Basic Civil Engineering

Column and Beam system in construction

Introduction
The System of Columns and Beams have been used in Construction since Ancient Egypt (Which
lasted from about 3100BC until it was finally absorbed in to the Roman Empire in 30 BC) Ancient
Greece and Ancient Rome. In modern day construction, Column-Beam-Slab System is been used
in all superstructures with new technology, and construction materials. Generally the load of the
slab is transferred to the columns or walls through the beams, down to the foundation, and then to
the supporting soil beneath.

Column

Columns (Image Source Wikipedia)

A column can be defined as a vertical structural member designed to transmit a compressive load.
A Column transmits the load from ceiling/roof slab and beam, including its own weight to the
foundation. Hence it should be realized that the failure of a column results in the collapse of the
entire structure. The design of a column should therefore receive importance.
In the modern construction industry, Columns are mostly constructed by concrete; apart from that
materials such as Wood, Steel, Fibre-reinforced polymer, Cellular PVC, and Aluminium too are
been used. The type of material is been decided on the scale, coast and application of the
construction.

Types of Columns
Columns can be classified bases on its Shape, Slenderness ratio, type of loading and Pattern of
lateral reinforcement.

Classification based on Slenderness ratio

Long Column or Slender [The length is greater than the critical buckling length and it fails by
buckling.]

 Short Column [The length is less than the critical buckling length and it fails by shearing.
 Intermediate Column

Based on shape
 Rectangle
 Square
 Circular
 Polygon

Based on type of loading

 Axially loaded column
 Axial load and un-axial bending column
 Axial load and biaxial bending column

Based on pattern of lateral reinforcement

 Tied columns
 Spiral columns

RCC Columns (Reinforced Concrete Columns)

A reinforced concrete column can be defined as a structural member with a steel frame
(reinforcement bars) composed of concrete that is been designed to carry compressive loads.

Figure Shows the Reinforcement of a Column with cross-section 500×500.

Reinforcement of Column sections

Beams

A beam is a structural member which spans horizontally between supports and carries loads which
act at right angles to the length of the beam. They are small in cross-section compared with their
span. The width and depth of a typical beam are “small” compared with its span. Typically, the
width and depth are less than span/10.
Generally a beam is subjected to two sets of external forces and two types of internal forces. The
external loads are the loads applied to the beam and reactions to the loads from the supports. The
two types of internal force are bending moments and shear forces. The internal shear force and
the internal bending moment can be represented as pairs of forces. The Figure below shows a
Typical Beam with Internal and external forces acting on it.

Beam with Internal and external forces

There are several types of beams

 Simply supported Beam

 Fixed Beam
 Cantilever Beam
 Continuous Beam
 Overhanging Beam
 Preparing Bar schedule manually

REINFORCEMENT (R/f)
 Introduction
Reinforced concrete is the most commonly used structural material in engineering construction.
Although concrete is strong in resisting compressive stress, it is weak intention. Hence to
withstand tensional stresses, steel is need in concrete. The reinforcement in concrete may be
simple bars or rods bend and tied to a given schedule with stirrups. The nominal diameters of bars
used at site were Y10, Y12, Y16, Y20, Y25 and R6.
Steel is supplied in two basic types.

1. Mild steel (250 N/mm2)

2. Tor steel (460 N/mm2)

 Bar code
Indication of Reinforcement in Drawings
Engineering drawings is a language to communicate with details. Therefore there is a standard to
indicate reinforcement in drawing such as,

5Y10-001-150:-Which means 5 Number of Tor steel, 10mm Diameter, Bar mark 001, At 150mm
CRS. At bottom face.

Bar location can be vary as follows:

Notation for Slab-

T1 -Top outer layer, T2 -Top second layer

B1 -Bottom outer layer, B2 -Bottom second layer

 Cutting and Bending of Bars

 There is a steel yard in the site for storing, cutting and bending of bars. Reinforcement bars are
cut into required lengths and bent into required shapes shown on the bar schedule either manually
or by means of machinery.
In manual operations, laborers used the bar bending bench on which strong nails are fixed and
GI pipes with suitable lengths to bend the bars. That is used for smaller diameter bars. For
bending of larger diameter bars, bar bending machine is used. After bending all reinforcement bars
were bundled and clearly numbered according to the bar mark so that steel fixers will not face any
difficulty when fixing them.

Fig.1 :-Bar bending work

 Prepare bar schedule (important considerations)

Reinforcement Bar Schedule

Reinforcement Bar Schedule is prepared in a standard manner. The bar bending schedule
should be prepared and it should be submitted to the steel bar steel yard to cut and to bend the
bars for purposes, because bar bending schedule is the simplest of details what is in the drawings
which can easy to under stand for bar benders. It contains all the details needed for fabrication of
steel.Those details are bar mark, bar type and size, number of units, length of a bar, shape code,
distance between stirrups (column, plinth, beam) etc.

