00E+03 - u
6J
4>
~3 --50 •o
•a
c -60/70 bitumen 60/70+3%CR
s 1.00E+02 - - 60/70+5%CR
--40 bl
-a— 60/70+7%CR a
CD <
- 60/70+9%CR o••• 60/70 Bitumen -• 30
"S 41
Vi
E 60/70+3%CR et
o 1.00E+01 -
x -60/70+5%CR -C
--20
u 60/70+7%CR a 60/70+9%CR
ft,

-- 10

1.00E+00

100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Stress, Pa

Figure 5.88. Stress Sweep Tests results at 55°C and 10 rad/sec for CR modified
60/70 Bitumen

206
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

1.00E+05 - r 100

i
| o- ••- - - -o ©- o • • - -..©•--• -- © ©• © " *"
< 1.00E+04 i [ <»....
i. . . . . . Jj> .: . -..- ;
-a^ . . . . . . ajt.,.... ijj
a •.-.
- - • . .
• - - *•
. a. .
- •
. . —a
• • •*
o-
••
a
• '•"
•,
—1 r 80
et i M M M=TT * * —M M if i
ft, •70 41
la
Vi bl
3 4)
53
1.00E+03 - 1 -60 •o
r
-a
©
-80/100 bitumen -80/100+3%CR -50
C

1.00E+02 - e -80/100+5%CR *
- 80/100+7%CR -40 <
41

o,
\ Vi
-80/100+9%CR --©.. 80/100 Bitumen et
S - 30 JS
©
• 80/100+3%CR •-X-- • 80/100+5%CR ft,
1.00E+01 - 1 ...E). • 80/100+7%CR -20
-•-&-- • 80/100+9%CR
-10

1 OOF+OO - 1 I

1C)0 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

Stress, Pa

Figure 5.89. Stress Sweep Tests results at 55°C and 10 rad/sec for CR modified
80/100 Bitumen

1.00E+05 T 90
*=t
--80
1.00E+04^ 4>
4)
et 70 S-
ft. Dl
4>
Vi
3 x --60
•a3 1.00E+03
01
O
-- 50 c
•o-
<
4-40 41
Vi
1.00E+02-r es
"5 -+— 60/70 bitumen — 60/70+3%EVA X.
E 30 ft
-*— 60/70+5%EVA --—60/70+7%EVA
o
U -9— 60/70+9%EVA © 60/70 bitumen
1.00E+01 -r 20
•-- 60/70+ 3%EVA •x-60/70+5%EVA
a- • • 60/70+7%EVA -b -••60/70+9%EVA 10

1.00E+00 + + + +
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

Stress, Pa

Figure 5.90. Stress Sweep Tests results at 55°C and 10 rad/sec for EVA modified
60/70 Bitumen

207
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

1.00E+06 -t
x 100

L-9C

et
8C
ft. o
r 41
Vi 1.00E+04hi 7C i_
3 bl
u
a
•a + 6C
o

s -- 5C "3
c
V A A A- «V A -A A- - • <
Q
4C 4)

E
1.00E+02 -: -•—80/100 Bitumen 80/100+3%EVA
Vi
et
o --3C JZ
U -*— 80/100+5%EVA —•—80/100+7% EVA ft,

--—80/100+9%EVA •--©-•- 80/100 Bitumen -- 20


— -80/100+3%EVA •-•X"-807100+5%EVA -- 10
•s--80/100+7%EVA • a•• 80/100+9%EVA
1.00E+00 I 1r— 1 1— f —I— —I— —1 0
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

Stress, Pa

Figure 5.91. Stress Sweep Tests results at 55°C and 10 rad/sec for EVA modified
80/100 Bitumen

1.00E+05
90

I 80
1.00E+04
X- X- X-
•L70
et •X- -X-
a. -A- •A" A-
•A- • A- -A- •A- A-
•D- • • -a- •a- •Q- Q. -a- ir60 o
4>
-3 1.00E+03-: k,
s w
u
•a --50
o

§ 60/70 Bitumen 60/70+3%SBS


J 1.00E+02- 60/70+5%SBS 60/70+7%SBS
--40 bl
a
"S 60/70+9%SBS
<
E 60/70 Bitumen --30 4>
Vi
o
60/70+3%SBS 60/70+5%SBS et

° 1.00E+01 -= • -a-
60/70+7%SBS a-60/70+9%SBS "20
-- 10

1.00E+00 +

100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Stress, Pa

Figure 5.92. Stress Sweep Tests results at 55°C and 10 rad/sec for SBS modified
60/70 Bitumen

208
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

1.00E+05 -x j 100
© © •© ©• ©— - - • •© © © ;:90
-a • • • • • • •-
1.00E+04 - •X X X X X
SS I I I I I J Al I 1 I 1 1 S> 1 1 J • • • ^mimmmmmw • i A
X
A • • '
X
A'
X-
at
.'. 80
et
ft.
S: : : :: ;a>: ;; : ; ; -a) :;:::: g, =====ajjp ==;;: 5> ;;;;::fr LiT: • 'i
B O Q B O B -Q
A 70 4)
41
U
Vi
bl
3
aS 1.00E+03 4 60 41
•o
3
•3
O
50 ox
-•—80/100 Bitumen 80/100+3%SBS c

4> 1.00E+02 40 <


-x—80/100+5%SBS -•—80/100+7%SBS 41
o Vi
et
E -*—80/100+9%SBS ©••• 80/100 Bitumen 30 JS
o
ft
—--80/100+3%SBS x 80/100+5%SBS
U 1.00E+01 -: 20
••••• 80/100+7%SBS a- 80/100+9%SBS
10

1.00E+00 + + + +
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

Stress, Pa

Figure 5.93. Stress Sweep Tests results at 55°C and 10 rad/sec for SBS modified
80/100 Bitumen

20 n
60/70 Bitumen

60/70+3% CR

60/70+5% CR
15 -
60/70+7% CR

60/70+9% CR

10
et
u

5 -

100 300 500 700 900 1100

Stress, Pa

Figure 5.94. Relationship between stress and strain at 55°C and 10 rad/sec for
CR modified 60/70 Bitumen

209
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

45 i
-80/100 bitumen
40
- 80/100+3% CR
35 -
- 80/100+5% CR

30 - 80/100+7% CR

80/100+9% CR
s? 25 -

et 20
u

V)
15

10 -|

0
100
1100

Figure 5.95. Relationship between stress and strain at 55°C and 10 rad/sec for
CR modified 80/100 Bitumen

15 -i

60/70 Bitumen
60/70+3% EVA
60/70+5% EVA
60/70+7% EVA
60/70+9% EVA
0s
#-

C
• aaasl

et
u

100 300 500 700 900 1100

Stress, Pa

Figure 5.96. Relationship between Stress and Strain at 10 rad/sec and 55°C for
EVA modified 60/70 Bitumen

210
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

45

40 -
-•— 80/100 Bitumen
-•— 80/100+-3% EVA
35 - -*- 80/100+-5% EVA
-*- 80/100+-7% EVA
30 -
-*- 80/100+9% EVA
r

C 25 -
'8
v 20 -

15 -

10 -

5 -

100 300 500 700 900 1100

Stress, Pa

Figure 5.97. Relationship between Stress and Strain at 10 rad/sec and 55°C for
EVA modified 80/100 Bitumen

15 -I
60/70 Bitumen

60/70+3% SBS

60/70+5% SBS

60/70+7% SBS
10
60/70+9% SBS

et
s-
•**

5 -

100 300 500 700 900 1100

Stress, Pa

Figure 5.98. Relationship between Stress and Strain at 10 rad/sec and 55°C for
SBS modified 60/70 Bitumen

