CHAPTER - II

LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction:
Most of the food crops are lost because of fungal and micro bacterial attacks. Drying is one of the
classical and oldest agricultural methods of food preservation. Drying process is a basic operation of
reducing the moisture content of the product. Proper drying of foodstuff by removing enough moisture
can prevent decay, spoilage and makes it safer for long storage.
Drying under hostile conditions may lead to severe losses in the quantity and quality of the
product. On the other hand, mechanical drying is an energy intensive process. Solar drying system
seems to be most promising alternative and energy efficient option for drying products up to 60ºC. Post-
harvest losses can greatly be reduced if food crops are dried with the help of solar dryers [5].
Reduction of moisture content to the desired level is the essential function of solar dryers.
Moisture content of properly dried food varies from 5% to 25% depending on the food.
In open sun drying (Fig.2.1) product receives short wavelength solar energy during a major part of
the day and also natural air circulation. A part of the energy is reflected back and the remaining is
absorbed by the surface depending upon the colour of the crops. However there are losses like long
wavelength radiation loss from the surface of crop to ambient air through moist air and also convective
heat loss due to the blowing wind through moist air over the crop surface.
Here the product is exposed directly to the sun allowing the solar radiation to be absorbed by the
material. The required quality standards are not fulfilled in open sun drying [6].The use of solar dryers in
the drying of agricultural products can significantly reduce or eliminate product wastage, food poisoning
and at the same time enhance productivity of the farmers towards better revenue derived.
 Fig. 2.1.Open Sun Drying

Basically, there are three types of solar dryers; direct solar dryers, indirect solar dryers and
hybrid solar dryers [7].
Solar drying is broadly applied in various agricultural products such as fruits, vegetables, grains,
seeds, beans, herbs, spices, rubber, tobacco, timbers and wood. Energy required for the drying process
depends on the initial and final moisture content of the products.
The various crops along with their moisture content and maximum allowable temperatures are
listed in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1.Moisture Content and Maximum Allowable Temperature of some crops [8-9]

S.No Crop Initial Final Maximum Drying Time

Moisture Moisture Allowable (hr)
 Content Content Temperature
(% wb) (% wb) (°C)
1 Onion 85 6 55 48
2 Tomatoes 95 7 60 36
3 Chilies 80 5 60 48
4 Cauliflower 80 6 65 6-14
5 Carrots 70 5 75 9-11
6 Green beans 70 5 75 6-8
7 Cabbage 80 4 55 2-3
8 Potatoes 75 13 75 <4hrs
9 Coca beans 50 7 45-50 4-9 days
10 Brinjal 95 6 60 170
11 Yams 80 10 65 6-8
12 Apples 82 11-14 65-70 24-26
13 Bananas 80 15 70 15
14 Copra 30 5 63 48
15 Pineapple 80 10 65 18-20
16 Mango 85 13 31.7-40.1 20
17 Tobacco 90 10 70 96
18 Coffee 65 11 50 288
19 Tea 80 3 60 96
20 Paddy, raw 22-24 11 50 48
21 Maize 35 15 60 72
22 Ginger 80 10 60 168
23 Pepper 71 13 40 48
24 Turmeric 80 10 40 120

The efficiency of a solar dryer depending on its type, materials used for construction as well as
the rate of heat loss during operation [10] is listed in Table 2.2.

Table 2.2.Commonly used materials for solar dryers

 Part Option

Support Concrete, Loam,Metal,Mortar,Barrels,Slate,Stone.

Frame Wood, Angle Plates(Mild Steel, Aluminum)

Cover Plate Wood (Plywood), Metal Sheet(Aluminum, corrugated Iron,

Steel, Galvanized Iron, Mild Steel)

Insulation Coconut Fibers, Cork, Corrugated Cardboard, Palm Fibers,

Mineral Wood(Rockwool, Glass wool)Rice Husk, Sawdust,
Wood Shavings, Plexiforms, Fiber Glass Wood, Mineral
Wood, Polyurethane, Styrofoam.

Glazing Glass, FEP (Suntek), Plastic Sheets, Polyester.

Tray Fishing Nets, Mesh Wire(Stainless Steel, Mild Steel,

Galvanized Iron Sheet, Aluminum),Wire Netting

Absorber Aluminum Sheet, Copper Sheet, Corrugated GI sheets,

Galvanized Iron Sheet, Bloch polyester Fabric.

Thermal Storage Gravel, Phase Change Material (PCM), Rock Sand, Silica
gel.

Power Source Diesel/Petroleum Generator, PV Cell, Utility Power

2.2 Classification of solar dryers

 A variety of active solar-energy dryers exists which could be classified into either direct, indirect
or hybrid dryer. [128]

C las s ificatio n o f s o lar d r yer

D ire ct so lar dr yer Ind irec t so lar dr ye r H ybr id so lar d r yer

P ass ive Active P ass ive Active P ass ive W ith Active W ith

Absorp tio n
drye r
T her m a l Geo- Heat C he m ica l Des ic ca nt
stora ge ther ma l pump hea t inte gra ted s ys te m
pump
S ola r Gree n
cab inet ho use
drye r drye r

A uxiliar y P hoto- bio m ass LP G ga s D iese l

unit vo lta ic bur ne r bur ne r engine

Fig. 2.2.Classification of solar dryers

Direct solar dryers have a black absorbing surface which collects the light and converts it to
heat; the substance to be dried is placed directly on this surface as shown in Fig. 2.3. The moisture is
taken away from the product by the air entering the cabinet from the bottom and leaving at the top of
cabinet. From the total radiation impinging on the glass cover, a part is reflected back to the atmosphere
and the remaining is transmitted inside the cabinet. A part of the transmitted radiation is then reflected
back from the crop surface and the rest is absorbed by the surface of the crop which causes its
temperature to increase.
 Fig. 2.3. Direct Solar Drying
The emitted long wave radiation is not allowed to escape to the atmosphere due to glass cover.
The overall phenomena increase the temperature of the crop inside the dryer. The glass cover in the
cabinet dryer thus reduces the loss of convective heat lost from the cabinet.
In indirect solar dryers, the black surface heats the incoming air, rather than directly heating the
substance to be dried. This heated air is then passed over the substance and exits through a chimney,
taking moisture from the substance with it (Fig. 2.4.). The crops are placed in the trays or shelves
inside an opaque drying cabinet and a separate unit called solar collector receives the solar energy and
supplies heated air to heat the cabinet. The additional resistance generated for the air movement due to
this arrangement of the tray is achieved by the chimney effect, which creates a density difference of air
between the cabinet and the atmosphere.
 Fig. 2.4. Indirect Solar Drying

The hybrid solar dryer has a solar collector, drying chamber and biomass back up heater/energy
source. The backup energy source may be solar PV, biomass, LPG, diesel or electrical.
Direct and indirect dryers can work on the principle of active and passive mode. Active dryers
employ an external means, such as fans or blowers, for moving the heated air from the solar collector to
the drying chamber, while passive dryers use only the natural movement of heated air. In a passive solar
dryer air is heated and circulated by buoyancy force or as a result of wind pressure or combination of
both. They are primitive, inexpensive in construction with locally available materials, easy to install and
to operate especially at sites far away from electrical grids. The advantages and disadvantages of various
drying methods [6] is listed in the Table 2.3.