Advantages of the Bar Schedule:

 By preparing a bar schedule, and arranging them according to the lengths, it will lead to an
economical bar cutting, reduce the bar cutting wastages.

 It is easy to manage the reinforcement stock required for identified time duration.

 It will help to fabrication of R/F with structure.

Calculating weight of the steel
While prepared the bar schedule, we used the unit weight of reinforcement bar.

Nominal Diameter of the bar (mm) Unit weight (kg/m)

R6 0.222

R10 0.610

T10 0.617

T12 0.888

T16 1.580

T20 2.469

T25 3.858

T32 6.313

Table-Unit weight of the bar

It is necessary to be careful about length when preparing bar schedules. In case of bending, bar
length will increased at the bending positions.

 Minimization of bar cutting wastage

In the site several steps were adopted for that purpose. Those are, Use of 12m long r/f bars rather
than using shorter bars. For example 6m bars off cuts of 12m bars were used to prepare stools,
separators etc.
 Off cuts of larger diameter (25mm) bars-for spacer bars

 Off cuts of smaller diameter (10mm) bars-for stools

 Lapping
Lapping is required when a bar isn’t long enough or a joint is required. Bars may be deliberately
left short for constructability and transportation concerns. The preferred method of lapping where
the two bars overlap each other for some minimum distance. This distance is called Lap length.
These two bars are in physical contact and wired together. It does not represent an actual bend in
the bar.
Fig 2: Lapping and cranking detail

 Other material used In Reinforcement Works

Binding Wires
R/f bars are jointed with using wires which is called “binding wires”. Hackers are used to bind
these wires.

Cover Blocks
They were made up of 1:3 ratio of cement mortar. Cover blocks should be immersed in water for
28 days to get the maximum strength.All the beams were checked to ensure adequate cover
blocks are provided to the bottom and sides of the beam reinforcement. Main bars of the columns
were adjusted to ensure the covering requirements before concreting. Stools of correct height
were used to maintain the require gap between top and bottom reinforcement nets and cover
blocks were also provided to bottom reinforcement.

Fig 3: Cover blocks

Cover to Reinforcement
 Concrete cover for steel bar is much necessary to protect the steel against corrosion
(rusting) and to provide resistance against fire.
 For R.C.C. Slab and staircase the cover is 20 mm.

 For RCC column the cover (To stirrups) 30mm.

 In case of underground structures the cover is 50 mm.

 In case of beams in superstructure (To stirrups) the cover is 25mm.

  In case of ground resting floor slab (Top surface) and retaining walls the cover is 50m.

Stirrups
Stirrups will be required at areas of high shear, such as bearing points and below large point
loads. Increasing concrete beam spans, to reduce the need for additional piers, has resulted in the
need for the use of steel stirrups. Concrete beams vary in depth. The deeper the beam, the more
shear capacity. When the depth is not adequate, steel stirrups must be added to increase the
shear capacity of the beam.

These stirrups are usually one piece of steel that is bent into a rectangular shape. The stirrup
typically wraps around the bottom and top bars of the beams. A designer should specify the size,
spacing and location along the length of the beam where the stirrups are required. In my site
specify the stirrup dimensions in our section drawings, so that the stirrup can be manufactured
prior to installation. The installer should be careful to fabricate the stirrup from one piece of steel
and adequately overlap each end.

Fig 4: Bar Schedule for stirrups

Stools
Stools are used to separate the top reinforcement mesh and bottom reinforcement mesh.
Dimension of the Stools could be change as requirement. Those should be strength enough to
bear the loads without changing the gap of two layers. 12 mm or 16 mm bars are used to make the
stools.
Fig 5: Stools

Important points to be checked.

 Size of the bar

 Length of the bar

 Location of the bar

 Position of the bar

 Number of bars

 Lap lengths

 Correct cover of reinforcements and cover blocks

 Spacing (in slab reinforcements and stirrups)

 Direction of the bars (in slabs)

 Dimensions of the element thickness of a slab, depth and width of a beam, etc…)

Columns, Beams, Slab Reinforcement

Column Reinforcement
The column reinforcement bars should be stared from the Footing. The upper column
reinforcement bars are cranked at the laps and connected. Special care should be taken in this to
ensure the lap lengths. After erection of main reinforcements, cover blocks were attached to
column reinforcements to maintain the required cover for column reinforcement. Most of Columns
centers were located at intersections of grid lines.