211
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

45 -i
80/100 bitumen
40 -
80/100+3% SBS

35 80/100+5% SBS
80/100+7% SBS
30
80/100+9% SBS
25
B
£ 20
Vi

T-

100 300 500 700 900 1100

Stress, Pa

Figure 5.99. Relationship between Stress and Strain at 10 rad/sec and 55°C for
SBS modified 80/100 Bitumen

5.12 DISCUSSION ON RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES


The EVA modified binder have higher value of GVsin 5as compared to CR and
SBS modified binders. The 60/70 and 80/100 bitumens modified with CR from 5% to
9% are found to be of CRMB 55 and CRMB 50 grades and satisfy the PG 70 and PG
64 requirements respectively. 60/70 and 80/100 bitumens modified with 3% and 5%
EVA are meeting the PG 76 requirements as per SHRP specifications. For 80/100
bitumen modified with 5% to 9% SBS is meeting the PG 70 requirements. However,
60/70 bitumen modified with 3% SBS is also satisfying the PG 70 requirements. An
increase in the high temperature performance grade is recommended for low traffic
speeds, heavy loads and very high traffic volumes (SHRP-A - 410). The rheological
properties such as complex modulus, storage modulus and dynamic viscosity are
decreased after 7% for SBS modified binders and therefore, 7% is observed as the

212
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

maximum concentration. It is observed 3% and 5% polymer content is an optimum for

60/70 and 80/100 bitumen modified with SBS.

From the point of view of economics, a lower percentage will be selected and

therefore, 3%, and 5 % is observed as an optimum modifier for EVA and CR modified

binder respectively.

5.13 CORRELATION BETWEEN EMPIRICAL AND RHEOLOGICAL

PROPERTIES OF BITUMINOUS BINDERS

The rheological properties of the binders as per SHRP are determined by using

Dynamic Shear Rheometer in terms of complex modulus, G* and phase angle, 8

(Khalid et al. 1998). In order to characterize Polymer Modified Asphalts (PMA), it has

been shown that traditional tests (Penetration, softening point, absolute viscosity) are

usually inadequate to illustrate the increase in performance brought by polymer

addition to the bitumen (Lenoble and Nahas, 1994). The performance can be

characterised by means of fundamental rheological characterisation of the binders. Test

methods and apparatus for this type of fundamental characterization have improved

enormously over the past two decades. Due to the relative newness of these tests and

high initial cost for the acquisition of the testing apparatus, the binder industry is

reluctant to use them (Ven and Jenkins, 2003). The conventional tests methods are still

used to investigate the properties of the binders in many countries including India.

Therefore, the relationship between empirical tests results and the rheological

properties obtained from Dynamic Shear Rheometer like complex modulus, phase

angle and dynamic viscosity is discussed in this chapter.

5.13.1 Correlation between Complex Modulus and Penetration

The correlation between complex modulus and penetration values for neat and

modified with CR are shown in figures.5.100 and 5.101. It can be seen that the complex

modulus decreases with increase in penetration values. The complex modulus increases

213
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

rapidly at 46°C as compared to other high temperatures. The variations are least at
70°C for both 60/70 and 80/100 bitumens modified with CR. Similarly, the correlation
between complex modulus and penetration values of EVA and SBS binders are shown
in Figures 5.102-5.103 and Figures 5.104-5.105 respectively. The regression equations
are obtained at three temperatures (46, 58 and 70°C) of complex modulus with
penetration. The correlation coefficient ofthe regression line is found to be 0.985 for
60/70 bitumen modified with CR while 80/100 bitumen modified with CR is 0.9347.
Likewise, for bitumen modified with EVA and SBS the correlation coefficient (R2) is
found to be 0.9892, 0.9873 and 0.8095, 0.7319 respectively. The curves for 60/70 and
80/100 bitumen modified with EVA indicate excellent goodness of fit as their R2 values
are 0.9892 and 0.9873 respectively. From the results it is observed that the complex
modulus increases with decrease in penetration values. Decrease in complex modulus
with increase in penetration values indicates the decrease in hardening of the binders.
From the regression equations, the approximate value of complex modulus can be
determined with known penetration value.

(A) y = 439201 x •2.4064 (B) y = 7E+07x" 4.0393


(C) y =1E+10x-66687
0.9615
R2=0.9293

Temperature

Penetration Value, dmm

Figure 5.100. Relationship between Complex Modulus and Penetration value for
60/70 Bitumen modified with different percentage ofCR
214
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

1.6013
(A) y = 9026x (B) y = 6435.9X
1.7994
(C) y = 3586.2X
1.9846

30 R2 = 0.9347 R2 = 0.8387 R2 = 0.7961

25
et

Temperature
v\ 20 as
a O ♦ 46°C
a

• 58°C
is
c

E
• 10 a 70°C
& 5
E
u 5

40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Penetration Value, dmm

Figure 5.101. Relationship between Complex Modulus and Penetration value for
80/100 Bitumen modified with different percentage of CR.

-3.508
250 (A) y = 4E+07x (B) y = 1E+08x
-4.2413
(C) y =9E+07x^
R2 = 0.9892 R2 = 0.9679 R2 = 0.955
et

S3 r
200
Vi
3
3

O
£
o
U

40 50

Penetration Value, dmm

Figure 5.102. Relationship between Complex Modulus and Penetration value for
60/70 Bitumen modified with different percentage of EVA

215
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

200

(A) y = 2E+06x -2.7218


(B) y =4E+06X"3 2066 (C) y =731043x"31S"
R' = 0.9873
R =0.9833 R =0.9624

Temperature

50 60 70 80 90 100

Penetration Value, dmm

Figure 5.103. Relationship between Complex Modulus and Penetration value for
80/100 Bitumen modified different percentage ofEVA.

80 -J (A) y=13358X1 S326 (B) y=45769x"22M9 (C) y=193894x29666


R2= 0.9139

40 50 60 70

Penetration Value, dmm

Figure 5.104. Relationship between Complex Modulus and Penetration value for
60/70 Bitumen modified with different percentage ofSBS.

216
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

50 -i
(A) y = 4943.2x
1.3263
(B) y=14427X1 9323 <C) y=25249x-23698
_» _ r>2
R2 =— 0.9154
n tucA
R2 = 0.7319 R2 = 0.8788

40 •
et Temperature
♦ 46°C

£30- so ss 58°C
en
s
•O S?
© Ov
a 70°C
S 20 -
X
<u
E
a

110 - 3
U

30 40 50 60 70 80 100

Penetration Value, dmm

Figure 5.105. Relationship between Complex Modulus and Penetration value for
80/100 Bitumen modified with different percentage of SBS.

5.13.2 Correlation between Phase Angle at different temperatures and


Penetration Value

The phase angle of binders increases with increase in penetration value. The

phase angle of binders modified with CR, EVA and SBS are lower as compared to neat

bitumen as shown in Figures 5.106-5.111.

The correlation coefficients (R2) of binders modified with CR vary from 0.9957

to 0.7698. The regression coefficient (R2) for 80/100 bitumen modified with CR

bitumen is less as compared to 60/70 bitumen modified with CR. For binders modified

with EVA, it gives a better fitness relationship. The 80/100 bitumen modified with SBS

(R2 = 0.9887) indicates better relationship than 60/70 bitumen modified with SBS (R2 =

0.9405) as shown in Figures 5.110 and 5.111. From the regression equations, phase

angle can be determined at any penetration value. The phase angle of binders modified

with EVA is lower than binders modified with CR and SBS. The penetration values of

217
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

the modified binders decrease as the percentage of modifier increases. Therefore, the
phase angles of modified binders decrease as the percentage of modifier increases.
Decrease in phase angle indicates lower viscous flow and higher elastic behaviour of
the binders.