Table 2.3.Advantages and disadvantages of various drying methods

Methods Advantages Disadvantages

 Open sun Drying more capacity at It is depends on the weather condition
drying a time. Poor in quality as a result of grit and dirt
Simplest and cheapest Loss of nutritional value
method UV radiation can damage food
No need of skilled
person

Solar Low capital and running Low capacity

dryer cost Drying possible only on sunny days
Higher product quality Dependent on the ambient climatic
Short drying periods conditions
Offer protection from
rain, dews, debris etc
Can be operated at high
temperature

Hybrid Allow better control of Expensive and fuel/gas dependence

dryer drying Need skilled person
Ability to operate
without sun reduction of
product loss
May be faster than solar
dryers

2.3 Direct solar dryer

It is a type of dryer in which solar radiation is directly absorbed by the product to be dried. It is
also called as natural convection dryer since the solar radiation directly falls on the product. This dryer
comprises of a drying chamber that is covered by a transparent cover made of glass or plastic. The
drying chamber is usually a shallow, insulated box with air-holes in to allow air to enter and exit. Most of
the time, the material must remain for long time outdoors. The products, grapes are spread over in
scaffoldings open to all sides except the roof. They are dried by free air circulation and indirect solar
heating [11].
After the grapes have been semi dried they are transported manually to a nearby concrete
threshing floor and are sprinkled with 7% potassium solution containing 0.4% olive oil to soften the skin
cells and the final drying is performed on the threshing floor by direct contact with the sun’s radiation
(Fig. 2.5.). In these types of solar dryers the direct exposure of the crop to the sunlight enhances the
color ripening desired in certain varieties of grapes, dates, coffee and development of full flavor in
roasted beans.
 Fig. 2.5. Direct Solar Drying of Grapes

2.3.1 Solar cabinet dryer

Alonge and Adeboye [12] designed a direct passive solar cabinet dryer with the locally available
materials. It consists of a wooden cabinet with a 4 mm thick glass cover. The dimension of the dryer was
60x60x90 cm. The bottom surface of the dryer was insulated with sawdust. A drawer and handle was
also provided for easy operation of the dryer. The performance of the dryer was tested for perishable
farm products such as pepper, okra and vegetables. The drying rate, moisture content, drying time and
dryer temperature were evaluated for the farm produces. The portable solar cabinet dryers is shown in
Fig. 2.6.

Fig. 2.6. Portable solar cabinet dryer

Sharma et al.[13] designed a direct cabinet solar dryer with the maximum temperature observed by him
in no load condition is 80°C-85°C during noon hours and with load (wheat) the observed temperature is
45°C to 50°C. Minka [14] designed cabinet dryer (Fig. 2.7.) with temperature reaching 20°-30° C above
ambient temperature. It could be used for drying variety of foodstuff.
 Fig. 2.7.Direct Solar Cabinet Dryer

Murasalim et al [15] designed a modified cabinet dryer (Fig. 2.8.). It comprises of blackened
plywood walls with dimensions (120cm x 80cm x 40cm) covered with a single transparent plastic cover.
Air circulation is provided by 12 holes in 1inch pipe at the bottom. Saw dust was used as an insulating
material. The 15 kg of CNS to be dried at a maximum temperature of 78.7oC with M1 based quality was
obtained.
 7

1
2
40cm
5

4
10cm 6

80cm
8

120cm

10

13

19

Fig. 2.8. Natural Convection System Cabinet Dryer

(1.Transparent cover/plastic 2. Bamboo for outgoing air 3. Holes of 1 in. pipe for inlet air
4.charcoal 5.single tray 6. Door 7. Walls 8. Legs 9. Insulation
10. Thermometer)

Halleck et al.[16] developed a modified cabinet dryer(Fig. 2.9.). It has the shape of metal stair-
case with its bases and sides covered with double-walled galvanized metal sheets with cavity filled by
non-degradable thermal insulation. Polycarbonate (non-breakable) was used to cover the upper surface.
The dryer is divided in to three compartments with shelf to accommodate the products. The base of the
dryer and partition valve have 4 holes for air circulation. Separate door is provided to access the
compartments.
 a) b)

Fig. 2.9. Staircase type cabinet dryer a) overall view b) sectional view

A solar cabinet dryer was developed by R.J.Fuller [17].The temperature in a solar cabinet is
higher than in sun drying and this reduces the drying time and usually improves the final product quality.
Crop losses and spoilage from rain and animals are prevented because the crop is protected within the
solar dryer. PP Singh et al [18] designed a small size PAU domestic natural convection solar dryer (Fig.
2.10.) which consists of a hot box, shading, trays and base frame (size 19mm× 19mm×1.6mm). A
transparent window glass (4mm) was fixed as glazing. 40 holes with total area of 0.002m² provided on
the top side of the dryer for air circulation. This system generates 55oCto 60oC heated air continuously.
This dryer is suitable for drying turmeric rhizomes.

Fig. 2.10. Solar Cabinet Dryer

EL-Amin Omda Mohamed Akoy et al [19] developed a solar dryer for drying of mango slices (Fig.
2.11.). A minimum of 16.8m2 solar collector area is required to dry a batch of 100 kg sliced mango
(195.2kg fresh mango at 51.22% pulp) in 20hours (two days drying period). The initial and final moisture
content considered were 81.4% and 10% wet basis, respectively. The average ambient conditions are
30ºC air temperature and 15% relative humidity with daily global solar radiation incident on horizontal
surface of about 20MJ/m2/day. The weather conditions considered are of Khartoum, Sudan. A prototype
of the dryer is so designed and constructed that has a maximum collector area of 1.03 m 2. This
prototype dryer has been used in experimental drying tests under various loading conditions.
 Fig. 2.11.Cabinet dryer
N M Nahar et al [20] developed a solar dryer for processing of vegetables in arid areas (Fig.
2.12.). This dryer is tilted and adjusted once in a fortnight as per position of the sun. Vegetables were
cut into pieces and loaded in optimally tilted dryer in direct and indirect mode. The initial moisture
content of tomato 95.8%, spinach 95.7%, carrot 93.4%, onion 89.9%, turmeric 87.6%, coriander 89.7%,
okra 94.0%, fenugreek 89.9%, mint 89.7%, was reduced to 2.2%, 2.4%, 2.6%, 5.9%, 1.3%, 4.7%, 5.0%,
0.8%, 2.0%, respectively within 2 to 4 days of exposure in solar dryer. It takes 20% more time for drying
of vegetables in indirect mode. The efficiency of the dryer was found to be 17.95%. The use of solar
dryer will be a great boon for farmers.

Fig. 2.12. Direct solar cabinet dryer

 S. El Marketer et al. [21] developed a simple cabinet solar dryer (Fig. 2.13, 2.14.) .The dryer is
covered by a 4mm thick ordinary glass which comprises of three parts. The first is inclined with 55° to
make efficient collection of radiation during winter. The second part is inclined with 15° to the horizontal
for absorbing effective radiations during summer. The third part is a vertical glass. Its floor consists of a
bed of pebbles painted in black used as a heat storage system in unfavorable drying conditions. The air
velocity varies from 1.2m/s to 2m/s and the temperature in drying chamber is 46 °C. This dryer dries 2-5
times faster than open sun drying.