Stirrup spacing
According to the Column reinforcement details drawing the reinforcement detail for a typical
internal Column, from to basement to ground floor is as follows.
 Column stirrups were tightened up to beam bottom level and rest is tightened once beam
reinforcement is fabricated. So Bar benders was instructed how to provide the stirrups. Mark the
stirrup spacing from the basement floor level in the Column main bars with a chalk as follow the
detail drawing.

E.g.:

Fig 6: Section of column Reinforcement

Bar Schedule for Footing, Column up to DPC and Column.

E.g-

Footing
Size – 1000 x 1000 x 250

R/f Details – Y10 at 225 C/C (B) Both ways

Table 1: Schedule for Footing, Column up to DPC and Column

 Beam Reinforcement
Beam is a horizontal structural member resting on two or more supports. It is used to transfer the
load to the columns.Beam reinforcements are arranged after the construction of beam and slab
formwork.

The method adopted for the arrangement of beam reinforcements is as follows:

First the top most reinforcement bars are hung over the beam formwork and then the stirrups are
placed and bound at correct positions. Thereafter the bottom reinforcement bars are placed and
bound to the stirrups. After that the rest of the reinforcement bars and tension bars are inserted
into the cage according to structural drawings. Then cover blocks are fixed to bottom and side
reinforcements before placing the concrete.

Consideration for give lap length

Fig 7: Reinforcement for beams

Top reinforcement of the beam shall be lapped at the middle of the span of between two
supports. Bottom reinforcement of the beam shall be lapped at the end of the span of the two
supports. Considering the region where the maximum bending movement is existing.

Lapping is did the place which the tension is didn’t act. Normally 2/3 of the length is choosing for
lapping. When lapping top & bottom re-bar, it is better to follow the following method.Otherwise, it
might cause to reduce the concrete covering thickness of the topmost& bottom most slab
reinforcement.

Fig 8: Reinforcement for beams

Anchorage (bond) in concrete

Because the actual bond stress varies along the length of a bar anchored in a zone of tension. The
main requirement for safety against bond failure is to provide a sufficient extension of the length of
the bar beyond the point where the steel is required to develop its yield stress and this length must
be at least equal to its development length. However, if the actual available length is inadequate
for full development, special anchorages must be provided, such as bends, hooks.

E.g-(Anchorage length 45 d (for top bars),12 d (for bottom bars)) where “d”, “Ø” is diameter of the
Bar.

Anchorage length Calculation

E.g.:-20 mm diameter bar
Fig 9: Anchorage length

Bending length = 112.5-(Cover (25 mm)+ Stirrup (10 Ø))

= 72.5mm

Anchorage length (x) = 45 x diameter of the bar(20 Ø)

= 827.5 mm
Bar schedule for Beam

Table 2: Bar Schedule for Beam

 Slab Reinforcement
Slab reinforcement is the most important part of the structure. It is important to have an idea on
slab reinforcement detailing. Following basic thing could be studied in drawing on slab
reinforcement detailing.
Distribution bar reinforcement
Small diameter bars, usually at right angles to the main reinforcement, intended to spread a
concentrated load on a slab and to prevent cracking.Standard method used for indicated the slab
top & bottom reinforcement.

First step of the fixing of slab reinforcement was placed the bottom most R/F (B1) of the slab.
Before placing the re-bar, correct spacing given in the detailing drawing were marked by using
piece of choke on the slab formwork. After placed the (B1) R/F then placed the (B2) R/F and
bound both R/F layers together by using binding wire. Then cover blocks for bottom most R/F were
fixed. Finally, Top R/F (T2), Topmost R/F (T1)& distribution bars were placed according to the
drawing and fixed together by using binding wire. Then Stools were fixed to separate the both top
& bottom R/F net as fulfilled the thickness.

Fig 10: Reinforcement of a slab

Bar crank
Bar cranking is the process of bending up the bottom steel bars in upward direction. It is mainly to
prevent upward bending moment near the joint. Also useful for attaching stirrup bar effectively.
Cranking is also used in two way slabs.

 Bar schedule for Slab

Table 3 : Bar schedule for Slab

 Bar schedule for some other structures

Bar schedule for Plinth

Table 4: Bar schedule for Plinth

Bar schedule for Stiffener column, Sill beam and Lintel beam
Table 5: Bar schedule for Stiffener column, Sill beam and Lintel beam
 What do you mean by foundation in a building?
Foundation is the part of structure below plinth level up to the soil. It is in direct contact of soil and
transmits load of super structure to soil. Generally it is below the ground level. If some part of
foundation is above ground level, it is also covered with earth filling. This portion of structure is not
in contact of air, light etc, or to say that it is the hidden part of the structure.