100
(A) y=-0.0831X2 +10.627x -258.86 (B) y=-0.1066x2 +13.653x -350.85
R' = 0.9957 R' = 0.9749

«u 90
u
bl
u
Temperature
"°r 80
"bl ♦ 46°C
B
<
o
70 • 58°C
VI
et
-3 a 70°C
ft.
60 (C) y =-0.0812x2 +11.123x-285.83 I
R2 = 0.9151

50
—i
50 55 60
65

Penetration Value, dmm


Figure 5.106. Relation between Phase Angle and Penetration value for 60/70
bitumen modified with CR.

218
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

(A) y =-0.0121x2 +2.1384x-9.6132 (B) y =-0.0148x2 +2.5752x-21.202


110
R' = 0.7698 R2 = 0.8234

100
4)
<u
u
bl 90 -
0)
as

01 £ Temperature
til 80 - ON

C ♦ 46°C
< *
u
Vi
70 •
E Z m 58°C
et 3
(C) y = -0.0204xz + 3.5183x - 52.171 aj
Z

60 R2 = 0.8666 a 70°C

50 —i— i —i—

40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Penetration Value, dmm

Figure 5.107. Relation between Phase Angle and Penetration value for 80/100
bitumen modified with CR.

(A) y =-0.0496X2 +6.0366x - 102.86 (B)Y =-00716x +8.2174x - 147.57


R2 = 0.988 R' = 0.9868
100

OJ
90
u
u
bl
a 80
"3
at.

<~>

bl 70 Temperature
c
< • 46°C
9.
Vi 60
et
• 58°C

50 - (C) y =-O.0679X* + 7.8328X - 131.06 a 70°C


0.9804
40 -

30 i i

30 40 50 60 70

Penetration Value, dmm

Figure 5.108. Relation between Phase Angle and Penetration value for 60/70
modified modified with EVA.

219
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

(A) y=-0.0271 x2 +4.3592x -85.3 (B) y=-0.0302x2 +4.7776x -92.248


110 D^ — rt GOT/? _f> _ _
R =0.9976 R =0.9982
100 -

u
90
a

g 80
•a
a," 70 Temperature
"3t ♦ 46°C
3 60
• 58°C
2 50
a 70°C
ft- 40

30

20 —i— ~~i— —I— —T— —i— —i


30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Penetration Value, dmm

Figure 5.109. Relation between Phase Angle and Penetration value for 80/100
bitumen modified with EVA.

(A) y= 0.0131X2 -0.6191x +67.655 (B) y=0.0057X2 +0.2885x +45.385


100 T R2 = 0.9405 R2 = 0.9409

o 90
<u
u
bl
9
•v
«J 80
"bl Temperature
c
< ♦ 46°C
v 70 E
vi
et • 58°C
G

60 a 70°C
(C) y =-0.0092x2 +1.8025x+16.352
R2=0.9308
50
—r— —i—
30 40 50 60 70

Penetration Value, dmm

Figure 5.110. Relation between Phase Angle and Penetration value for 60/70
bitumen modified with SBS.

220
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

(A) y = -0.0024x2 + 0.8365x + 27.83 (B) y = -0.0069x2 + 1.5165x + 8.0239


110 n
R2 = 0.9887 R2 = 0.9636

100
4>

e
bi
90 -
•a
Temperature
01
c 80
♦ 46°C
<
Vi
et 70 si 58°C
JS
ft.
a 70°C
60

50 i

40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Penetration Value, dmm

Figure 5.111. Relation between Phase Angle and Penetration value for 80/100
bitumen modified with SBS.

5.13.3 Correlation between Complex Modulus at different temperatures and


Softening Point

Figures 5.112-5.117 show the relation between complex modulus and softening

point for binders modified with CR, EVA and SBS. It is observed that the complex

modulus increases with increase in softening point. The variation in complex modulus

is more at 46°C than at 70°C for all the binders, as shown in Figures.5.112-5.117. Also,

the variation is more at higher softening point than lower softening point for the same

percentage of modifiers. It may be due to increase in viscous bahaviour of the binder.

The correlation of binders modified with EVA is better in comparison to binders

modified with CR and SBS.

221
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

(A) y = 0.0006X 2.6686 (B) y = 8E-08x 4.6122 6.3109


(C)y = 2E-11x
R2 = 0.9551 R2 = 0.9201

et

vi Temperature
_3
3
♦ 46°C
©

• 58°C
<u

a a 70°C
E
©

—i

50 55 60 65 >

Softening Point, °C

Figure 5.112. Relationship between Complex Modulus and Softening Point for
60/70 bitumen modified with CR.

413
(/ i)y 3E-08X61 (B)y = 2E-11x66321
30 • (C)y = 1E-13x76768
K = 0.7965 R2 = 0.8259
R2= 0.8412

et 25 -

2 A

V
3 20 - E
♦ X
3 u
no • * Temperature
o « ON

g 15 - Z.
M

it • 46°C
x
u
c E • 58°C
10 -
E s
©
a 70°C
U B .
5 -
• 1 ' •
C

0 A
A A ^ *
—T 1

4! 50 55 60

Softening Point, °C

Figure 5.113. Relationship between Complex Modulus and Softening Point for
80/100 bitumen modified with CR.

222
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

250 -I (A) y = 1E-07x


4.876
6.0361 6.4453
(B)y = 2E-10x (C)y = 9E-12x
R2 = 0.9871 R2 = 0.9821

50 60 70 80 90

Softening Point, °C

Figure 5.114. Relationship between Complex Modulus and Softening Point for
60/70 bitumen modified with EVA.

200 -i 6.7144
(A)y =1E-07x48668 (B) y = 7E-10x
(C)y = 1E-10x
6.7386

R2 = 0.9196 R2 = 0.9136
R2 = 0.9285

Softening Point, °C

Figure 5.115. Relationship between Complex Modulus and Softening Point for
y
80/100 bitumen modified with EVA.

223
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

(A) y = 0.0806x14626 (B)y = 0.0011x


2.1461
(C) y = 2E-05X 2.8342
R2 = 0.7967 R =0.8678 R = 0.9081

3
•o
o

o Temperature
ft ♦ 46°C
E
©

100

Softening Point, °C
Figure 5. 116. Relationship between Complex Modulus and Softening Point for
60/70 bitumen modified with SBS.

40 -y (A) y = 0.0836X 1.3225 (B) y = 0.0012x 2.0008 (C) y = 4E-05X 2.5042


R2 =0.6168 R =0.7985 R2 = 0.8663

50 60 70 80 90 100

Softening Point, °C
T
Figure 5 117. Relationship between Complex Modulus and Softening Point for
80/100 Bitumen modified with SBS.

224
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

5.13.4 Correlation between Phase Angle at different temperatures and Softening


Point

The phase angle of modified 80/100 and 60/70 grades of bitumen decreases as
softening point increases. The variations in phase angle are more at lower softening
point than at higher softening point for all the binders as shown in Figures 5.118 -
5.123. However, in case of binders modified with EVA, the variations in phase angle
are almost consistent as shown in Figures 5.120 and 5.121. However, phase angle
significantly decreases as the softening point increases. The decrease in phase angle
indicates the increase in elastic behaviour of the binders. Whereas increase in phase
angle (say 90°) of binders indicates predominantly viscous behaviour. Further, the
* phase angle decreases as the softening point increases for both 60/70 and 80/100 grades
of bitumen modified with SBS are shown in Figures 5.122 and 5.123. As temperature
increases (70°C), the phase angles for the base bitumens approach 90° and, therefore,
predominantly viscous behaviour. At the same time, polymer begins to significantly
improve the elasticity of the modified binders. It is obvious that the phase angle of
modified bituminous binders depends on temperature, type and percentage of modifier.