Fig. 2.13. Schematic diagram of a solar cabinet dryer

 Fig. 2.14. Different modes of transfers during direct solar drying
Goyal et.al, [22] developed a reverse absorber cabinet dryer using concave mirror as the
heating medium and a cabinet dryer as the drying chamber (Fig. 2.15.). The cabinet dryer is mounted
on top of the absorber maintaining a gap of 0.03m for air to flow above the absorber. The inclination
of glass cover is 45° to the horizontal. This dryer consists of two parts; a collector to heat the incoming
ambient air using solar radiation and; a drying chamber in which commodities to be dried are spread
on a number of trays at different layers. The drying of radish took three days in a cabinet dryer at a
slightly cloudy weather condition in December. An average drying air temperature of 39°C was
achieved inside the drying chamber.
 Fig. 2.15. Reverse absorber cabinet dryer
The traditional seesaw dryer (Fig.
2.16, 2.17.) [23] has a rigid,
rectangular frame, the length of which being
three times the width resting on a support
with an axis. This support is oriented north-
south and is sufficiently high to allow the frame to be tilted 30° towards east in the morning and
towards west in the afternoon. The material for drying is placed on a number of trays, which have a
wooden frame 100×50cm and a mesh bottom, which can be made of a variety of materials, such as wire
netting, old fishing nets, bamboo lattice or any other material that will allow vertical air circulation and
maximum evaporation. The bottom of the improved seesaw dryer is made of galvanised corrugated iron
sheets reinforced crosswire by wooden planks and length wise by two wooden planks, about 15cm high.
The upper surface of the bottom is painted thick black. Good thermal insulation can be provided by
attaching insulation plates of lignified wood fibre, expanded polystere various layers of corrugated
cardboard to the underside of the bottom. The removable trays are placed on the top of the corrugated
iron bottom either in a continuous row with space between them, which will result in better heating of
the air above the blackened surface of the corrugated iron bottom. In this case the edges of the trays
should be propped up with wooden supports.
 Fig. 2.16. Seesaw dryer Fig. 2.17. Schematic view of a seesaw dryer

The greenhouse effect is obtained by placing a transparent plastic sheet over the filled trays.
This sheet rests on the raised edges of the trays and is kept stretched by the weight of bamboo canes
fixed to the sides of the plastic sheet. When not in use the sheet is rolled around the bamboo canes. Air
circulation is secured by convection, the dryer being tilted at an angle of 30° fresh air enters at the lower
end of the chamber formed by the trays and the plastic covering escaping at the upper end. A 3m long
dryer tilted 30° has 1.40m difference in levels of air inlet and air outlet. Air circulation can be improved
still more by making the air outlet opening wider (28×50cm) than the air inlet opening (15×50). In this
ways the room enclosed by the dryer bottom and the plastic sheet widens gradually from air inlet to air
outlet. This will improve convection and prevent the formation of “hot air bubbles” inside caused by air
dilation.

Debbarma et. al, [24] developed a low cost solar bamboo dryer (Fig. 2.18.). The dryer is a
greenhouse-type designed for multi-crop solar drying. The solar bamboo dryer reduces the moisture
content of green chillies from 90% to 10% in 20 hours with an average efficiency of 17%. The drying rate
of solar bamboo dryer was estimated to be around 10g/hr. The economic cost of bamboo dryer is
around Rs 400/- which is very much affordable for the poor farmers.
 Fig. 2.18. Tent dryer under experimental test

2.3.2 Natural circulation green house dryer

Kaewkiew et al, [25] presents the experimental investigation of the performance of a large-scale
greenhouse type solar dryer for drying chilli in Thailand. The verified chilli consist initial moisture
content of 74% (WB) and this value reached to 9% (WB) in 3 days. Green house made in parabolic shape
was covered by polycarbonate. The dimensions of green house were width of 8.0 m, length of 20.0 m
and height 3.5 m and floor was made from the concrete. Nine DC fans were installed in dryer operated
on three 50-Watt solar cell modules. Capacity of dryer was 1000 kg of fruits. Fig. 2.19 shows pictorial
view of green house solar dryer used for chilli drying in Thailand.
 Fig. 2.19. A greenhouse solar dryer.

Ekechukwe et al. [26, 27] developed a typical green house natural convection solar dryer (Fig.
2.20.). The drying chamber was made up of semi cylindrical galvanized steel frame work claded by
polyethylene sheet. The 1.6m diameter chimney with varying height facility (maximum possible height
3m) was fixed on the rear end of the drying chamber. The front end was equipped with a door for inlet
and access the drying chamber. The crops are dried by directly absorbing solar radiation. No auxiliary
power was required to operate the dryer.
 Fig. 2.20. A Greenhouse type natural circulation solar energy dryer

2.3.3 Absorption dryer

The direct-type active solar dryers are designed with an integrated solar energy collection unit.
Generally, three distinct designs of direct-type active solar dryers can be identified viz., the absorption
type, and storage type and greenhouse dryers. A very simple direct absorption solar dryer was designed
(Fig. 2.21.) by Jude O.Ozuomba et al. [28]. It comprises of a drying chamber (hot box) containing a
rectangular wooden box with blackened interior, ventilation holes in the base and upper part of the side
walls and a transparent glass roof on the top of the rectangular hot box. The drying chamber was
fabricated with a 2.5cm thick soft wood and has a total surface area of 0.39m 2.
 Fig. 2.21. Direct absorption solar dryer
The drying bed is made up of three different layers
i. A thin layer of foam which is used to cover the inner surface of the rectangular wooden
box.
ii. Aluminum sheet which is used to cover the foam.
iii. Black leather which is used to cover the aluminum sheet.
Results showed that the average value of drying chamber temperature recorded was 59°C when
the ambient temperature was 33°C. It has potential for drying various agricultural products.
2.4 Indirect solar dryer
In Indirect solar dryers, the black surface heats incoming air, rather than directly heating the
substance to be dried. The heated air is then passed over the substance and exits through a chimney
taking moisture from the substance with it.
2.4.1 Indirect passive solar energy dryer
Madhlopa et al, [29] developed a composite absorber type solar dryer (Fig. 2.22.). The
dryer consists of a flat plate collector, wire mesh absorber, glass cover, chimney and drying
chamber. The thermal efficiency of the wire mesh absorber and flat plate collector were
approximately 17% and 21% respectively at flow rate of 0.0083kg/sec.
 Fig. 2.22.Cross sectional view of a composite absorber type solar dryer
Eissen [30] developed a indirect type conventional dryer which has a solar collector for heating
air and a drying chamber to accommodate trays over which grapes are spread as shown in Fig. 2.23. The
solar collector uses a transparent foil cover and a black absorber sheet. The drying chamber is covered
by a transparent foil which protects the grapes from rain and dust. The solar collector collects the solar
energy and heats the air entering through an inlet. Heated air enters the drying chamber from beneath
the tray and flows upwards through the grapes carrying moisture with it. This moist air goes out of the
opening provided at the top. Ventilation is provided by natural convection inside the collector and
drying chamber.