Fig 1 :-Parts of a foundation

Whenever construction workers begin work on a new building, they must first assess where and
how they will build the foundation.

When engineers design the foundation of a building, they must keep in mind how much the soil
will settle beneath it, as well as how much weight will go on top. If calculated incorrectly,
the foundation may fail and place the entire structure in peril.

Bearing capacity
The bearing capacity of soil is the maximum average contact pressure between the foundation and
the soil which should not produce shear failure in the soil.
  Ultimate bearing capacity – is the theoretical maximum pressure which can be supported
without failure;
 Allowable bearing capacity-is the ultimate bearing capacity divided by a factor of safety.
Sometimes, on soft soil sites, large settlements may occur under loaded foundations without
actual shear failure occurring; in such cases, the allowable bearing capacity is based on the
maximum allowable settlement.

The processes executed in the foundation works

 Excavation of earth work in trenches for foundation.

 Laying out cement concrete.

 Setting out for footing.

 Reinforcement for footing and column shaft and formwork for footing.

 Laying the footing in case of raft or column construction.

 Lying Anti termite treatment.

 Setting out and formwork for column shaft.

 Laying Column shaft work up to plinth level.

 Laying Damp proof course on the walls.

 Refilling of earth around the walls

 Refilling of earth in the building portion up to the required height according to plinth level
Fig 2:-Procedure for foundation

LOADS ON BUILDINGS-
The occupant load describes the number of square feet allocated to each person within a building.

Dead loads
 Vertical loads due to weight of building and any permanent equipment

 Dead loads of structural elements cannot be readily determined b/c weight depends on size
which in turn depends on weight to be supported initially weight must be assumed to make
a preliminary calculation, then actual weight can be used for checking the calculation

 Easily calculated from published lists of material weights in reference sources

 IBC requires floors in office buildings and others with live loads of 80psf or less here
partition locations are subject to change be designed to support a minimum partition load of
20psf & is considered part of the live load.

Total load = Dead load + Live/Imposed load

SETTLEMENT OF GROUND-
Settlement of a foundation that is caused by seasonal factors is especially noticeable during the
hot dry summer months. Below ground level, depending upon climate and environmental
conditions. The drying of the soils occur because of both evaporation and transpiration (water
being removed because of trees and shrubs). As the soils dry, they tend to consolidate; as they
consolidate, many times, a slab-on-grade foundation settles.
Rankine’s Formula

d=
?-Bearing capacity (safe)

W-Weight of a unit volume of earth

?-Angle of repose

d-Dept

Fig 3–Rankine’s Formula

Precautions while designing ‘Foundation’

 A foundation should be designed to transmit combined dead load, imposed load and wind
load to the ground.

 Net loading intensity of pressure coming on the soil should not exceed the safe bearing
capacity.

 Foundation should be designed in such a way that settlement to the ground is limited and
uniform under whole of the building to avoid damage to the structure.

 Whole design of the foundation, super structure and characteristics of the ground should be
studied to obtain economy in construction work.

Note: For structures being built in colder climates, engineers must consider frost heaves as well.
Frost heaves occur when moisture in the soil freezes, thereby changing the density of the
building’s support. A frost heave can cause damage to the foundation, thereby
compromising the structural integrity of the entire building.
Drier, warmer climates are not entirely exempt from such worries, however; certain soils will
expand and contract when moisture is added or taken away, and engineers must factor in
such movement when considering where and how to lay a foundation.

Precautions during Excavation of Foundation Work

The depth and width of foundation should be according to structural design.

 The depth of the foundation should not be less than 1 meter.

 The length, width and depth of excavation should be checked with the help of center line
and level marked on the buries.

 The excavated material/ earth should be dumped at a distance of 1 meter from the edges.

 Work should be done on dry soil.

 Arrangement of water pump should be made for pumping out rain water.

 The bottom layer of the foundation should be compacted.

 There should be no soft places in foundation due to roots etc.

 Any soft/ defective spots should be dug out and be filled with concrete/ hard material

Fig 4–Excavation

Footing
Footings that support walls and isolated pad footings that support concentrated loads. The footings
themselves are usually made of concrete and its wide bases placed directly beneath the load-
bearing beams or walls.
Fig 5–Footing

THE FUNCTION OF FOOTINGS AND FOUNDATIONS

The function of a structure is to do nothing. The most successful structures stay still. We can look
at footings and foundations as having two functions:

 Transfer Loads – To transfer the live and dead loads of the building to the soil over a large
enough area so that neither the soil nor the building will move.
 Resist Frost – In areas where frost occurs, to prevent frost from moving the building

Types of foundations and their uses

There are different types of foundation designs and each serves a different specific purpose, but
generally, every one works to transfer the weight load of a structure to the soil beneath. Types of
building, nature of soil and environmental conditions are the major determinant of type of
foundation of the building.