(A) y =-0.0852X2 +7.5313x -79.309 (B) y =-0.0883x2 +7.9324x -90.222


100 R2 = 0.9934 R' = 0.9513

s
= -0.0465X2 + 2.9255X + 61.697
bi 90 -
T3
R2 = 0.8949

C Temperature
< 80
eu ♦ 46°C
Vi et
et U
• 58°C

70 •
a 70°C

7
60 —i

45 50 55 60 65

Softening Point, °C
Figure 5.118. Relationship between Phase Angle and Softening Point for 60/70
bitumen modified with CR.

225
Chapter 5:Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

110 (A) y=-0.3744X2 +35.856x -776.39 (B) y=-0.3633x2 +34.578x -735.71


R2 = 0.794 R = 0.8421
100

o>
w 80
c
< 5 Temperature
04
70
et • 46°C
ft. (C) y =-0.3859x2 +36.221 x - 755 • 58°C
60 -
R2=0.8638
a 70°C

50

45
50
55

Softening Point, °C

Figure 5.119. Relationship between Phase Angle and Softening Point for 80/100
bitumen modified with CR.

(A) y =-0.0099X2 -0.0786x +108.59


(B) y =-0.0288X2 +2.2461 x +45.302
100 R2 =0.991
R2 =0.9963
90
u
u

Si 80
•a
o
Temperature
W 70
B
♦ 46°C
<
£ 60 •
et • 58°C

£ 50 J a 70°C

(C) y= -0.0273X2 + 2.0792x


40 R2 =0.9911

30 —i—
—r—
40 50 60 70 80 90

Softening Point, °C

Figure 5.120. Relationship between Phase Angle and Softening Point for 60/70
bitumen modified with EVA.

226
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

110 t (A) y =-0.0004x2-1.4916x +154.86 (B) y =-0.0089X2-0.4624x +130.17


R2 = 0.9897 R2 = 0.9898
100
u
S
E 90
01
T3 Temperature
tf 80
OX ♦ 46°C

4! 70 • 58°C

a 60
J3
a 70°C
ft.
50

40 H

30

40 50 60 70 80

Softening Point, °C

Figure 5.121. Relationship between Phase Angle and Softening Point for 80/100
bitumen modified with EVA.

(A) y = 0.0118xz -2.1026x +155.31 (B) y = 0.0124x2 -2.3201 x + 170.33


100 ->
R2 = 0.9503 R' = 0.9677

0<
01 90
s-
bt
01
•a
80 Vi
Ol a
Vj
ox
a
< 70 Temperature
V
Vi
et
• 46°C
60 B
ft.
• 58°C
i5

50 -
(C) y = 0.0083xz -1.7889x + 161.54
a 70°C
R2 = 0.9694

40 i i i i —i

40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Softening Point, °C

Figure 5.122. Relationship between Phase Angle and Softening Point for 60/70
bitumen modified with SBS.

227
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

(A)y« =0.012x2-2.1707x +159.03


110 - (B) y = 0.0113x2-2.1731x+166.56
R2 = 0.9517 R2 = 0.9789
B
100 -
u • V
u

bl
o>
90 -J 2
9 ^s, C^^v Vi
T3 z ♦
!*
J
OJ
80 - ^J*-^^ ^v--»^ Temperature
c *
< c ♦ 46°C
o
70 •
E
V)
W • 58°C
.a
ft. 60 -
a 70°C
(C) y = 0.0099x2-2.121x +175.54
50 R2 = 0.9765

40

40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Softening Point, °C

Figure 5.123. Relationship between Phase Angle and Softening Point for 80/100
bitumen modified with SBS.

5.13.5 Correlation between Dynamic Viscosity and Penetration value


The correlation between dynamic viscosities at different temperatures and
penetration value for bitumen modified with different percentage of modifiers as
obtained from dynamic shear rheometer and conventional tests is discussed below.
Figures 5.124 and 5.125 indicate the relationship between dynamic viscosity at
different temperatures and penetration at 25°C for 60/70 and 80/100 bitumens modified
with CR. The variations in dynamic viscosity with penetration values are more at lower
temperature as compared to at higher temperature, and it decreases with increase in
penetration value. For binders modified with EVA, the dynamic viscosity significantly
decreases as the penetration value increases as shown in Figures 5.126 and 5.127.
Similarly, behaviours for 60/70 and 80/100 grades of bitumens modified with SBS are

228
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

shown in Figures 5.128 and 5.129. The binders modified with CR and EVA give better

correlation in comparison to binders modified with SBS. The correlation coefficient of

binders modified with CR and EVA are 0.9863 and 0.9897 respectively. However, for

binders modified with SBS, the goodness of fit is not very high as R2 value is 0.8134.
The dynamic viscosity of the binders is changed drastically at high temperatures. With

increasing temperatures, polymer particles may become more soluble and more

interactive, which reduces viscosity variation with temperature. Further, dynamic

viscosity is decreased as the penetration value increases.

-2.4265
(A) y = 47700X (B) y =7E+06x"40349 (C) y =1E+09x56636
R2 = 0.9863 R2 =0.9618 R2 =0.9303
3.5
0>
Vi
I
et 3 -

§2
2.5 -
Vi
O
u 2 -
Vi

> Temperature
a 1.5 • 46°C
E
et • 58°C
c
>-.
a a70°C
0.5 -

—i

50 55 60 65

Penetration value, dmm

Figure 5.124. Relationship between Dynamic Viscosity and Penetration value at


25°C for 60/70 bitumen modified with CR.

229
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

3 -i
(A) y = 894.89x14993 (B) y = 635.84x-1.796 (C) y = 341.3x" 1.9732
R = 0.9333 R = 0.8384 R2 = 0.792

Temperature

♦ 46°C

• 58°C

a70°C

70 80 90 100

Penetration value, dmm


Figure 5.125. Relationship between Dynamic Viscosity and Penetration value at
25°C for 80/100 bitumen modified with CR.

25
(A) y = 3E+06X-3-4537 (B) y = 1E+07x-4-2347
R2=0.9897 (C) y = 9E+06X"4 5088
R2=0.969
R2=0.9549

Temperature

♦ 46°C

• 58°C

a70°C

70

Penetration value, dmm


Figure 5
126' R^ti0nship between °ynamic Viscosity and Penetration value at
25 C for 60/70 bitumen modified with EVA.

230
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

2.7542 3.2154
(A)y • 258394X" (B)y = 384314x' (C) y = 72915x"
3.1589

R2 = 0.9911 R2 = 0.9794 R2 = 0.9622

Temperature
♦ 46°C

• 58°C

a70°C

i i i

50 60 70 80 100
Penetration value, dmm
Figure 5.127. Relationship between Dynamic Viscosity and Penetration value at
25°C for 80/100 bitumen modified with EVA.

8 -i
1.5383
(A) y = 1361.1x (B) y=4625.7x"
2.2376 2.7167
(C) y = 7448.3X
7 - R2 = 0.8134 R2 = 0.8729 R2 = 0.8268
o>
6
VI

Vi
5 H
Vi

Vi 4
o
o>
Temperature
M

3 ♦ 46°C
>

• 58°C
a 2
et
C a70°C
>
Q 1 H

Penetration value, dmm

Figure 5.128. Relationship between Dynamic Viscosity and Penetration value at


25°C for 60/70 bitumen modified with SBS.

231
Chapter 5:Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

1.3326
(A) y = 507.94X
(B) y = 1416.5x" 1.9279
R2 = 0.7348 (C) y = 2512.2X23687
R2= 0.881 R2 = 0.9156

o,
Vi
I
et
Vi
OS
Vi Temperature

Vi a ♦ 46°C
V
©
E
en 2 • 58°C
3

id a 70°C
E
n
c
>'.