Fig. 2.23. Indirect type conventional dryer

 E Azad [31] designed and developed a natural solar convection dryer (Fig. 2.24.) which
consists of two parts (solar collector and solar drying cabinet). Solar collector with area of 1.2m²
has black painted rocks to absorb solar radiation and a cabinet that is divided into five divisions
separated by four removable shelves. Each shelf is 0.3m wide and 0.5m long and made of nylon
wire net framed in wooden border. Three sides of the drying chamber walls are covered by
fiberglass sheet and a door in the back. Grapes were dried in the dryer. The moisture content of
grapes was reduced from 81.7% to 36.7% within five days of drying. The drying air flows
through the product by natural circulation.

Fig. 2.24. A natural convection solar dryer

Cost-effective natural convection solar dryer was developed (Fig. 2.25.) by Rathore et
al.[32].The thermal and drying analyses were done and tested to obtain some performance
evaluation parameters for the system in order to examine its efficiency and effectiveness by
drying some plantain fillets. The collector and system efficiencies are found to be 46.4% and
78.73%, respectively, while a percentage moisture removal of 77.5% was achieved at the 20th
hour in order to give final moisture contents of 15.75% in the product. With a cost of about Rs
11700, it has been affordable for the small and medium-scale enterprises as well as for private
use in domestic applications.
 Fig. 2.25. Natural convection solar dryer
Panghavane et al. [33] designed and developed a multipurpose natural convection solar dryer
(Fig. 2.26.). The dryer consists of solar air heater, drying chamber, absorber with fins, glass cover,
insulation and frame. Grapes were successfully dried in this solar dryer within 4 days and good quality
raisin obtained. The dryer inlet temperature varies from 51.9oCto 64.6oC.
 Fig. 2.26. Multipurpose natural convection solar dryer

Senadeera et al.[34] developed and evaluated a solar tunnel dryer (Fig. 2.27.). The dryer was
constructed at the Department of Mechanical Engineering of University of Moratuwa. Polyethylene
Chimney, GI sheet and wooden frame was used as construction materials. Dryer performance
parameters like collector efficiency, system drying efficiency, and pick-up efficiency were evaluated. This
dryer is suitable to dry small quantities of material (up to 15 kg) at household or farm level at a lower
cost. Solar drying gave higher efficiencies and higher drying rates compared with sun drying.

Fig. 2.27. Solar tunnel dryer

 Sharma et al [35] evaluated a multistacked indirect passive solar dryer (Fig. 2.28.). It
comprises of a wooden box divided into two halves. The first half is a single glazed solar air collector,
whereas the drying unit is in the second half. The hot air dries the product and exits through the
chimney. The product was loaded on the movable tray kept on the metallic frames. The system can also
be operated in forced convection mode.

Fig. 2.28. General overview of a multistacked solar dryer

Fournier et al.[36] designed a model and experimented indirect shell dryer (Fig. 2.29.). The
dryer consists of a cylindrical dehydration chamber, an upper cone, and a bottom cone. The upper cone
is truncated and is topped by a cap that can slide to adjust the air flow. The cylindrical drying chamber
can hold two trays that can be loaded with products. The advantage of this drying is that the products
are dried under shade.
 Fig. 2.29. Illustration of the shell dryer

2.4.2 Indirect active solar energy dryer

Ahmed Abed Gatea [37] manufactured a mixed mode solar dryer (Fig. 2.30.) for drying beans. It
comprises of a collector, drying cabinet and drying racks. It has two solar glazing one on solar collector
and the other on top of drying cabinet. The angle of inclination for both the glazing is 45°. The highest
efficiency observed on the solar collector is 61.82% at midday and the least efficiency was observed as
45.4% at 9am. The amount of moisture content reduced was from 60% to 8% within six hours.
 Fig. 2.30. A mixed mode solar dryer for drying beans

Sarsilmaz et al [38] developed a rotary column cylindrical dryer for drying apricots. (Fig. 2.31.). A
specially designed air solar collector is used to reduce drying times and to maintain uniform drying
conditions. The drying chamber contains holes at the center for flow of outlet air. The rotary column
was divided in to four compartments with five plates at each level. The loaded capacity of each plate
was 2 to 3 kg. The drying chamber was rotated by 12V DC motor to produce uniform drying and high
quality apricots.
 Fig. 2.31. Rotary column cylindrical dryer
Ahmed Abed Gatea [39] developed a modified solar drying system with cylindrical section and
analyzed the performance of the thermal drying system (Fig. 2.32.). A solar drying system of a
cylindrical section which consists of a flat plate solar air collector, cylindrical drying chamber and a fan
was built and designed for the purpose of drying 70 kg of bean crop. Maximum temperature of 71.4ºC at
radiation intensity of 750W/m² for air flow rate of 0.0401 kg/s was obtained from the experimental
analysis. The maximum average value of thermal efficiency of the solar air collector obtained from the
calculation is 25.64% at air flow rate of 0.0675 kg/s, the maximum daily efficiency of drying system was
18.41% at air flow rate of 0.0405 kg/s.

Fig. 2.32. Modified indirect active solar dryer with cylindrical section

Lyes bennamoun et. al, [40] constructed a solar batch dryer (Fig. 2.33.) for drying agricultural
products. The volume is fixed by the holding capacity of a dryer, and dried to required moisture. After
unloading the dried grain from the dryer, drying for the next batch of grain is performed. Batch drying,
therefore, requires loading and unloading time for each batch of grain to be dried. Onion was chosen as
the dried product because of its soft deterioration property. The results showed that drying is affected
by the surface of the collector, the air temperature and the product characteristics. After the heater is
added, significant improvements were registered in the results.
 Fig. 2.33. Solar batch dryer

M.Hanif et al [41] designed and tested the impact of drying temperatures and air mass flow
rates on the drying performance of a parabolic trough solar collector used for dehydration of apricots.
This unit consists of a parabolic trough, with centrally located black painted steel pipe, and drying unit
(Fig. 2.34.). The drying unit has a 0.02m diameter outlet for removing air from the unit. Before
constructing the parabolic structure, the focal length was found by using the following equations
f=x2/4y, when f is focal length of the trough, x is the radius and y is the aperture of the trough. The total
volume of the drying unit was 0.3135m3 and fans were used to supply hot air to the drying unit, the flow
rate can be controlled with the help of dimmer fixed on the drying unit.
 Fig. 2.34. The Parabolic trough solar collector
Emad A.Almuhanna [42] designed a solar green house dryer; the overall dimensions of the solar
air heater were 2mx1mx1.2087m with an internal floor surface area of 2m 2 as shown in Fig. 2.35. It
consists of air intake window, extracting fan, wire netted floor, air chamber and fiber glass cover. The air
chamber is formed between wire-netted plate and the bottom of the dryer box. An electric variable flow
axial fan of 0.31m diameter was placed in a shelter at one side of the solar dryer. An open window (0.4
m long and 0.14 m wide) was positioned at the top side for air intake. The solar greenhouse was covered
with an 800 μm thick fibre glass sheet. An airflow rate of 5.5 m 3/min was maintained throughout the
experiment.