Shallow foundation (spread FDN):

Most small and medium homes are built upon a shallow foundation (spread FDN). These are
usually comprised of concrete strips that are laid about 3.3 feet (1 meter) beneath the soil, or of a
single large concrete slab that is also set about 3.3 feet (1 meter) beneath the soil. The
considerations for a shallow foundation, engineers must consider weight and settlement, as well
as scour water eroding soil beneath the structure. Can be classified as spread footings, wall and
continuous (strip) footings, and mat (raft) foundations.
Deep foundation:
Larger buildings use a deep rather than a shallow foundation. A deep foundation uses long pylons
of steel orconcrete to penetrate beyond the weaker surface soils into the deeper and more stable
soils or bedrock beneath. The load from the walls above is transferred deep into the earth, thereby
providing support for the intense weight above.
Spread Foundation

1. Strip foundation–
 This is the most common type, it is mainly used where you have strong soil base and non-
waterlogged areas. Most small buildings of just a floor are constructed with this type of
foundation.

 Depends on the structural engineers recommendation, the depth of your foundation could
be from 600mm to 1200mm mostly for small scale buildings.

 When the soil is excavated, a level at which the concrete will settle evenly is established,
then concrete is poured this may be from 150mm(6”) thick to 450mm(18”) thick depending
also on building after that block is set round the trenches at the center of foundation,the
foundation usually follows the block lines. The blocks are then layed to d.p.c level before
another concrete is poured on top this is the german or oversite concrete. This type seems
to be the cheapest.

Fig 6-Strip foundation

2. Pad foundation–
 This is where isolated columns (pillars) are casted from the foundation to carry a slab at the
top of the ground.

 This is mostly used when you want to make use of the under of building as parking space
or when the other space is not conducive to have foundation. This columns are thus
isolated and their foundations are referred to as pad.

Fig 7-Pad foundation

3. Raft foundation–
Raft foundation is a thick concrete slab reinforced with steel which covers the entire contact area
of the structure like a thick floor. This concrete transfers loads from walls and columns to
the underlying rock or soil. That is laid on a soft ground consisting of an extended layer (soil are
sandy and loose). It is also recommended in waterlogged areas Sometimes area covered by
raft may be greater than the contact area depending on the bearing capacity of the soil
underneath. The reinforcing bars runs normal to each other in both top and bottom layers of
steel reinforcement.
Fig 8-Raft foundation

Combined footing
Combined footing is foundations supported more than one column and useful when its two
columns are so close that single footings cannot be used or is located at or near a property line.
Combined footing is usually support two or three columns not in a row. Combined footings are
used where the bearing areas of closely spaced columns overlap.

Fig 9-Combined footing

Ramp Foundation
Ramps are an important feature in accessing a home or agricultural building. This applies not only
to people who use wheelchairs but also to those who have difficulty climbing stairs, such as people
who have arthritis or hemiplegic and those who use walkers, crutches or canes. To be safe and
most effective, ramps should be built with a few basic guidelines in mind.

While constructed ramp the slope is extremely important because it affects how difficult it is to
travel up and down the ramp. If the slope is too steep, the ramp may be too difficult for someone to
use or may even be unsafe. The 1 to 12 slope should be seen as the steepest slope to be built and
may be too steep for some people.
Pile foundation
The most expensive and the strongest type of foundation, this requires specialist engineering to
do. The soil are bored deep down the earth and filled with concrete to be able to support loads of
multistory building on top. Most skyscrapers are constructed with this foundation type, a
waterlogged area of high building may also require this. It is the costliest hence it is used for high
rise building mostly.

Fig 10-Drilled Piles, Drilled Shafts

Pier
Pier in building construction, vertical loadbearing member such as an intermediate support for
adjacent ends of two bridge spans. In foundations for large buildings, piers are usually cylindrical
concrete shafts, cast in prepared holes, while in bridges they take the form of caissons, which are
sunk into position. Piers serve the same purpose as piles but are not installed by hammers and, if
based on a stable substrate, will support a greater load than a pile. Especially adapted to large
construction jobs, pier shafts having widths of more than 1.8 m (6 feet) have been excavated to
depths greater.
Grillage foundation-
Stepped Foundation-
On sloping sites the so-called stepped foundation must be used, which is in fact just a special form
of the strip foundation.

Cantilever Foundation-
Cantilever footings are designed to accommodate eccentric loads.

Inverted Arch-