30 40
60 70 80 90 100

Penetration value, dmm

Figure 5.129. *££*»**• Dynamic Viscosity and Pcnctra.ion valnc a,


43 c tor 80/100 bitumen modified with SBS.

5.13.6 Correlation between Dynamic Viscosity and Softening Point


The variation in dynamic viscosity with softening point for 60/70 and 80/100
bitumens modified with CR, EVA and SBS are shown in Figures 5.130 -5.135. It is
observed that the dynamic viscosity increases with increase in softening point and the
variation in dynamic viscosity at lower temperature is more than at higher temperature
for the same percentage of modifier. The correlation coefficient of binders modified
with CR as shown in Figures 5.130 and 5.131 are 0.9641 and 0.8213 respectively. The
R2 value for 60/70 bitumen modified with EVA is 0.98 and it gives better relationship
than 80/100 bitumen modified with the same modifier (R2 =0.9342) as shown in
Figures 5.132 and 5.133. Further, 80/100 bitumen modified with SBS indicate good
fitness (R2 =0.9417) in comparison to 60/70 bitumen modified with SBS (R2 =0.8005)
232
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

as shown in Figures 5.134 and 5.135. From softening point temperature, the dynamic
viscosity can be determined by using the regression equations.

Thus, the variation in dynamic viscosity with softening point of bitumens

modified with different percentage of modifier and at different temperatures may be


observed from the test results.

(A) y =0.0043X2 - 0.334x +8.1019 (B) y =0.0039X2 - 0.3749x +9.4008


4
R2=0.9641 R2=0.9708

3.5
(C) y =0.002X2 - 0.1986x+5.0325
Vi
3

2.5

Temperature
• 46°C

• 58°C

a70°C

Softening Point, °C

Figure 5.130. Relationship between Dynamic Viscosity and Softening Point for
60/70 bitumen modified with CR.

233
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

(A) y =0.0103x2 - 0.8694x +19.322 (B) y =0.0125x2-1.2159x +29.688


R2 = 0.8213 R2 = 0.875

3 2.5 (C) y =0.0048x2 - 0.4642x +11.385


Vi
I
C3 R2= 0.8932

Softening Point, °C

Figure 5.131. Relationship between Dynamic Viscosity and Softening Point for
80/100 bitumen modified with CR.

(A) y=0.02x2 -1.9452x +49.52 (B) y=0.0103x2 -1.1168x +30.554


25 R* = 0.98 R = 0.9495

(C) y=0.003x2 -0.3349X + 9.2754


S 20

♦ 46°C

• 58°C

a70°C

r T-
50 55 60 65 70 75 80

Softening Point, °C
Figure
5'132' ?ne«ntiunShip bCtWeen Dynamic Viscosity and Softening Point for
60/70 bitumen modified with EVA.

234
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

(A) y =0.0109x2 - 0.9378X +21.709 (B) y = O.OOSSx'' - 0.5502X +14.143


20 R2 = 0.9342 R2 =0.9213

(C) y =0.0016x2 - 0.1647x +4.3609


u
01
Vi
R2 = 0.8675
I 15
eg

Vi
O 10 -
u
Vi

> Temperature

♦ 46°C
E 5 -
• 58°C

a70°C

45 50

Softening Point, °C

Figure 5.133. Relationship between Dynamic Viscosity and Softening Point for
80/100 bitumen modified with EVA.

8 i
(A) y =-0.0023X2 +0.4058x - 12.484 (B) y = -0.0005x" +0.0947x - 3.1736
7 • R2=0.8005 R2=0.8451

V) ° i
i
et

© 4
u
Vi
c/5
(C) y =-9E-05X2 +0.0238x - 0.8761 05

R2 = 0.8693
E Temperature
et 2 ♦ 46°C
e
>-. av

a E • 58°C
1
a70°C

i i —r- i -1—

45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95

Softening Point, °C

Figure 5.134. Relationship between Dynamic Viscosity and Softening Point for
60/70 bitumen modified with SBS.

235
Chapter 5: Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

(A) y = -O.0027x2 + 0.4114x -12.302 (B) y = -O.0006X2 + 0.0935x -2.9308


3.5 i R2= 0.9417 R2= 0.9804
u

Vi 3 - a^-^T" ~~~^\*
et
s
V
2.5 - E
3 + / •

£ IS
Vi 2 - it
«

O
u
Z (C) y =-0.0002x2 +0.0269x - 0.8756 Vl
S3
Vi Vj

> 1.5 • R2 =0.9861 $


O) m.
Temperature
E 1 - ♦
* ♦ 46°C
B
et mt
R
C E • 58°C
Sa-
a 0.5 - '£
C a70°C
A
A
0 -
"> 1 1- 1 1— •
45
50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95
Softening Point, °C
Figure 5.
135' 80/100
^ani0uShiP betWee" Dynamic Viscosity and Softening Point for
bitumen modified with SBS.

5.13.7 Relationship between Softening Point and Rutting Characteristics


In European countries, the contribution of the bitumen to the susceptibility of
permanent deformation is usually assessed by the softening point test (Isacsson and Lu,
1999).

It is demonstrated that conventional tests are not adequate for polymer modified
binders. However, these tests are still used for assessing properties of modified binders
due to their easy method and low cost in India and other developed countries (Kumar,
2005). Therefore, acomparison has been made between rutting parameter (GVsin 5)
and softening point. The correlation between SHRP rutting parameter at two
temperatures and softening point of different modified binders are shown in Figures
5.136-5.141. The correlation coefficients of 60/70 and 80/100 bitumens modified with
236
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

CR are 0.89 and 0.77 as shown in Figure 5.136. The correlation between G*/sin 8 at

70°C and softening point for the above binders is shown in Figure 5.137 and its

correlation coefficient are 0.79 and 0.73. It indicates the value of R2 decreased as the

test temperature increase in the value of G*/sin 5. Similarly, the correlation coefficients

of binders modified with EVA are shown in Figures 5.138-5.139. However, in the case

ofbinders modified with SBS, the correlation coefficients value increased when rutting
parameter (G*/sin 5) at 70°C is compared to softening point as shown in Figure 5.141.

20

18
(60/70 Bitumen)
16
(80/100 Bitumen)

14 H y = 0.946x- 38.973

et R2 =0.895 y = 1.0007x-42.499
12
R2 = 0.772
to 10
C
Vt
8 -
♦ 80/100 bitumen
modified with CR
6 -

d 60/70 bitumen
4
modified with CR
2

0 i i —i— i

40 45 50 55 60 65

Softening Point, °C

Figure 5.136. Relationship between G*/sin5 (at 10 rad/s and 52°C) and Softening
Point for CR modified bitumens

237
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

3.5

3 •

(60/70 Bitumen)
2.5
et
y = 0.2039x -9.5568 (80/100 Bitumen)
R2 =0.7918
t© 2 y = 0.1528x-6.7143
B
• mm

VI R =0.7317
* 15

♦ 80/100 bitumen
modified with CR

a 60/70 bitumen
0.5 modified with CR

40 45 50 55 60 65

Softening Point, °C

Figure 5.137. Relationship between G*/sin8 (at 10 rad/s and 70°C) and Softenine
Point for CR modified bitumens

♦ 80/100 bitumen
modified with EVA

Q 60/70 bitumen
modified with EVA

(80/100 Bitumen)

y = 3.8556x-189.45
R2 =0.8248

60 70 80 90

Softening Point, °C

Figure 5.138. Relationship between G*/sin8 (at 10 rad/s and 52°C) and Softenine
Point for EVA modified bitumens

238
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

25 i

♦ 80/100 bitumen
modified with EVA

a 60/70 bitumen
modified with EVA

(80/100 Bitumen)

y = 0.4294x-21.342
R" = 0.7038

Softening Point, °C

Figure 5.139. Relationship between G*/sin8 (at 10 rad/s and 70°C) and Softening
Point for EVA modified bitumens