Fig. 2.35. Solar air heater (1Window (air intake) (2) Extracting fan (3) Wire-netted floor (4) Air chamber
and (5) Fibreglass cover

Chandra Kumar et al.[43] carried out Performance evaluation of mixed mode solar dryer forced
convection. This system consists of solar collectors, drying cabinets and blowers (Fig. 2.36.). The
collector absorber plate material is black coated aluminum sheet with 1.5m x 0.2m x 0.03m in size. The
glazing is 0.004m thick transparent glass sheet. The mixed mode drying cabinet is made up of 0.01905m
plywood and wooden bar. The measurement of top glazing is 0.55m x 0.5m, two sides of the drying
cabinet measure 0.64m x 0.32m, the door measure 0.52m x 0.5m and opposite side of the door measure
0.54m x 0.5m. The temperature increase in the drying cabinet was up to 22°C above the ambient
temperature. By using mixed mode Dryer, the moisture was reduced from 81.4% to 18.6% within 4 days
while it takes 8 days in open source drying.

Fig. 2.36. Schematic diagram of mixed mode solar dryer

Purandare et.al. [44] experimentally found out the performance of recirculation type
solar air dryer. The optimum absorber plate length, width, thickness were 1.5m, 1.0m and
0.002m. The drying cabinet was made up of MS Sheet having 0.3m x 0.3m in size. Around the
metal sheet box 0.0012m thickness glass wool is used as insulation. In the drying cabinet steel
mesh 10-20x10^4 mesh/m2 was used as a tray. The collector was adjustable between 30°- 40°tilt
angle. The outlet of drying cabinet attached to the inlet of the collector by using 0.013m MS pipe
as shown in the Fig. 2.37. This system evaluates the Dryer performance in three modes. First one
is a plane sheet used as absorber plate, Second one is using the corrugated plate along the length
of the solar collector. Third one is using the corrugated plate across the solar collector. Among
the three types, first type gave higher temperature and better performance. Ilhan Ceylan et al [45]
designed a photovoltaic cell assisted solar dryer. It consists of solar heat pipe collector, a fan, an
air regulating damper, halogen lamps, batteries, photovoltaic cells, a load cell and a drying
chamber. This new solar dryer has two PV cells. One of the cell is used for running the
circulating fan during the day. The other cell charges the battery during the day. In this study, the
ambient temperature of air changed from 15°c to 25°C and the temperature of the drying air
changed from 20°C to 45°C.

Fig. 2.37.Experimental setup of recirculation type solar air dryer

2.5 Hybrid solar dryer

A natural convection dryer for fruits and vegetables using indirectly heated air was designed and
fabricated. The dryer was operated first with biomass fuel alone and then with solar dryer alone and
finally with both biomass and solar in hybrid mode.
The dryer consists of four main parts; (1) a gasifier stove for generating the heat to be supplied
to the system (2) a heat exchanger unit for transferring heat from the Hot flue gas to the process air (3)
a drying chamber for the product to be dried was placed and (4) a temperature control system for
controlling the drying air temperature inside the drying chamber at the appropriate level. In addition, a
solar collector was provided to heat up process air for hybrid operation and a wind ventilator was
installed on the top of the chamber to promote movement of process air through the drying chamber.
Since the process air flows naturally and the temperature control system works mechanically, it does
not need an electrical power supply.
 The performance of the prototype unit was evaluated in terms of drying air temperature, fuel
consumption rate, drying duration, drying efficiency and the quality of the dried product. No-load tests
conducted on the biomass-fuelled dryer have shown that the process air temperature could be
controlled to be near the permissible level (70 °C) for drying fruits and vegetables when using the
temperature control system.

2.5.1 Hybrid with thermal storage

The crop dryer cum water heater have been experimentally evaluated by Tiwari et.al [46]. They
predicted the analytical results by use of energy balance equation (Fig. 2.38).
Analytical results indicate that the drying time is reduced by increasing in the thermal energy on
the collector by the reflector. The system is used to provide hot water in case the drying system is not in
operation.
The system performance of multi-tray crop drying was evaluated by Jain [47] (Fig. 2.39).The
thermal performance of a flat plate solar air heater is evaluated by using mathematical model for the
crop drying in multiple tray.

Fig. 2.38. Cross-sectional view of the crop dryer with water heater
The moisture content, crop temperature and drying rate are predicted in different drying trays.
The results showed that the grain temperature increases with the increase of tilt angle, collector length,
and breadth up to certain limit of this parameter. The effect of thermal energy storage during off-
sunshine hours is very pertinent for crop drying applications.

Fig. 2.39. Cross-sectional view of the crop dryer inclined multi-pass air heater with built in thermal
storage with reflector

M Mohanraj et al.[48] evaluated a comparison of drying characteristics and quality of copra

obtained in a forced convection solar dryer and sun drying (Fig. 2.40.). An indirect forced convection
solar dryer integrated with sensible heat storage material has been fabricated and tested for copra
drying.

It reduces moisture content (wet basis) from 52% to 7.8% and 9.5% in 66 h for trays at bottom
and top respectively. System pickup efficiency varies between 45% and 13%. Copra obtained was graded
as 76% milling copra grade1 (MCG1), 18% MCG2 and 6% MCG3. Specific moisture extraction rate was
estimated to be 0.84 kg/kWh.

In sun drying, moisture content was reduced from 52.3% (wet basis) to about 9.2% in 7 days.
Copra obtained was graded as 53% MCG1, 24% MCG2 and 23% MCG3. Average dryer thermal efficiency
of sun drying was estimated to be about 21%.
 Fig. 2.40. Indirect active solar dryer with sensible heat storage

Ayensu et al.[49] designed a mixed mode natural convection solar dryer (Fig. 2.41.). It consists
of single layer glazing, chimney, drying chamber, and an air collector cum crop bed storage insulated
from the base ground by a 5cm thick layer of straw .Drying chamber is made of plywood and three
layers of wire mesh within it. For access the chamber removable panels fixed at the rear. All wooden
components of the unit were insulated by polystyrene.
 Fig. 2.41. Cross-section view of the indirect type natural convection solar dryer with storage

2.5.2 Hybrid with geo-thermal or waste-waters

A solar dryer integrated with geo-thermal or waste-water systems was developed (Fig. 2.42.) by
Ivanovo et al [50].

Fig. 2.42. General view of the geothermal hybrid dryer

32.2% of the annual thermal load was secured with the use of geo-thermal waters at temperature 68°C.
The temperature of the drying agent was maintained at 60°Cduring day and night. The use of hot geo-
thermal or waste-water during the night and solar energy during the day gained 26% of the annual
thermal load.

