Ma.

Victoria Ty Cruz Bio 12 THR/THVW

2015-89009 February 1, 2018
Exercise 7: The Spore-bearing Vascular Plants

1. Differentiate the following:

a. microphylls from megaphylls
Microphylls and megaphylls are two basic types of true leaves. Microphyll is a type of leaf only
found in lycophytes, and is usually small and contains a single vascular strand. Contrastingly,
megaphyll is a type of leaf found in virtually all vascular plants except lycophytes and contains multiple
vascular strands. They evolved evolved from stem branches that gradually filled in with additional
tissue to form most of the leaves today (Berg, 2008).

b. homosporous spore production from heterosporous spore production

Homosporous spore production is the production of only one type of spore that gives rise to a
bisexual gametophyte, where as heterosporous spore production is the production of two types of
spores, microspores (which gives rise to a male gametophyte) and megaspores (which gives rise to a
female gametophyte) (Berg, 2008).

2. Briefly explain why the spore-bearing vascular plants (ferns and lycophytes) are restricted
to moist habitats? What features or characteristic of these plants contribute to this
limitation?
The sperm of ferns and all other seedless vascular plants are flagellated and swim through a
film of water to reach eggs. Thus, because the sperm has to swim through a film of water, seedless
vascular plants today are most commonly found in damp environments (Reece, 2011).

3. Unlike non-vascular plants, ferns and lycophytes, as well as other vascular plants, can
grow big and tall. Is the increase in height an advantage? Explain why.
Vascular plants being able to grow big and tall is an advantage because they are better able to
reach unfiltered sunlight and disperse their spores or seeds further away, thus expanding their range.
Moreover, by growing taller and higher than other plants, vascular plants are more able to cast their
shadow on shorter plants and limit competition for water and precious nutrients in the soil. Lastly,
because they are tall, there is a much more efficient system to move water, sugars and other nutrients
(“Seedless Vascular Plants”).

4. The hollow stems of Equisetum contain silica in the epidermal cells. Explain the advantage
of silica deposits in the stems of this plant.
The silica deposits in the stems of Equisetum helps increase the structural stiffness of the stem
and thus prevent wildlife from eating it Silica is absorbed internally in solution and directs it specifically
to new plant cells (Drum, 2005).

5. How is the life cycle of a fern different from that of a moss?

Both ferns and moss have an alteration of genes in their life cycle; however there are some
distinguishes features. Firstly, ferns have a dominant sporophyte (2N) generation, while moss have a
dominant gametophyte (N) generation. Also, in ferns, the familiar leafy plants are the sporophytes,
while the gametophytes, are tiny structures that often grow on or just below the soil surface. In moss,
the sporophyte grows a long stalk (seta) that emerges from the archegonium.

6. Which characteristic do lycophytes and ferns share?

Both lycophytes and ferns have true stems with true vascular tissues (i.e. xylem and phloem
for support and conduction), and most also have true roots and leaves. Moreover, they produce with
seeds, not spores, and they reproduce by forming spores rather than seeds. Lastly, they both grow in
moist surroundings (Reece, 2011).
7. Why would vascular tissues be prevalent in the sporophyte generation, but not in the
gametophyte generation?
Unlike with the gametophyte generation in the life cycle of seedless vascular plants, which is
reduced and independent, the sporophyte generation is more dominant and larger. This means that it
needs a better transport system, and thus is the reason why vascular tissues are more prevalent in the
sporophyte generation.