45

♦ 80/100 bitumen
40 -
modified with SBS

35 - (60/70 Bitumen)
60/70 bitumen
et modified with
30
y=0.5675x-17.44
ee 25 - R2=0.7917
a
'35
3T 20
o (80/100 Bitumen)

15
y = 0.2655x-5.4074
10 • R2=0.755

5-

0 ^ i 1 1 1—

40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Softening Point, °C

Figure 5.140. Relationship between G*/sin8 (at 10 rad/s and 52°C) and Softening
Point for SBS modified bitumens

239
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

8 -1

7 -
♦ 80/100 bitumen a

modified with SBS


6 -
* (60/70 Bitumen)
• 60/70 bitumen
modified with SBS yS y =0.117x-4.8919
Sa 0 R2 =0.8471
to 4 -
(g
vi
(80/100 Bitumen)
* 3 -
o yS ♦
y = 0.0583X - 2.0244
2 -
R2=0.9306
1 •

0
• 1

40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Softening Point, °C

Figure 5.141. Relationship between G*/sin8 (at 10 rad/s and 70°C) and Softening
Point for SBS modified bitumens

5.13.8 Relationship between Softening Point and Failure Temperatures


Softening point is a common empirical test used to assess performance of a
bitumen binder in India. As per SHRP specification, a minimum value of 1 kPa at
maximum pavement design temperature is felt essential to ensure performance of
binder at the specified temperature. It is believed that higher softening point is measure
of better performance at high temperature. The temperature at lkPa and 2.2 kPa value
ofGVsin 5is observed as afailure temperature of unaged and aged binder respectively
in this study. The failure temperatures of different modified binders are shown in
Tables 5.23 and 5.24. The relationship between failure temperature at 1kPa, 2.2 kPa
value of G*/sin 8and softening point of bitumens modified with CR, EVA and SBS are
shown in Figures 5.142 -5.147. Aregression analysis of data indicates following
relationship.

240
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

For 60/70 Bitumen modified with CR:

Y, (Softening Point, °C), - 0.8358 x, (Failure Temperature) - 7.0605


R2 =0.9647 (5.1)
For 60/70 Bitumen modified with EVA:

Y, (Softening Point, °C), = 1.0991 x, (Failure Temperature)- 24.373


R2 =0.9843 (5.2)
For 60/70 Bitumen modified with SBS:

Y, (Softening Point, °C), = 2.1436x, (Failure Temperature) -100.03


R2 =0.9258 (5.3)
The above regression equations indicate the use of bitumens modified with

EVA gives a better linear relationship in comparison to bitumens modified with CR and

SBS. The approximate value of complex modulus (G*) of a modified bitumen and its

failure temperature can be predicted by using the above equations, if one of parameter
is known or determined experimentally.

Table 5.23 Failure Temperature of Neat and Crumb Rubber Modified Bitumens
Failure temperature at
Binder
type G*/sin 8 = lkPa G*/sin 8 = 2.2 kPa
(Original Binders) (Aged Binders)
60/70 bitumen 68 64.5
3%CR 72.5 68.5
5%CR 75.5 70
7%CR 76 71
9%CR 80 73
80/100 bitumen 63.5 61.5
3%CR 67.5 63.5
5%CR 69 67
7%CR 71.5 67.5
9%CR 79 66.5

241
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

Table 5.24. Failure Temperatures of Neat and Different Polymer Modified


Bitumens

Failure temperature at
Binder
G*/sin 8 = lkPa G*/sin 8 = 2.2 kPa
type
(Unaged Binders) (Aged Binders)
60/70 bitumen 68 64.5

3%EVA 78 76

5%EVA 83.5 82

7%EVA 89 86.5

9%EVA 95 93

3%SBS 78 72

5%SBS 83 76

7%SBS 89 78

9%SBS 87 73

80/100 bitumen 63.5 61.5

3%EVA 75 71.5

5%EVA 79 78

7%EVA 85 83.5

9%EVA 91 88.5

3%SBS 72 67.5

5%SBS 77.5 70

7%SBS 81.5 72.5

9%SBS 76
73

242
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

70
• 80/100 Bitumen
modified with CR

a 60/70 Bitumen

u
modified with CR y = 0.8358x-7.0605
o 60
•**
R2 =0.9647
e
©
2- y = 0.4717x +17.731
bl
s R2 = 0.7611
50
mm*

©
GO

40 —r- —i— —i

60 70 80 90

Failure Temperature, °C

Figure 5.142. Relationship between Binder Failure Temperature and Softening


Point of CR modified bitumens

♦ 80/100 Bitumen modified


100 -
with EVA

a 60/70 Bitumen modified


yu - with EVA
u
0

+3 80 -
e
©
y ==1.1805x-29.065 ^5^ *
PL,
bl
70 -
R2 =0.9629 J^^^^
"8
B
^^^^ y=1.0991x-24.373
o 60 -
^s£^ R2 =0.9843
V

50 -
a^asa**
*^^*

40 -
60 70 80 90 100

Failure Temperature, °C

Figure 5.143. Relationship between Binder Failure Temperature and Softening


Point of EVA modified bitumens

243
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

100

90 -

u
o 80
•mm

c
♦ 80/100 Bitumen
o modified with SBS
70
bl
e a 60/70 Bitumen
a
60 modified with SBS
mm.

a
V,
50

40

30
—i

60 70 80 90 100

Failure Temperature, °C

Figure 5.144. Relationship between Binder Failure Temperature and Softening


Point of SBS modified bitumens

• 80/100 Bitumen modified


70
with CR (Aged)
a 60/70 Bitumen modified
with CR (Aged)
u
o
y= 1.1791X-23.478
~ 60
B
• «-*
R2 = 0.9385
o
mU
bl
a
'a
<u
y= 1.1609X-23.569
% 50 R2 = 0.9884
v

40

60 70 80

Failure Temperature, °C

Figure 5.145. Relationship between Binder Failure Temperature and Softening


Point of CR modified bitumens

244
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

90

80 -
y = 1.1974x-25.424
y = 1.0805x-17.674
R' = 0.9923
o 70 R2 = 0.987
mU
bl
B
•*-*

a 60 80/100 Bitumen modified with


<*m
O
EVA (Aged)
Vi
60/70 Bitumen modified with
50 -
EVA (Aged)

40 T— —n

60 70 80 90 100

Failure Temperature, °C

Figure 5.146 Relationship between Binder Failure Temperature and Softening


Point of EVA modified bitumens

♦ 80/100 Bitumen modified with


SBS (Aged)
100 a 60/70 Bitumen modified with
SBS (Aged)

Failure Temperature, °C

Figure 5.147 Relationship between Binder Failure Temperature and Softening


Point of SBS modified bitumens

245
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

5.14 DISCUSSION IN SELECTION OF BINDERS FOR INDIA

There is a great variation in climatic conditions in various parts of India.