2.5.3 Hybrid with heat pump

Several solar assisted heat pump dryers have been designed, fabricated and tested. Hawlader et
al. [51] studied the performance of the evaporator-collector and the air-collector when operated under
meteorological conditions of Singapore. They showed that “the evaporator-collector efficiency increases
with increasing refrigerant mass-flow rate. It was also revealed that the efficiency of the evaporator-
collector is higher than that of the air-collector”. The maximum efficiencies of the evaporator-collector
and the air-collector were found about 86% and 75% respectively.

2.5.4 Hybrid with chemical heat pump

Ibrahim et al [52] developed solar-assisted chemical heat pump dryer (Fig. 2.43.)
 Fig. 2.43. Schematic diagram of solar-assisted chemical heat pump dryer

The system comprises of four components-solar collector, storage tank, chemical heat pump
unit and dryer chamber. In this study, a cylindrical tank is selected as a storage tank. In the chemical
heat pump, a solid gas reactor is coupled with a condenser or an evaporator. The reactor contains a salt
which reacts with the gas. The reaction taking place during the process is,

CaCl2.2NH3 + 6NH3 CaCl2.8NH3 + 6ΔHr.

The chemical heat pump works in two stages:
i) Adsorption
ii) Desorption
Adsorption is the cold production stage, which is followed by desorption which is a regenerative
stage. The liquid-gas transformation of NH3 produces coolness at low temperature in the evaporator. At
the same time, the chemical reaction between the gaseous ammonia and solid would release heat of
reaction at higher temperature.
The incoming air is heated by condensing refrigerant (NH3) and enters the drying inlet at the
drying condition and performs drying. Then the moist air stream is diverted through the evaporator,
where it is cooled and dehumidification takes place as heat is given up to the refrigerant(NH3).
 The air is then passed through the condenser where it is reheated by the condensing refrigerant
and then to the drying chamber. The material dried is lemon grass.

2.5.5 Hybrid with electrical heater

Boughali et al. [53] studied the indirect active hybrid solar electrical dryer (Fig. 2.44.) which is
constructed and installed at LENREZA Labouratory, University of Ouargla, Algeria. It comprises of a flat
plate solar collector, drying chamber, electric fan, resistance heater(3.73 KW: accuracy + 2%) and a
temperature controller.

The solar air collector has an area of 2.45m2 and inclined at an angle of 31o (latitude of Ouargla
city) with the horizontal. In solar dryer process, the auxiliary heater was used to adjust the drying air
temperature.

The preliminary heated drying air by solar radiation, arrived at the inlet of cabinet dryer was
heated by electrical resistance. If it’s temperature was less than consign temperature, which is
controlled thermostatically and then aspired by an exhaust fan through the product to the environment.

Fig. 2.44.Schematic diagram of an indirect active hybrid solar-electrical dryer

2.5.6 Solar Dryer Integrated with regenerative desiccant system:

A solar dryer integrated with desiccant bed (Fig. 2.45.) has been developed by Shanmugam and
Natrajan [54]
 Fig. 2.45. Schematic view of the desiccant integrated solar dryer
The system comprises of a forced circulation flat plate solar air collector, drying chamber and a
desiccant unit. Desiccant bed is a mixture of 60% bentonite, 10%calcium chloride, 20% vermiculite and
10% cement by weight. This bed provides better drying effect during off sun shine hours. System is
studied for green peas drying for different air flow rates. Same regenerative desiccant integrated solar
dryer experimental set up was also examined with and without reflective mirror and 20% increased
desiccant material.

2.5.7 Hybrid active dryer with auxiliary unit

Amer et al. [55] designed and constructed a hybrid solar dryer (Fig. 2.46.) for banana
using direct solar energy and a heat exchanger. The dryer consists of solar collector (5.04m²),
reflector, heat exchanger cum heat storage unit and drying chamber. The dryer was operated
during normal sunny days as a solar dryer and cloudy and night as a hybrid dryer. The efficiency
of the solar dryer was 65% and the air temperature obtained is 30 to 40°C above the ambient
temperature. The capacity of the dryer was to dry 30kg of banana in 8hours during sunny days
and initial moisture content of 82% and the final moisture content of 18% (Wb).
 Fig. 2.46. Hybrid solar dryer for drying banana

Pangavhane et al. [56] highlighted that the hybrid solar dryer for drying grapes, different fruits
and vegetables was studied by Tsamparlis [57]. It consists of two units, namely the solar heating unit
and the drying chamber. The heating unit comprises of four flat plate collectors and 20 evacuated tube
collectors organized in 2 units with 20 cubes and 2 flat plate collectors in each unit. The solar air heating
unit is facilitated to detach in the drying chamber. In the drying chamber the upper part (Fig. 2.47. a)
consists of a fan, electric heater and system for modulating the velocity field of drying air. The lower part
(Fig. 2.47. b) contains trolleys with trays in which the fresh product is spread. The 17kw electric heater is
placed in the upper part of the drying chamber while a 3kw electric heater is placed at the entrance of
the solar preheated air. The results showed that the drying period of the grapes was reduced to 30-40
hours.
 Fig. 2.47.The hybrid solar dryer: (a) heating unit and (b) drying chamber and solar air heater

The V-groove collector solar drying system comprises of collector drying chamber, fan and
auxiliary heater (Fig. 2.48.).The solar collector is of V-groove type. Drying output temperature of 50°C
can be achieved with a air flow rate of 0.25m3/sec at an ambient temperature of 27°-30° Celsius and
average solar radiation of 700w/m2. An auxiliary heat source of 10kw has been used for effective
temperature control and continuous operation. Experimental studies with products like herbal tea,
chilies and noodles have been conducted to evaluate the performance of the drying system by Sopian et
al. [58].

Fig. 2.48. Schematics of the solar-assisted drying system with the V-groove collector

A Roof integrated solar dryer was modeled and performance evaluated (Fig. 2.49. a, b) by Janjai
et al.[59]
 Fig. 2.49. (a) Roof-integrated solar drying system and (b) the drying bin

The dryer consists of a solar collector integrated on the roof and a drying bin .An axial flow fan
operated by a electric motor (220V, 1PHASE, 0.373KW) is provided to get the required air flow. The roof
consists of two arrays of collector, one facing the north and the other facing the south with a total
surface area of 108m2. These arrays of collectors are essentially black painted with polycarbonate plate
that acts as absorber. One half of the room used for drying bin and another half was divided into two
portions. The first portion was used for preparation of drying products and the second for the storage of
dried products.

2.5.8 Hybrid with photovoltaic

A photovoltaic assisted solar drying system was designed (Fig. 2.50.) and studied by Ruslan MH
et al [60]. The drying system comprises of a V-Groove type collector, photovoltaic powered DC fan and a
drying chamber. The air flow inside the drying system is controlled by the speed of the fan. A ventilator
turbine and a funnel with increasing diameter towards the top are incorporated to assist airflow in the
absence of solar energy. The drying system is portable and can readily be used at the agricultural sites
where the crops are produced. Efficiency of 44%with airflow rate 0.16 kg/sec and radiation intensity of
800W/m2has been achieved in the system.
 Fig. 2.50. Schematics of PV-assisted solar drying system
A dish type solar dryer integrated with photovoltaic cell was designed (Fig. 2.51.) and studied by
Muhammad Hanif et al [61]. It comprises of three components namely concentrating reflector and
absorber, drying box and photovoltaic cell. The concentrating reflector is a concave mirror which
concentrates the heat on the absorber which heats the incoming air. The heated air is delivered to the
drying box. The drying box is provided with two internal chambers. The lower chamber is filled with
black painted rocks for energy storage while upper chamber is provided for drying of product. The
photovoltaic module provides a 12 V DC output to run a fan connected to the absorber. This dryer
suitable for drying grapes at a temperature of 50°C with a humidity of less than 20%.