References
Berg, L. R. 2008. Introductory botany: plants, people and environment. 2nd ed. Thomson Brooks/
Cole.California, USA, 622 pp.
Drum, R. (2005). THREE HERBS: NETTLES, HORSETAIL AND MULLEIN. Retrieved January 31,
2018, from http://www.ryandrum.com/threeherbs1.htm
Reece, J.B., Urry, L.A., Cain., M.L., Wasserman, S.A., Minorsky, P.V., and R.B. Jackson. 2011,
Campbell Biology, 9th ed. Pearson Benjamin Cummings. California, USA. 1,264 pp.
Seedless Vascular Plants. (n.d.). Retrieved January 31, 2018, from
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/chapter/seedless-vascular-plants/
Ma. Victoria Ty Cruz Bio 12 THR/THVW
2015-89009 February 1, 2018
Exercise 8: The Gymnosperms

1. In the pine tree, the female cones are generally located at the top of the tree, while the male
cones are roughly at the lower branches. What is the significance of this arrangement?
Female cones are generally located above male cones in a tree because this arrangement
facilitates and increases the chances of cross pollination happening between different individuals. It is
unlikely that wind will blow pollen grains directly upward to female cones on the same tree (Berg,
2008).

2. How does sperm delivery in spore-bearing plants differ from the sperm delivery in seed
plants?
In spore-bearing plants, sperm delivery is dependent upon the presence of water. The sperm in
these plants have flagella, and the sperm has to swim through a short film or pool of water (usually
over a distance of no more than a few centimeters) in order to get to the egg. Contrastingly, sperm
delivery in seed plants is not dependent on the presence of water; instead it is dependent on the
pollen grain. The pollen grain produces and delivers the sperm to the ovule through the air and pollen
tube, which means that they can transported long distances by wind or by animal pollinators, thus
eliminating the need for water for this purpose (Reece, 2011).

3. What characteristics absent in spore-bearing plants have contributed to the success of

seed plants on land?
Seed plants have tough protective walls, which makes them resistant to physical factors in the
environment. Moreover, the gametophytes of seed plants are nurtured by and are dependent upon the
parent sporophyte, which protects them from desiccation and ultraviolet radiation from sunlight. Lastly,
seeds have layers of protective tissue, known as the seed coat. This structure of the seed protects the
next generation sporophyte and allows it to remain dormant until conditions are right for germination,
development and growth (Reece, 2011).

4. If you are only given a sample of wood from an unknown plant, how will you determine if it
is a conifer or not?
Conifers are woody trees and shrubs that contain secondary tissues (wood and bark), wherein
the wood consists of tracheids, which are long, tapering cells with pits through which water and
dissolved minerals move from one cell to another. Moreover, most conifers have leaves (megaphylls)
called needles that are commonly long and narrow, tough, and leathery. Lastly, most conifers are
evergreen and bear their leaves (needles) throughout the year (Berg, 2008).

5. Although there are less than 1,000 gymnosperm species living today, explain why they are
successful in terms of their adaptations, geographic distribution, and evolutionary
longevity.
Gymnosperms are successful in terms of their adaptations, geographic distribution, and
evolutionary longevity due to the following: the dominance of the sporophyte generation, the
development of seeds from fertilized ovules, and the role of pollen in transferring sperm to ovules. The
sporophyte generation in gymnosperms is the dominant stage and the gametophyte generation is
significantly reduced in size and entirely dependent on the sporophyte generation (Reece, 2011).
Gymnosperms also have “naked” seeds that are not enclosed in ovaries and are exposed on modified
leaves (sporophylls) that usually form cones (strobili), which means that pollen can be more easily
carried by the wind to the ovule. Because gymnosperms produce wind-borne pollen grains, external
water is no longer needed as a sperm transport medium. Instead of water, air currents carry pine
pollen grains to female cones, and sperm cells accomplish fertilization by moving through a pollen
tube to the egg (Berg, 2008). Lastly, because vascular tissues are present in gymnosperms, water and
nutrients can be and transported conducted throughout the plant much more effectively.

References
Berg, L. R. 2008. Introductory botany: plants, people and environment. 2nd ed. Thomson Brooks/
Cole.California, USA, 622 pp.
Reece, J.B., Urry, L.A., Cain., M.L., Wasserman, S.A., Minorsky, P.V., and R.B. Jackson. 2011,
Campbell Biology, 9th ed. Pearson Benjamin Cummings. California, USA. 1,264 pp.