Therefore, proper selection of various road materials such as soil, aggregate and
bitumen is required for different types of pavement. Thus, the role of climate is
significant in determining various types of materials to be used in road construction.
The temperatures of some states of India are extreme in summer. The highest
temperature occurs in Arid and semi arid regions (Delhi, Rajasthan, Gujarat) of India.
The air temperature reaches even 49.4°C in some part of Rajasthan state during peak
summer. Climates is extreme hot and dry in summer in Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal,
Bihar. The southern part of India such as Tamil Nadu is fairly wet all the year round but
climate is hot throughout the year (IRC: SP:20-2002). In India, the pavement
temperature in most parts varies from 20°C to 60°C during summer. The winter period
in India is not long and extreme cold conditions are limited to hilly regions. Hence, low
temperature thermal cracking is not critical in India. However, the maximum pavement
temperatures and their duration are significant factors for pavement design and
performance in India (Nagakumar and Veeraragavan, 1995). Therefore, the rutting
behaviour of the binder is important factor for road construction in India.
For this purpose, the rheological property of bituminous binders with different
modifiers is investigated in this study. Addition of 3% SBS and EVA to 60/70 and
80/100 bitumens is obtained as PMB 40 and PMB 70 grades respectively, as per IRC :
53- 2002 and IS 15462- 2004. CRMB 50 and CRMB 55 grades are obtained from 3to 9
%CR added to 60/70 and 80/100 bitumens. The softening point of SBS modified
binder shows higher value than EVA modified binder. From the view of rheological
properties, G*/sin 8 of EVA modified binders show higher value than SBS and CR

246
Chapter 5 : Test Results and Discussion on Bituminous Binders

modified binders. The 60/70 and 80/100 bitumen modified with 3% EVA are meeting

PG 76 and PG 70 as per SHRP specifications. However, it was observed as PG 70 and

PG 64 for SBS modified with above bitumens and percentage. In case of CR modified

binders, the PG of 60/70 and 80/100 modified with 3% CR is equivalent to PG of neat

bitumens. It shows that there is less variation in rheological properties by addition low

percentage of CR. From empirical and rheological properties, both EVA and SBS

modified binders can be used in high temperature areas as such as Rajasthan, Gujarat,

Uttar Pradesh and Delhi. However, EVA modified binders will be more suitable at high

temperature and heavy traffic areas like Delhi, Mumbai as it has high rutting resistance

to deformation. The CR and SBS modified binders can be used for cold and moderate

climatic areas like north eastern part of India. But, for very cold and low temperature

areas such as Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir, SBS modified binders can be

used as it shows high ductility value. The complex modulus of SBS modified binder is

also found to be lower than EVA Modified binder.

247
CHAPTER-6

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.0 CONCLUSIONS

The following conclusions are drawn based on the results obtained in the

present study:

1. The physical properties of bitumen such as penetration, softening point and


elastic recovery are improved with addition of the polymers and crumb rubber.

SBS modified binder gives higher softening point and better elastic recovery

than EVA and CR modified binders. However, EVA modified binder gives

lower penetration value. The ductility values of CR and EVA modified binders
are drastically reduced as compared to SBS modified binder. Elastic recovery

increases with increase in percentage of modifier for CR and SBS modified

binders. Maximum elastic recovery was observed at 7% polymer for EVA

modified binder. Higher value of elastic recovery indicates more flexibility to

the binder and will increase the life of pavement at low temperature.

2. The penetration index (P.I) is also increased with increase in percentage of


modifier. The SBS modified binders give the highest value of P.I. with the same

percentage of modifier as compared to CR and EVA modified binders. The P.I.

value of different percentage of CR modified 60/70 and 80/100 bitumens are

less than +2. For 60/70 bitumen modified with 5 percent SBS and 7 percent

EVA, the values of P.I. are 2.82 and 2.7 respectively, while the P.I. values are

found to be 3.6 and 2.78 for the above percentage in case of 80/100 bitumen.
248
Chapter 6 : Conclusions and Recommendations

At this level, the binder will be less brittle. As per the P.I. criterion in study, 3

percent for SBS, 5 percent for EVA and from 3 to 9 percent for CR can be used

in paving bitumen as their P.I. values lie between + 2 to - 2.

3. The Indian specifications (IRC: 53-2002 and IS 15462: 2004) specify different
grades of modified binders based on empirical tests. Empirical tests provide the
information only at specific temperatures and loading frequencies and are,
therefore, unable to give a complete picture of the rheological performance of
the bituminous binders. Therefore, itis suggested that rheological property such
as G*/sin 8 should be used in India also for development of the performance
grades as per SHRP specifications.

4. Complex modulus (G*), shear modulus (G*/sin 8) and Loss modulus (G*sin 8)
are found to be in important roles to characterize the rheological properties and
predict performance ofmodified bitumens at high temperature.
5. The complex modulus increases with increase in percentage of modifier and
decreases with increase in temperature. However, phase angle decreases with
increase in percentage of modifier and increases with increase in temperature.
The complex modulus are found to be 62.9 kPa, 38.1 kPa and 25.6 kPa at 46°C
for 60/70 bitumen modified with 3% EVA, SBS and CR respectively. At the
same temperature, it is found to be 20.9 kPa for 60/70 bitumen. Phase angle of
modified binders also decrease as compared to neat bitumen. The phase angle is
observed as 80.8° for 60/70 bitumen at 46°C. However, the phase angles of
bitumen modified with 3% EVA, SBS and CR are 65.4, 68.7 and 76.7°
respectively. The increase in complex modulus and decrease in phase angle of
the modified binder indicate higher resistance to deformation as compared to
neat bitumen.

249
Chapter 6 : Conclusions and Recommendations

6. Neat bitumens lost their elasticity at 70°C as their phase angle is more than 90°.

However, all the modified binders still display considerable elasticity at this

temperature. The value of complex modulus at 46°C increased 1.2 and 1.7 times

by adding 3% CR to 60/70 and 80/100 bitumens respectively. By addition of

3% SBS with 60/70 and 80/100 bitumens the value of complex modulus are

increased 1.8 and 2.4 times respectively at 46°C while with the same percentage

of EVA it increases 3 and 4.8 times. Therefore, the variation in complex

modulus of 80/100 bitumen is more pronounced than 60/70 bitumen with the

same percentage modifier.

7. The value of shear modulus at 10 rad/sec and 60°C for 60/70 bitumen modified

with 3% EVA, SBS and CR are found to be 10.02, 9.35 and 4.85 kPa

respectively. With above temperature and same percentage of EVA, SBS and

CR modifier at lower frequency, 1 rad/sec, the shear modulus are found as 1.24,

1.18 and 0.58 kPa. Therefore, EVA modified binders have higher rutting

resistance to deformation under loading as compared to CR and SBS modified

binders at high temperature.

8. The temperature susceptibility of the modified binder is lower than neat

bitumen and increase in percentage of modifier decreases temperature

susceptibility. Temperature susceptibility is not a single-valued parameter; it

depends on the temperature range being considered and the loading time. The

SBS modified binders show lower viscosity temperature susceptibility (VTS)

than CR and EVA modified binders but EVA modified binders have lower VTS

than SBS modified binders at sufficiently high polymer content (9%).

250
Chapter 6 : Conclusions and Recommendations

9. The improvement of the rheological properties such as stiffness (complex


modulus) and binder elasticity (storage modulus) increases with increase in

temperature and percentage of modifier contents. The EVA modified binder

exhibit a higher stiffness and elasticity than CR and SBS modified binders at

high temperatures. A significant improvement in the rheological properties


when the SBS content is increased from 3% to 7% by weight. Further, it
decreases rheological properties with increase in polymer content. The
improved rheological properties ofthe binders are not directly proportional to
the modifier content.

10. The rheological properties of bituminous binders are changed after ageing.
There is a considerably variation in complex modulus before and after ageing
for EVA modified binders. It is observed that the complex modulus decreases
after ageing at higher polymer content (7% to 9%) for SBS modified 60/70
bitumen. However, it increases up to temperature 58°C and then decreases with
above percentage for SBS modified 80/100 bitumen after ageing. The changes
in rheological property associated with ageing for the polymer modified binders
can be linked to a chemical change and the breakdown of the molecular
structure of the copolymer.