Fig. 2.51.Dish type solar collector

 Barnwal et al. [62] designed and developed a hybrid photovoltaic-thermal (PV/T) greenhouse
dryer (Fig. 2.52.) at solar energy park, Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi, India. The developed
dryer has been used to dry of 100 kg capacity of seedless grapes. The dryer has floor area of 2.50 m x
2.60 m, 1.80 m central height and 1.05 m side walls height from ground and 30° roof slope. Two PV
modules have been integrated on south roof of the dryer to produce DC electrical power. A DC fan is
provided for running the dryer in forced convection mode .In addition; it provides thermal heating of
greenhouse environment. Provision for air movement in the greenhouse dryer is done by providing 0.15
m open height at bottom side and further 0.10 m is provided with wire mesh. Hot air moves from the
bottom to top through wire mesh trays. The whole structural frames of the dryer are covered with UV
stabilized polyethylene sheet to trap infrared radiation. It maintains the desired temperature inside the
greenhouse by preventing the unnecessary circulation of ambient air.

Fig. 2.52.Hybrid PV/T integrated greenhouse dryer

Chantana et al. [63] (2009) presented the conceptual design of the Hybrid PV/T assisted
desiccant integrated hot air combined with an IR drying system (HPIRD) (Fig. 2.53.) The hybrid PV/T-
desiccant integrated infrared drying system (HPIRD) consists of three main parts: (i) a PV air collector
(PVAC), (ii) a desiccant silica gel bed (DB), and (iii) an infrared drying system, fabricated as a single unit.
The PV air collector system performs two functions: (1) It generates electricity to operate a fan in the
drying chamber, and (ii) to preheat the air by means of solar air collector. The DB system employs three
beds of silica gel to dehumidify air before use in the drying chamber. An IR drying system which
combines infrared with hot air to dry agricultural products is also designed. The infrared heat source in
the drying system was a black ceramic IR heater with 800Wfitting on top side and an electrical heater
used to heat up drying air. A stainless steel sheet of 0.5-mm thick and 0.8m×0.35m × 0.4 m is used to
make the drying chamber .The drying chamber walls were well insulated with 25-mm thick syntactic
insulator. A temperature controller was used to regulate the chamber temperature. The performance
evaluation studies indicated that the HPIRD drying test at 60°C and velocity of 0.6 m/s reduced the
drying time by 44% with less energy consumption (63%) compared to hot air drying. HPIRD drying gave
better results over hot air-infrared drying.
The energy consumption, drying rate and drying time, were considerably reduced with the
hybrid drying system. The dryer can be used for drying various agricultural products, especially herbs, of
which quality is easily lost due to a long drying time. Therefore, the HPIRD is a suitable model and is
recommended because it reduces drying time, energy consumption and improves the quality of dried
products.

Fig. 2.53. Schematic of hybrid PV/T – desiccant integrated Infrared Drying system (HYPIRD)
2.5.9 Hybrid with biomass burner

Fig. 2.54. Schematic diagram of solar biomass dryer

A direct type natural convection solar dryer integrated with a simple biomass burner was
developed (Fig. 2.54.) by Prasad et al [64]. The system can generate hot air between 55°C and
60°Ccontinuously. The system is intended for use by small farmers in developing countries due to its low
cost of investment. The quality of the produce is improved greatly. The overall thermal efficiency of the
system (hybrid system with biomass firing) was observed as 28.57%.

Tarigan et al. [65] designed and tested a mixed mode natural convection solar dryer, heat
storage back-up heater and biomass burner (Fig. 2.55.). The dryer was intended for small-scale farmers
in unelectrified rural villages. The drying capacity of the system is around 60–65 kg. Average drying
efficiency was 23% and 40% for solar dryer and hybrid dryer respectively. The key design features of the
dryer includes jacket and gap enclosing the drying chamber and arranged bricks for storing heats. This
contributed to the uniformity of drying air temperature across the trays and an acceptable thermal
efficiency.
 Fig. 2.55. Biomass hybrids solar dryer with heat storage backup heat

2.5.10 Hybrid with LPG gas burner

A hybrid solar dryer integrated with LPG Gas Burner (Fig. 2.56.) was designed and studied by
Soponronnarit.S [66]. It comprises of a flat plate solar air heater of 38.5m2area, 3.6m x 3.6m x
4.8mscaled down to 1:4 scale with tobacco curing barn and a 6m3 rock bed unit. It has a loading capacity
of one tone fresh leaves. LPG fuel was used a auxiliary heating source. An average of 28% fuel saving is
possible with this prototype model. The average overall thermal efficiency was found to be 40.5%.
 Fig. 2.56. Hybrid solar dryer with LPG burner
E.C. Lopez Vidana et al [67] assessed a hybrid dryer with a solar collector, drying chamber and an
auxiliary LPG burner. The solar collector has a black 1.095 m width black absorbing plate coated with V-
Corrugated aluminum sheet (Fig. 2.57.). The solar collector is inclined at an angle of 40º with the
horizontal. The double glass cover system is 0.006 m thick with a partition of 0.05 m between the glass
covers. The bottom and sides of the collector are well insulated with 0.019 m thick polystyrene.

The drying chamber consists of 10 galvanized steel mesh tray of 0.42 m2 drying area. Two radial
fans with a 246 W capacity motor are located in the lower part of the chamber which generates an air
velocity of 0.2m/s. The auxiliary LPG burner raises the air temperature when it falls underneath 50º C.

The system can be operated through an LPG heating system, hybrid-solar gas heating system
and a solar heating system. Maximum drying efficiencies of 71% was obtained in hybrid drying system.
Hossain et al [68] designed a prototype of a solar dryer for drying a tomato. It consists of flat plate
collector, heat storage with auxiliary heating unit, and drying unit. It has the loading capacity of 20kg of
fresh cut half tomato. Drying performance was evaluated in terms of drying rate, color, ascorbic rate,
lycopene, and total flavonoids. Tomato halves were pretreated with UV radiation, acetic acid, citric acid,
ascorbic acid, sodium metabisulphate and sodium chloride. Absorber plate temperature was about 80°C
at the midtown (12:00-13:00hr) of the days. But the highest collector outlet air temperature was about
60°C.

Average air temperature at the outlet of the collector was found to be about 30°C higher than
the average ambient temperature during normal days. Collector efficiency was increased 10% using the
solar reflector.

Fig. 2.57.Schematic Diagram of hybrid dryer with LPG burner

2.6 Design parameters of solar dryers

The main characteristics which are generally used for performance estimation of any solar
drying system are drying rate, dryer thermal efficiency and pickup efficiency [69]. The various input and
output data used for computing the thermal performance of the solar dryers are listed in Table 2.4.

Table 2.4. Input and output data for calculation of drying performance

Input Data
 Solar radiation intensity incident on the solar dryer (I), W/m2
Ambient air temperature or inlet air temperature (Ti), oC
Table 2.5.
Outlet air temperature of solar dryer(To), oC
Mass flow rate of air (m), kg/s
Specific heat of air(Cp), kJ/kg-k
Initial mass of sample before drying (mi), kg
Final mass of sample after drying (md), kg
Drying time(t), sec
Initial Moisture content (Mi)
Moisture content at a particular time (Mt)
Equilibrium moisture content (Me)
Collector Area (A), m2
Cross-sectional area of pipe connecting drying chamber (Ap), m2
Adiabatic saturation humidity of air entering the chamber (hs), kg water/kg dry air
Absolute humidity of air entering the chamber(hi), kg water/kg dry air
Energy consumption of blower/fan (kwh)
Latent heat of vaporization of water (hfg), kJ/Kg
Mass of moisture evaporated at a time(mw), kg
Fuel consumption (mf), kg
Calorific value of fuel (Cv), kJ/kg

Various design parameters of solar dryer

Major Factors Solar Collector Drying Cabinet

Mode of heating Collector area Loading and unloading provisions
Type of operation No. of Glazing Incoming air
Mode of air flow Glazing tilt angle No of trays
Insulation thickness Thickness of glass Loading density
Insulation material Absorber material Drying capacity
Optimum air flow rate. Absorber plate thickness Air outlet provision
Cover plate material Size of aluminum tray
Air passage Size of chimney
 Spacing between two trays
Drying chamber size

2.7 Comparative study of solar dryer

Different dryers available for a crop in the literature can be compared with the help of some
important and essential parameters. For the purpose of comparison, certain parameters like drying
capacity, location, and drying efficiency have been selected. Therefore, an attempt has been made to
study the performance of different kinds of popular solar dryers. The following Table 2.6, 2.7 and 2.8
shows the research findings summarized from various solar drying studies. The summary covers as many
as possible dryers discussed in this work. Further details of the studies can be obtained from the cited
literature.

Table 2.6. Comparative study of different natural convection solar dryers

Full load Drying

Source Types of dryers Product capacity Location efficiency
(kg) (%)
Mursalim et al. Modified direct Cashew 15 TaneteRil 64
solar cabinet net an,
dryer Indonesia

Nahar et al. Direct solar Variety of 25-30 Jodhpur, 17.95

cabinet dryer vegetables India

Debbarma et al. Solar bamboo Green Bhopal,

dryer chillies 2 India 17
Rathoreet al. Natural Plantain - Akola, 78.73
convection solar fillets India
dryer

Bolojiet al. Indirect natural All Crops 5 Nigeria 60.5

convection solar
dryer
Fournier et al. Indirect shell 15 - 65
dryer

Lyes bennamounet Solar batch Grains 3 - -

al. dryer

Jain et al. Multi-pass air Crop 20 Egypt -

heater with
thermal storage
and without
reflector
Ayensu et al. Mixed mode copra 80-100 Malaysia -
indirect natural
convection solar
dryer with
storage

Table 2.7. Comparative study of different forced convection solar dryers

Full load Drying

Source Types of dryers Product capacity Location efficiency
(kg) (%)
Mursalim et al Modified direct Cashew 15 TaneteRil 64
solar cabinet net an,
dryer Indonesia

Nahar et al. Direct solar Variety of 25-30 Jodhpur, 17.95

cabinet dryer vegetables India

Debbarma et al Solar bamboo Green Bhopal,

dryer chillies 2 India 17
 Rathoreet al. Natural Plantain - Akola, 78.73
convection solar fillets India
dryer

Bolojiet al. Indirect natural All Crops 5 Nigeria 60.5

convection solar
dryer
Fournier et al. Indirect shell 15 - 65
dryer

Lyes bennamoun et Solar batch Grains 3 - -

al. dryer

Jain et al. Multi-pass air Crop 20 Egypt -

heater with
thermal storage
and without
reflector
Ayensu et al. Mixed mode copra 80-100 Malaysia -
indirect natural
convection solar
dryer with
storage

Table 2.8.Comparative study of different forced convection hybrid dryers

Full load Drying

Source Types of dryers Product capacity Location efficiency
(kg) (%)
Hawlader et al. Hybrid with heat - - Singapore 75 to 86
pump solar
dryer
Ibrahim et al Hybrid with Agricultural 60 to 65 Thailand 63
chemical heat products
pump solar
dryer
Amer et al Hybrid solar Banana 30 - 65
dryer
Barnwal et al. Hybrid Delhi, 52.2
photovoltaic – India
thermal
integrated green
 house dryer

Prasad et al Solar biomass Turmeric 20 Brazil -

dryer
Tarigan et al. Mixed mode foods 5,6,7 Malaysia 23 to 40
natural
convection solar
dryer dryer with
biomass burner
and heat storage
backup heater
Lopez et al Hybrid Solar – Tomato 25 Mexico 86
Gas dryer

In spite of a wide range of studies of different kinds of dryers, for the selection of a particular
dryer, farmers have to face some problems.

2.8 Quality attributes of dried products

Product quality is the only attribute that assesses the acceptance of a product for safe
consumption or use by human beings apart from marketable opportunities. The main processing
variable that influences the final quality of solar dried products are drying time as well as the exposure
period to sunlight (UV radiation). Prolonged drying period and contact with UV light could degrade some
valuable photochemical and vitamins in dried products such as chlorophyll, essential oil, β-Carotene and
ascorbic acid. The quality attributes of dried products can be classified into physical, chemical, biological
and nutritional depending on the type of product as shown in Table 2.9.

Table 2.9. Quality attributes of dried products

Properties Attributes
Physical Color, texture, shrinkage, porosity, rehydration, breakage, split
Chemical Flavor, odor, water activity, shelf life.
 Nutritional Calorie, vitamins, minerals, fibers, lipids, proteins, carbohydrates,
antioxidants
Biological Mould, yeast, E, coli, salmonella, mycotoxins, aflatoxins
Sensory Appearance, odor, flavor, mouth feel and texture

2.9. Conclusion
The purpose of drying agricultural products using solar dryers is to improve the quality of drying and
preserve the dried products. Various designs of solar dryers like direct, indirect and hybrid type were
reviewed including their performance evaluation. From the various works carried out to date on solar
drying of agricultural products, the following conclusions are drawn.

 The performance of dryers depends on the materials to be dried as well as the technology
employed.
 Various design, performance and quality attribute parameters of solar drying systems are
outlined.
 It can also be concluded that from these comprehensive reviews lot of works have been carried
out globally to evaluate the performance of different types of solar dryers.
 Solar dryers with thermal storage can be used in places where there are more variations in
temperature difference between day and night.
 Solar hybrid dryers are the most efficiently designed which are suitable for drying multi crops.
Moreover it has got high loading capacity, higher drying rate and lesser drying time.
 Many other innovations are yet to be done on direct and indirect type solar dryers which can
fetch more efficient thermal performance.