11. Dynamic frequency sweep test indicates that complex modulus increases with
increase in the frequency and percentage of modifier. The variation in complex
modulus is more pronounced at lower frequency as compared to at higher
frequency for the same percentage of modified binder. The phase angle of the
modified binders is lower than that of neat bitumen and it decreases as the
modifier increases but there is an increase in phase angle at the higher

251
Chapter 6 : Conclusions and Recommendations

frequencies for all the binders. The EVA modified binders show lower phase

angle for entire frequencies considered in the present study as compared to CR

and SBS modified binders. The variation in dynamic viscosity of the neat

bitumens is very less between lower and higher frequency but a significant

decrease in dynamic viscosity is observed for modified binders.

12. Dynamic stress sweep test shows the linear relationship between complex

modulus and phase angle with increase in stress. The modified binders show

lower strain as compared to neat bitumens at the same stresses. It has indicated

a substantial improvement in the resistance to permanent deformation of

modified binders. The correlation of stress and strain is linear within the linear

viscoelastic region, and it is influenced by frequency, temperature and modifier

contents.

13. Complex modulus, phase angle and dynamic viscosity show good curve

relationship with empirical binder properties viz. penetration, softening point.

However, a good linear relationship is observed between shear modulus and

softening point. Softening point and failure temperature have also shown a good

linear relationship. In India, these curves can be used to predict rheological

propertiesusing empiricalproperties.

14. CRMB is the cheapest binder available in India. However, its rheological

behaviour is not very consistent. But, its elastic recovery is more as comparedto

EVA. So, it can be used in Low Cost Roads with more percentages as compared

to SBS and EVA.

15. In the present study, the value of G*(complex modulus), G*/sin 8 (shear

modulus) and G*sin 8 (loss modulus) for EVA binders are found to be higher

252
Chapter 6 : Conclusions and Recommendations

than SBS and CR modified binders. So EVA modified binders can be used in

very high temperature and heavy traffic areas (Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and

Kolkata) but it can not be used at lower temperature as its ductility value is less. >

SBS modified binders can be used in lower as well as higher temperature (all
places of India). CR modified binders will be suitable for moderately high
temperature zone and low cost roads (Rural roads under Pradhan Mantri Gram

Sadak Yojana in India).

16. The properties ofbitumen can be enhanced by adding small amount ofpolymers
and crumb rubber. Therefore, modified bituminous materials can bring real
benefits to highway construction, maintenance, in terms of better and longer
lasting roads, and savings in total road life costings.

6.1 RECOMMENDATIONS

1. All the conclusions mentioned above may be further strengthened by using


these materials in actual construction.

2. Since, in India, specifications for the use of modifiers are not adequately
available, Government of India/ Indian Roads Congress may issue some
guidelines for characterization ofmodified bitumen in the light ofabove results.

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265
APPENDIX-A

CONSTRUCTION COST OF BITUMINOUS CONCRETE

A-l. Cost of Construction for 1 km of BC surfacing with 40 mm thick and 7 m


Pavement width with 80/100 Bitumen

The following materials are used as per MORTH, 2001


Bitumen content = 5% by weight of mix
Bulk density of bituminous concrete mix = 2376 kg/m
Unit weight ofcoarse aggregate = 1545 kg/m3
Unit weight ofFine aggregate = 1650 kg/m3
Coarse aggregate = 62 %, fine aggregate = 35% and lime = 3%
The details ofcost are worked out assuming the plant out put per day = 147 MT (61.9 m3)
Note: The cost of carriage is included in the rate of each item

Rate Costs
No Items Unit Quantity
(Rs) (Rs)
A. Material costs
Quantity of bitumen @ 5% by wt. of
1 MT 7.35 13200 97020
mix=147x0.05
Quantity of crushed aggregate 147- 7.35 = 139.65
Quantity of Coarse Aggregate
2 m 56.04 530.7 29740.84
= 139.65x0.62x1000/1545
Quantity of Fine aggregate
3 m 29.62 655.6 19420.66
= 139.65x0.35x1000/1650
4 Quantity of Lime = 140x0.03 MT 4.2 1038.26 4360.69
Total cost of materials (Rs) 150542.19
B. Hire Charges of Machinery
Hire of plant on 7 hours working in a day and
1 Per day 1.00 6000 6000
35 MT Per hour and 60 % efficiency
2 Hire charges of tipper Per day 3.54 800 2832
3 Hire charges of loader Per day 1.00 500 500
4 Hire charges of road roaler Per day 3.57 600 2142
Total cost of machinery (Rs) 11474
C. Charges of fuel
Quantity of diesel recquired Litre 998.17 17.06 17029
Carriage of diesel Litre 518.8 1.66 861.21
Mobil oil Litre 1.47 80 117.6
Total cost of fuel (Rs) 18007.81
D.Charges of labour
1 Labour charges Each 16.46 107.47 1769
Total costs of material, machinery, fuel and labour (Rs) 181793
Add water charges @ 1% of the total costs 1817.93
Add for contractors,s profit and overhead @ 10% of the toatal costs 18179.3
Total costs of 61.9 mJ of BC (Rs) 201790.23
Total costs(Rs) per m3 3259.93
Appendix - A

A-2. Providing a 40 mm thick Bituminous Concrete layer with SBS, EVA and CR
Modified Bitumen

Cost of 80/100 bitumen @ 5.0 % by weight of mix = (147 x 0.05) x 13200 - Rs 97020

Cost of polymer (SBS) @ Rs 150 perkg = (7.35 x 0.03) x 1000 x 150 = Rs 33075

Cost of polymer (EVA) @ Rs 80 perkg = (7.35 x 0.05) x 1000 x 80 = Rs 29400

Cost of Crumb Rubber (CR) @Rs 25 per kg = (7.35 x 0.09) x 1000 x 25 = Rsl 6537.5

No. 3 % SBS 5 % EVA 9 % CRMB


Items
modified mix modified mix mix
BulkDensity (kgW) 2370 2365 2345

1. Cost of coarse aggregate, (Rs) 29740.84 29740.84 29740.84

2. Cost of Fine aggregate, (Rs) 19420.66 19420.66 19420.66

3. Cost of lime, (Rs) 4360.69 4360.69 4360.69

4. Cost of modifier (Rs) 33075 29400 16537.5

5. Total cost for 61.9 m3, (Rs) 183617.19 179942.19 167079.69

Total cost form3,(Rs) 2966.35 2906.98 2699.19


6
Add blending charges 29.66 29.06 26.99
7. @ 1 %, (Rs)

8. Add processing charges 741.58 726.74 674.79


@ 25 %, (Rs)
9

Add water charges 29.66 29.06 26.99


@ 1 %, (Rs)
10.
Add contractor prfit and 296.63 290.69 269.91
overheads (a), 10 % (Rsl
11. Total cost of modified mix 4063.88 3982.55 3697.86
Rs per m3

Increase in cost from nominal 24.66 % 22.16 % 14.18 %


mix
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS

1. Mehndiratta, H. C, Kumar, P. and Singh, K. L., "Laboratory Study on


Rheological and Conventional Properties of Modified Bitumen". National
Conference on Advances in Road Transportation (ART-2005), NIT,
Rourkela. pp 526-536,2005.

2. Mehndiratta, H. C, Kumar, P. and Singh, K. L., "Influence on


Rheological properties of Modified bitumens at high temperatures". 2005
-4 International Symposium on Pavement Recycling, March 14-16, Sao
Paulo, Brazil, 2005

3. Singh, K. L., Mehndiratta, H. C. and Kumar, P., "Investigation on


Rheological Behaviour of Polymer Modified Bitumens" Accepted for
publication in 4th Asia pacific conference on Transportation and
Environment (4th APTE 2005). China Nov.8-10, 2005

4. Mehndiratta, H.C., Kumar, P., Borapureddy, A.D.P. and Singh, K. L.,


"Relationship between Rheological and Empirical Properties of
Bitumen". Highway research Bulletin, IRC. Number 73, 2005. pp 187-
208. New Delhi.

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